METABOLISM

DR. TILAK RAJ MAITY

Assistant Professor
Department of Biotechnology
Haldia Institute of Technology
 Bioenergetics
Bioenergetics is the part of biochemistry concerned with the
energy involved in making and breaking of chemical bonds
in the molecules found in biological organisms

Bioenergetics means study of the transformation of energy in living

organisms.
 The goal of bioenergetics is to describe how living organisms
acquire and transform energy in order to perform biological work.
 The study of metabolic pathways is thus essential to bioenergetics.
 In a living organism, chemical bonds are broken and made as part
of the exchange and transformation of energy.
 Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is the main "energy currency" for
organisms.
 In a cell, the ratio of ATP to ADP concentrations is known as the
"energy charge" of the cell.
 Living organisms produce ATP from energy sources via oxidative
phosphorylation.
 Thermodynamic Systems
 The system is subject to surrounding factors such as air temperature
and pressure.
 Thermodynamics involve the study of heat energy exchange between
a system and its surroundings.
 There are three types of thermodynamics systems. Based on the
possible heat and matter transfer, they are classified as open, closed
or isolated systems.
- 1st Law of Thermodynamics: The energy of the universe
remains constant.
- 2nd Law of Thermodynamics: All spontaneous processes
increase the entropy of the universe.
First Law of Thermodynamics in Biological Systems
All biological organisms require energy to survive. In a closed system, such as
the universe, this energy is not consumed but transformed from one form to
another. Cells, for example, perform a number of important processes. These
processes require energy. In photosynthesis, the energy is supplied by the
sun. Light energy is absorbed by cells in plant leaves and converted to
chemical energy. The chemical energy is stored in the form of glucose, which
is used to form complex carbohydrates necessary to build plant mass.
Second Law of Thermodynamics in Biological Systems
As with other biological processes, the transfer of energy is not 100 percent
efficient. In photosynthesis, for example, not all of the light energy is absorbed
by the plant. Some energy is reflected and some is lost as heat. The loss of
energy to the surrounding environment results in an increase of disorder or
entropy. Unlike plants and other photosynthetic organisms, animals cannot
generate energy directly from the sunlight. They must consume plants or other
animal organisms for energy.
 Free Energy, Enthalpy & Entropy
 The Gibbs free energy (G) which is equal to the total amount of energy
capable of doing work during a process at constant temperature and pressure.
 If ΔG is negative, then the process is spontaneous and termed exergonic.
 If ΔG is positive, then the process is nonspontaneous and termed endergonic.
 If ΔG is equal to zero, then the process has reached equilibrium.
 The Enthalpy (H) which is the heat content of the system. Enthalpy is the
amount of heat energy transferred (heat absorbed or emitted) in a chemical
process under constant pressure.
 When ΔH is negative the process produces heat and is termed exothermic.
 When ΔH is positive the process absorbs heat and is termed endothermic.
 The Entropy (S) is a quantitative expression of the degree of randomness or
disorder of the system. Entropy measures the amount of heat dispersed or
transferred during a chemical process.
 When ΔS is positive then the disorder of the system has increased.
 When ΔS is negative then the disorder of the system has decreased.
The conditions of biological systems are constant temperature and pressure. Under such
conditions the relationships between the change in free energy, enthalpy and entropy can
be described by the expression where T is the temperature of the system in Kelvin.
ΔG = ΔH − TΔS
[ΔG = Gibbs Free Energy; ΔH = Change in Enthalpy; T = Temperature in K; ΔS = Change in
Entropy]
 Types of Bioenergetics Reactions
1. Exergonic Reaction

2. Endergonic Reactions
3. Activation Energy
Activation energy is the energy which must be available to a chemical
system with potential reactants to result in a chemical reaction.
Activation energy may also be defined as the minimum energy
required starting a chemical reaction.
Energy and Human Life
 Major Bioenergetics Processes
 Glycolysis is the process of breaking down glucose into pyruvate.
 Gluconeogenesis is the opposite of glycolysis; when the cell's
energy charge is low (the concentration of ADP is higher than that of ATP),
the cell must synthesize glucose from carbon- containing biomolecules
such as proteins, amino acids, fats, pyruvate.
 The citric acid cycle is a process of cellular respiration in which
acetyl coenzyme A, synthesized from pyruvate dehydrogenase, is first
reacted with oxaloacetate to yield citrate.
 Ketosis is a metabolic process where by ketone bodies are used by
the cell for energy (instead of using glucose). Cells often turn to ketosis as
a source of energy when glucose levels are low; e.g. during starvation.
 Oxidative phosphorylation and the electron transport chain
is the process where reducing equivalents such as NADPH, FADH2 and
NADH can be used to donate electrons to a series of redox reactions that
take place in electron transport chain complexes.
 Photosynthesis, another major bioenergetic process, is the
metabolic pathway used by plants in which solar energy is used to
synthesize glucose from carbon dioxide and water.
 Metabolism
“Metabolism refers to a series of chemical
reactions that occur in a living organism
to sustain life.”
 Catabolism – This process is mainly involved in
breaking down larger organic molecules into
smaller molecules. This metabolic process releases
energy.

 Anabolism – This process is mainly involved in

building up or synthesizing compounds from simpler
substances required by the cells. This metabolic
process requires and stores energy.

Metabolism is related to nutrition and the existence

of nutrients. Bioenergetics describes the metabolism
as the biochemical pathway through which the cells
obtain energy. One of the major aspects is the energy
formation.
Metabolic Process
Catabolism & Anabolism
Difference Between Catabolism and
Anabolism
Three Stages
of Catabolism

Stage 1:
Stage of
Digestion

Stage 2:
Release of
energy

Stage 3:
Energy Stored
 ATP - The Cellular Energy Currency

 These ATP molecules can be recycled after every reaction.

 ATP molecule provides energy for both the exergonic and endergonic
processes.
 ATP serves as an extracellular signalling molecule and acts as a
neurotransmitter in both central and peripheral nervous systems.
 It is the only energy, which can be directly used for different metabolic
process. Other forms of chemical energy need to be converted into ATP
before they can be used.
 It plays an important role in the Metabolism – A life-sustaining chemical
reactions including cellular division, fermentation, photosynthesis,
photophosphorylation, aerobic respiration, protein synthesis, exocytosis,
endocytosis and motility.
Cellular Respiration: Aerobic Vs Anaerobic
GLYCOLYSIS
 G
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 TCA Cycle (Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle)
“TCA cycle is
the series of
chemical
reactions
used by all
aerobic
organisms to
release
stored
energy
through the
oxidation of
acetyl CoA
derived from
carbohydrate
s, fats, and
proteins into
ATP.”
 Step 1: Acetyl Co-A combines with a four-carbon compound, oxaloacetate, and
releases the CoA group resulting in a six-carbon molecule called citrate.
 Step 2: In the second step, citrate gets converted to isocitrate, an isomer of citrate.
This is a two-step process. Citrate first loses a water molecule and then gains one to
form isocitrate.
 Step 3: The third step involves oxidation of isocitrate. A molecule of carbon dioxide
is released leaving behind a five-carbon molecule, ɑ-ketoglutarate. NAD+ gets
reduced to NADH. The entire process is catalyzed by the enzyme isocitrate
dehydrogenase.
 Step 4: Here, ɑ-ketoglutarate is oxidized reducing NAD+ to NADH and releasing a
molecule of carbon dioxide. CoA is picked up by the remaining four-carbon molecules
forming an unstable compound succinyl CoA. ɑ-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase
catalyzes the entire process.
 Step 5: CoA from succinyl CoA is replaced with a phosphate group. It is then
transferred to ADP to make ATP. Succinate, a four-carbon molecule is produced in
this step.
 Step 6: Succinate is oxidized to fumarate. Two hydrogen atoms are transferred to
FAD to produce FADH2. FADH2 transfers its electrons directly to the electron
transport chain since the enzyme carrying out the reaction is embedded in the inner
membrane of mitochondria.
 Step 7: A water molecule is added to fumarate which is then converted to malate.
 Step 8: The oxidation of malate regenerates oxaloacetate, a four-carbon
compound, and another molecule of NAD+ is reduced to NADH in this step.
Respiratory Quotient
Anaerobic Respiration
Aerobic and Anaerobic Respiration
 Photosynthesis
The process of converting light energy (kinetic) into energy
stored in the covalent bonds of glucose molecules (potential)

 Glucose isn't just food

 Leaves are green because of chlorophyll
 Chlorophyll isn't the only photosynthetic pigment
 Plants perform photosynthesis in organelles called chloroplasts
 The magic number is six
 Photosynthesis is the reverse of cellular respiration
 Plants aren't the only organisms that perform photosynthesis
 Plants are built for photosynthesis
 Chloroplast
Chloroplasts are found in all
green plants and algae

Food producers of plants

They have a double membrane
structure. It comprises inner and
outer lipid bilayer membranes.

They have their own DNA

(circular and naked) and ribosomes
(70S).
Thylakoid System: The system is suspended in the stroma. It is a
collection of membranous sacs called thylakoids. The green coloured
pigments called chlorophyll are found in the thylakoid membranes. It is the
sight for the process of light-dependent reactions of the Phiotosynthesis
process. The thylakoids are arranged in stacks known as grana and each
granum contains around 10-20 thylakoids.
Pigments are involved in
photosynthesis
Photosynthesis vs Respiration
 Stages of Photosynthesis
Light dependent
reactions – As the
name suggests, it
requires light and
mainly occurs
during the day
time.
Light independent
reactions – It is
also called the dark
reaction or Calvin
cycle or C3 cycle.
This reaction
occurs both in the
presence and
absence of sunlight
 Light dependent Reaction
 Photosynthesis begins with the light reaction which is carried out only
during the day in the presence of sunlight. In plants, the light-dependent
reaction takes place in the thylakoid membranes of chloroplasts.
 The Grana, membrane-bound sacs like structures present inside the
thylakoid functions by gathering light and is called photosystems.
 These photosystems have large complexes of pigment and proteins
molecules present within the plant cells, which play the primary role
during the process of light reactions of photosynthesis.
 There are two types of photosystems: photosystem I and
photosystem II.
 Under the light-dependent reactions, the light energy is converted to
ATP and NADPH, which are used in the second phase of
photosynthesis.
 During the light reactions, ATP and NADPH are generated by two
electron-transport chains, water is used and oxygen is produced.
 The chemical equation in the light reaction of photosynthesis can be
reduced to:
2H2O + 2NADP+ + 3ADP + 3Pi → O2 + 2NADPH + 3ATP
 Non-Cyclic Photophosphorylation
The photophosphorylation process which results in the movement of
the electrons in a non-cyclic manner for synthesizing ATP molecules
using the energy from excited electrons provided by photosystem II is
called non-cyclic photophosphorylation.
 Cyclic Photophosphorylation
The photophosphorylation process which results in the
movement of the electrons in a cyclic manner for synthesizing
ATP molecules is called cyclic photophosphorylation.
Difference between Cyclic and Non-
Cyclic Photophosphorylation
 Dark Reaction or Light independent
Reaction
 Dark reaction is also called carbon-fixing reaction.
 It is a light-independent process in which sugar molecules
are formed from the water and carbon dioxide molecules.
 The dark reaction occurs in the stroma of the chloroplast
where they utilize the NADPH and ATP products of the light
reaction.
 Plants capture the carbon dioxide from the atmosphere
through stomata and proceed to the Calvin photosynthesis
cycle.
 In the Calvin cycle, the ATP and NADPH formed during light
reaction drive the reaction and convert 6 molecules of carbon
dioxide into one sugar molecule or glucose.
 The chemical equation for the dark reaction can be reduced
to:
3CO2 + 6 NADPH + 5H2O + 9ATP → G3P + 2H+ + 6 NADP+ + 9 ADP + 8 Pi
 “Calvin cycle or C3 cycle is defined as a set of chemical reactions
performed by the plants to reduce carbon dioxide and other compounds
into glucose.”
Photosynthetic reaction
 Oxidative Phosphorylation
“Oxidative phosphorylation is the process of ATP formation,
when electrons are transferred by electron carriers from
NADH or FADH2 to oxygen”
 Delivery of Electrons by NADH and FADH2
Reduced NADH and FADH2 transfer their electrons to molecules near the
beginning of the transport chain. After transferring the electrons, they get
oxidised to NAD+ and FAD and are utilised in other steps of cellular
respiration.
 Electron Transport and Proton Pumping
The electrons move from a higher energy level to a lower energy level,
thereby releasing energy. Some of the energy is used to move the electrons
from the matrix to the intermembrane space. Thus, an electrochemical
gradient is established.
 Splitting of Oxygen to form Water
The electrons are then transferred to the oxygen molecule which splits into
half and uptakes H+ to form water.
 ATP Synthesis
The H+ ions pass through an enzyme called ATP synthase while flowing back
into the matrix. This controls the flow of protons to synthesize ATP.
 Course Outcomes (CO)
CO1: Understand the biological concepts from an
engineering perspective

CO2: The structure and function of various Biomolecules

CO3: Explain basic concepts in enzyme kinetics, function

and different mechanisms of enzyme action

CO4: Discuss different aspects of molecular biology

including DNA Replication, Transcription and RNA
Translation

CO5: Identify and classify microorganisms

CO6: Integrate biological principles for developing next

generation technologies
Reference book
Email ID : tilakrajpathshala@gmail.com