Software Engineering Notes 2023

SOFTWARE ENGINEERING

DR. TEJASHREE TEJPAL MOHAREKAR

MCA, NET, Ph. D
Assistant Professor
Shivaji University, Kolhapur

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UNIT 1

Introduction to Software Engineering: Software definition, characteristics, software application

domains, unique nature of web apps, seven principles of software engineering, software
development process, Waterfall Model, prototyping, spiral model, Concurrent Models, The
Formal Methods Model, 12 Principles of Agility, Extreme Programming (XP), Scrum process
flow, Selection of Software Process models Software Engineering provides a standard procedure
to design and develop a software.

WHAT IS SOFTWARE ENGINEERING?

The term software engineering is the product of two words, software, and engineering.

The software is a collection of integrated programs.

Software subsists of carefully-organized instructions and code written by developers on any of

various particular computer languages.

Computer programs and related documentation such as requirements, design models and user
manuals. Engineering is the application of scientific and practical knowledge to invent, design,
build, maintain, and improve frameworks, processes, etc.

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Software Engineering is an engineering branch related to the evolution of software product using
well-defined scientific principles, techniques, and procedures. The result of software engineering
is an effective and reliable software product.

WHY IS SOFTWARE ENGINEERING REQUIRED?

Software Engineering is required due to the following reasons:

o To manage Large software

o For more Scalability
o Cost Management
o To manage the dynamic nature of software
o For better quality Management

NEED OF SOFTWARE ENGINEERING

The necessity of software engineering appears because of a higher rate of progress in user
requirements and the environment on which the program is working.

o Huge Programming:

It is simpler to manufacture a wall than to a house or building, similarly, as the measure of

programming become extensive engineering has to step to give it a scientific process.

o Adaptability:

If the software procedure were not based on scientific and engineering ideas, it would be
simpler to re-create new software than to scale an existing one.

o Cost:

As the hardware industry has demonstrated its skills and huge manufacturing has let down
the cost of computer and electronic hardware. But the cost of programming remains high if
the proper process is not adapted.

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o Dynamic Nature:

The continually growing and adapting nature of programming hugely depends upon the
environment in which the client works. If the quality of the software is continually changing,
new upgrades need to be done in the existing one.

o Quality Management:

Better procedure of software development provides a better and quality software product.

CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD SOFTWARE ENGINEER

The features that good software engineers should possess are as follows:

 Exposure to systematic methods, i.e., familiarity with software engineering principles.

 Good technical knowledge of the project range (Domain knowledge).
 Good programming abilities.
 Good communication skills. These skills comprise of oral, written, and interpersonal skills.
 High motivation.
 Sound knowledge of fundamentals of computer science.
 Intelligence.
 Ability to work in a team
 Discipline, etc.
 Importance of Software Engineering

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IMPORTANCE OF SOFTWARE ENGINEERING

1. Reduces complexity:

Big software is always complicated and challenging to progress. Software engineering has a
great solution to reduce the complication of any project. Software engineering divides big
problems into various small issues. And then start solving each small issue one by one. All
these small problems are solved independently to each other.

2. To minimize software cost:

A lot of manpower is required to develop software with a large number of codes. But in
software engineering, programmers project everything and decrease all those things that are
not needed. In turn, the cost for software productions becomes less as compared to any
software that does not use software engineering method.

3. To decrease time:

Anything that is not made according to the project always wastes time. And if you are
making great software, then you may need to run many codes to get the definitive running
code. This is a very time-consuming procedure, and if it is not well handled, then this can

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take a lot of time. So if you are making your software according to the software engineering
method, then it will decrease a lot of time.

4. Handling big projects:

Big projects are not done in a couple of days, and they need lots of patience, planning, and
management. And to invest six and seven months of any company, it requires heaps of
planning, direction, testing, and maintenance. No one can say that he has given four months
of a company to the task, and the project is still in its first stage. Because the company has
provided many resources to the plan and it should be completed. So to handle a big project
without any problem, the company has to go for a software engineering method.

5. Reliable software:

Software should be secure, means if you have delivered the software, then it should work for
at least it's given time or subscription. And if any bugs come in the software, the company is
responsible for solving all these bugs. Because in software engineering, testing and
maintenance are given, so there is no worry of its reliability.

6. Effectiveness:

Effectiveness comes if anything has made according to the standards. Software standards are
the big target of companies to make it more effective. So Software becomes more effective in
the act with the help of software engineering.

SOFTWARE APPLICATION DOMAINS

Software can be classified based on various criteria, including:

Purpose:

Software can be classified as system software (e.g. operating systems, device drivers) or
application software (e.g. word processors, games).

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Platform:

Software can be classified as native software (designed for a specific operating system) or cross-
platform software (designed to run on multiple operating systems).

Deployment:

Software can be classified as installed software (installed on the user’s device) or cloud-based
software (hosted on remote servers and accessed via the internet).

License:

Software can be classified as proprietary software (owned by a single entity) or open-source

software (available for free with the source code accessible to the public).

Development Model:

Software can be classified as traditional software (developed using a waterfall model) or agile
software (developed using an iterative and adaptive approach).

Size:

Software can be classified as small-scale software (designed for a single user or small group) or
enterprise software (designed for large organizations).

User Interface:

Software can be classified as graphical user interface (GUI) software or command-line interface
(CLI) software.

These classifications are important for understanding the characteristics and limitations of
different types of software, and for selecting the best software for a particular need. The software
is used extensively in several domains including hospitals, banks, schools, defense, finance,
stock markets, and so on.

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ON THE BASIS OF APPLICATION

System Software –

System Software is necessary to manage the computer resources and support the execution of
application programs. Software like operating systems, compilers, editors and drivers, etc., come
under this category. A computer cannot function without the presence of these. Operating
systems are needed to link the machine-dependent needs of a program with the capabilities of the
machine on which it runs. Compilers translate programs from high-level language to machine
language.

Application Software –

Application software is designed to fulfill the user’s requirement by interacting with the user
directly. It could be classified into two major categories:- generic or customized. Generic
Software is the software that is open to all and behaves the same for all of its users. Its function
is limited and not customized as per the user’s changing requirements. However, on the other
hand, Customized software is the software products that are designed as per the client’s
requirement, and are not available for all.

Networking and Web Applications Software –

Networking Software provides the required support necessary for computers to interact with each
other and with data storage facilities. Networking software is also used when software is running
on a network of computers (such as the World Wide Web). It includes all network management
software, server software, security and encryption software, and software to develop web-based
applications like HTML, PHP, XML, etc.

Embedded Software –

This type of software is embedded into the hardware normally in the Read-Only Memory (ROM)
as a part of a large system and is used to support certain functionality under the control
conditions. Examples are software used in instrumentation and control applications like washing
machines, satellites, microwaves, etc.

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Reservation Software –

A Reservation system is primarily used to store and retrieve information and perform
transactions related to air travel, car rental, hotels, or other activities. They also provide access to
bus and railway reservations, although these are not always integrated with the main system.
These are also used to relay computerized information for users in the hotel industry, making a
reservation and ensuring that the hotel is not overbooked.

Business Software –

This category of software is used to support business applications and is the most widely used
category of software. Examples are software for inventory management, accounts, banking,
hospitals, schools, stock markets, etc.

Entertainment Software –

Education and entertainment software provides a powerful tool for educational agencies,
especially those that deal with educating young children. There is a wide range of entertainment
software such as computer games, educational games, translation software, mapping software,
etc.

Artificial Intelligence Software –

Software like expert systems, decision support systems, pattern recognition software, artificial
neural networks, etc. come under this category. They involve complex problems which are not
affected by complex computations using non-numerical algorithms.

Scientific Software –

Scientific and engineering software satisfies the needs of a scientific or engineering user to
perform enterprise-specific tasks. Such software is written for specific applications using
principles, techniques, and formulae particular to that field. Examples are software like
MATLAB, AUTOCAD, PSPICE, ORCAD, etc.

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Utilities Software –

The programs coming under this category perform specific tasks and are different from other
software in terms of size, cost, and complexity. Examples are anti-virus software, voice
recognition software, compression programs, etc.

Document Management Software –

Document Management Software is used to track, manage and store documents in order to
reduce the paperwork. Such systems are capable of keeping a record of the various versions
created and modified by different users (history tracking). They commonly provide storage,
versioning, metadata, security, as well as indexing and retrieval capabilities.

ON THE BASIS OF COPYRIGHT:

Commercial –

It represents the majority of software that we purchase from software companies, commercial
computer stores, etc. In this case, when a user buys software, they acquire a license key to use it.
Users are not allowed to make copies of the software. The copyright of the program is owned by
the company.

Shareware –

Shareware software is also covered under copyright but the purchasers are allowed to make and
distribute copies with the condition that after testing the software, if the purchaser adopts it for
use, then they must pay for it.

In both of the above types of software, changes to the software are not allowed.

Freeware –

In general, according to freeware software licenses, copies of the software can be made both for
archival and distribution purposes but here, distribution cannot be for making a profit. Derivative
works and modifications to the software are allowed and encouraged. Decompiling of the
program code is also allowed without the explicit permission of the copyright holder.

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Public Domain –

In the case of public domain software, the original copyright holder explicitly relinquishes all
rights to the software. Hence software copies can be made both for archival and distribution
purposes with no restrictions on distribution. Modifications to the software and reverse
engineering are also allowed.

UNIQUE NATURE OF WEB APPS

Introduction:

In the early days of the World Wide Web (1990 to 1995), websites consisted of little more than a
set of linked hypertext files that presented information using text and limited graphics.

Today, WebApps have evolved into sophisticated computing tools that not only provide stand-
alone function to the end user, but also have been integrated with corporate databases and
business applications due to the development of HTML, JAVA, xml etc.

Attributes of WebApps :

 Network Intensiveness
 Concurrency
 Unpredictable load
 Performance
 Availability
 Data driven
 Content Sensitive
 Continuous evolution
 Immediacy
 Security
 Aesthetic

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Network intensiveness

A WebApp resides on a network and must serve the needs of a diverse community of clients.

The network may enable worldwide access and communication (i.e., the Internet) or more
limited access and communication

(e.g., a corporate Intranet Network Intensiveness)

Concurrency : [ Operation at the same time]

A large number of users may access the WebApp at one time. In many cases, the patterns of
usage among end users will vary greatly.

Unpredictable load :

The number of users of the WebApp may vary by orders of magnitude from day to day. One
hundred users may show up on Monday; 10,000 may use the system on Thursday.

Performance :

If a WebApp user must wait too long (for access, for server side processing, for client-side
formatting and display), he or she may decide to go elsewhere.

Availability :

Although expectation of 100 percent availability is unreasonable, users of popular WebApps

often demand access on a 24/7/365 basis.

Data driven :

The primary function of many WebApps is to use hypermedia to present text, graphics, audio,
and video content to the end user.

In addition, WebApps are commonly used to access information that exists on databases that are
not an integral part of the Web-based environment (e.g., e-commerce or financial applications).

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Content sensitive:

The quality and artistic nature of content remains an important

Determinant of the quality of a WebApp.

Continuous evolution:

Unlike conventional application software that evolves over a series of planned, chronologically
spaced releases, Web applications evolve continuously.

It is not unusual for some WebApps (specifically, their content) to be updated on a minute-by-
minute schedule or for content to be independently computed for each request.

Immediacy:

Although immediacy—the compelling (forceful) need to get software to market quickly—is a

characteristic of many application domains,

WebApps often exhibit a time-to-market that can be a matter of a few days or weeks.

Security:

Because WebApps are available via network access, it is difficult, if not impossible, to limit the
population of end users who may access the application. In order to protect sensitive content and
provide secure mode of data transmission, strong security measures must be implemented.

Aesthetics : [Artistic / Visual]

An undeniable part of the appeal of a WebApp is its look and feel. When an application has been
designed to market or sell products or ideas, aesthetic may have as much to do with success as
technical design.

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SEVEN PRINCIPLES OF SOFTWARE ENGINEERING

The word principle is “an important underlying law or assumption required in a system of
thought.” David Hooker [Hoo96] has proposed seven principles that focus on software
engineering practice as a whole.

The First Principle: The Reason It All Exists

A software system exists for one reason: to provide value to its users. All decisions should be
made with this in mind. Before specifying a system requirement, before noting a piece of system
functionality, before determining the hardware platforms or development processes, ask yourself
questions such as: "Does this add real VALUE to the system?" If the answer is "no", don't do it.

The Second Principle: KISS (Keep It Simple, Stupid!)

Software design is not a haphazard process. There are many factors to consider in any design
effort. All design should be as simple as possible, but no simpler. This facilitates having a more
easily understood, and easily maintained system. This is not to say that features, even internal
features, should be discarded in the name of simplicity. Indeed, the more elegant designs are
usually the more simple ones. Simple also does not mean "quick and dirty." In fact, it often takes
a lot of thought and work over multiple iterations to simplify. The payoff is software that is more
maintainable and less error-prone.

The Third Principle: Maintain the Vision

A clear vision is essential to the success of a software project. Without one, a project almost
unfailingly ends up being "of two [or more] minds" about itself. Without conceptual integrity, a
system threatens to become a patchwork of incompatible designs, held together by the wrong
kind of screws.

As Brooks states: Conceptual integrity is the most important consideration in system design.

Stroustrup also notes: Having a clean internal structure is essential to constructing a system
that is understandable, can be extended and reorganized, and is maintainable and testable.

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From which Booch summarizes: It is only through having a clear sense of a system s
architecture that it becomes possible to discover common abstractions and mechanisms.
Exploiting this commonality ultimately leads to systems that are simpler, and therefore smaller
and more reliable.

The Fourth Principle: What You Produce, Others Will Consume

Seldom is an industrial-strength software system constructed and used in a vacuum. In some way
or other, someone else will use, maintain, document, or otherwise depend on being able to
understand your system. So, always specify, design, and implement knowing someone else will
have to understand what you are doing. The audience for any product of software development is
potentially large. Specify with an eye to the users. Design, keeping the implementers in mind.
Code with concern for those that must maintain and extend the system. Someone may have to
debug the code you write, and that makes them a user of your code. Making their job easier adds
value to the system.

The Fifth Principle: Be Open to the Future

A system with a long lifetime has more value. In today's computing environments, where
specifications change on a moment's notice and hardware platforms are obsolete when just a few
months old, software lifetimes are typically measured in months instead of years. However, true
"industrial-strength" software systems must endure far longer. To do this successfully, these
systems must be ready to adapt to these and other changes. Systems that do this successfully are
those that have been designed this way from the start. Never design yourself into a corner.
Always ask "what if ", and prepare for all possible answers by creating systems that solve the
general problem, not just the specific one. This could very possibly lead to the reuse of an entire
system.

The Sixth Principle: Plan Ahead for Reuse

Reuse saves time and effort. Achieving a high level of reuse is arguably the hardest goal to
accomplish in developing a software system. The reuse of code and designs has been proclaimed
as a major benefit of using object-oriented technologies. However, the return on this investment
is not automatic. To leverage the reuse possibilities that OO programming provides requires

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forethought and planning. There are many techniques to realize reuse at every level of the system
development process. Those at the detailed design and code level are well known and
documented. New literature is addressing the reuse of design in the form of software patterns.
However, this is just part of the battle. Communicating opportunities for reuse to others in the
organization is paramount. How can you reuse something that you don't know exists? Planning
ahead for reuse reduces the cost and increases the value of both the reusable components and the
systems into which they are incorporated.

The Seventh Principle: Think!

This last Principle is probably the most overlooked. Placing clear, complete thought before
action almost always produces better results. When you think about something, you are more
likely to do it right. You also gain knowledge about how to do it right again. If you do think
about something and still do it wrong, it becomes valuable experience. A side effect of thinking
is learning to recognize when you don t know something, at which point you can research the
answer. When clear thought has gone into a system, value comes out. Applying the first six
Principles requires intense thought, for which the potential rewards are enormous.

SOFTWARE DEVELOPMENT PROCESS

The Software Development Process is the structured approach to developing software for a
system or project, sometimes called the Software Development Life Cycle (SDLC). The software
development process is an iterative logical process that aims to create programmed software to
meet unique business or personal objectives, goals, or processes. The objective is achieved by a
software developer writing computer code.

Definition:

A software development process is a way to improve design and product management by

breaking software development work into smaller steps or sub-processes that can be done in
parallel or in-order.

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The need for a Software Development Process

Software is developed for four common reasons:

 To meet the specific needs of a specific client/business (the case with custom software)
 To solve a real-world problem
 For personal use (e.g., a pharmacy owner may require inventory managing and billing
software.)
 The demand for better quality management has enforced the discipline of software
engineering, which focuses on applying the systematic approach of the engineering
paradigm to the software development process.

Software development is the life cycle of processes that is comprised of a well-segregated

structure imposed for the development of software that might trend in the market. There are
multiple processes that occur during the entirety of software development scenario. So, if you are
wondering what is software development, you need to know everything about the processes
involved in the same.

The process for software development, regardless of the maker, goes through multiple stages in a
stepwise fashion. It is termed as the “Software Development Lifecycle.” It is segregated into 6
various steps. The SDLC methodologies, or the Systems Development Life Cycle method
supports the designing of software that meets the business requirements. A well-segregated
methodology should always support the maintenance of the software for the long run.

Each phase tends to produce deliverables required to execute the upcoming step in this software
life cycle. The requirements are eventually translated into perfect designs. Codes are delivered in
accordance with plans which are then termed as the development phase. All these stages are
concocted with the help of a team of software development technicians who are crucial for each
step. No stage is conceivable without another.

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Stages Involved in Software Development Procedure

1-Gathering & Analysis of Requirement:

Before the team of software technicians can cough up the general idea for any software, it is
essential for the team to gather the business requirements in this very first phase. At this point,
the prime focus of the stakeholders and project managers is to note the exact things needed from
any software under consideration. There are several questions to be asked at this stage, which
include:

 Who is supposed to use this software?

 How will the software be used upon completion?
 What type of data should be added to the software?
 What should be the data output by this software?

Once these general questions are answered, a general outline is created for the software
developers to focus on. This data is then analyzed to ensure its validity & any possibility for

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incorporation of the same. Lastly, a document for requirement specification is prepared which
serves as a guideline for the next level of the software development process.

2-Design:

This is the next phase for the software development process. In this stage, the draft design is
prepared for the software from the stage-1 requirement specifications. The system designs help
in specifying the hardware as well as system requirements. It also helps with the definition of an
overall system in software architecture.

The design specifications for the system serve as the input for the following phase of the
software development model. In this particular phase, test strategies are developed by the testers
by mentioning things to test and the ways to check it.

3-Coding/Implementation:

After receiving the design documents for the software to be created, the work following the
design stage is divided equally into various units and modules. This is the stage where actual
coding begins. The main focus of the phase is the development of perfect codes by the
developers. This particular phase is the longest in the entire protocol.

4-Testing:

If you want to know what is software development; you can never skip understanding the testing
stage. This particular stage is very crucial for the developers. If anything goes wrong in the
testing stage or any error is noted in the codes, it can lead to the repetition of the coding process,
and the cycle goes on till the completion of the same. In this stage, all variants of the functional
testing such as integration testing, unit testing, system testing, acceptance testing, and non-
functional testing are done.

5-Deployment Stage:

After all the errors from coding are removed during the testing stage, the next step is termed as
the deployment stage. The finalized code is implemented into the software and then deployed or
delivered to the customers to be used.

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As the product is being given to potential customers, the first thing done to ensure that it works
fine on a large scale is to go with beta testing. If there is any possibility for changes or there are
possible bugs caught during implementation, it is immediately reported to the team that
engineers its errors to work fine in real-time. Once the changes are implemented with all the
bugs fixed, the final dispersal or deployment is set in motion.

6-Maintenance:

Once the customers start using well-developed software, the actual issues start surfacing with
time. This doesn’t mean that the software will get corrupted. However, it might require
occasional issues surfacing time and again. This particular process is termed as maintenance for
the finalized product or software.

SDLC Benefits

 Common technical vocabulary

 Pre-defined channels for communication between stakeholders and teams
 Clear responsibilities and roles for designers, developers, project managers, and business
analysts
 Clearly-defined outputs and inputs for each step
 Deterministic step definition for confirmation of truly completed action

The goal of software development is to locate predictable and repeatable methodologies, which
help improve overall productivity as well as quality. While some try and systematize the unruly
tasks for writing the software, others tend to apply the scope of software project management for
the same. Without the implementation of project management, multiple things can go wrong
with the same.

SOFTWARE DEVELOPMENT PROCESS MODELS

There are different software development life cycle models specify and design, which are
followed during the software development phase. These models are also called "Software
Development Process Models." Each process model follows a series of phase unique to its type
to ensure success in the step of software development.

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WATERFALL MODEL

The Waterfall Model was the first Process Model to be introduced. It is also referred to as
a linear-sequential life cycle model. It is very simple to understand and use. In a waterfall
model, each phase must be completed before the next phase can begin and there is no
overlapping in the phases.

The Waterfall model is the earliest SDLC approach that was used for software development.

The waterfall Model illustrates the software development process in a linear sequential flow.
This means that any phase in the development process begins only if the previous phase is
complete. In this waterfall model, the phases do not overlap.

Waterfall Model - Design

Waterfall approach was first SDLC Model to be used widely in Software Engineering to ensure
success of the project. In "The Waterfall" approach, the whole process of software development

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is divided into separate phases. In this Waterfall model, typically, the outcome of one phase acts
as the input for the next phase sequentially.

The following illustration is a representation of the different phases of the Waterfall Model.

The sequential phases in Waterfall model are −

 Requirement Gathering and analysis − All possible requirements of the system to be

developed are captured in this phase and documented in a requirement specification
document.

 System Design − The requirement specifications from first phase are studied in this
phase and the system design is prepared. This system design helps in specifying hardware
and system requirements and helps in defining the overall system architecture.

 Implementation − With inputs from the system design, the system is first developed in
small programs called units, which are integrated in the next phase. Each unit is
developed and tested for its functionality, which is referred to as Unit Testing.

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 Integration and Testing − All the units developed in the implementation phase are
integrated into a system after testing of each unit. Post integration the entire system is
tested for any faults and failures.

 Deployment of system − Once the functional and non-functional testing is done; the
product is deployed in the customer environment or released into the market.

 Maintenance − There are some issues which come up in the client environment. To fix
those issues, patches are released. Also to enhance the product some better versions are
released. Maintenance is done to deliver these changes in the customer environment.

All these phases are cascaded to each other in which progress is seen as flowing steadily
downwards (like a waterfall) through the phases. The next phase is started only after the defined
set of goals are achieved for previous phase and it is signed off, so the name "Waterfall Model".
In this model, phases do not overlap.

Waterfall Model - Application

Every software developed is different and requires a suitable SDLC approach to be followed
based on the internal and external factors. Some situations where the use of Waterfall model is
most appropriate are −

 Requirements are very well documented, clear and fixed.

 Product definition is stable.

 Technology is understood and is not dynamic.

 There are no ambiguous requirements.

 Ample resources with required expertise are available to support the product.

 The project is short.

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Waterfall Model - Advantages

The advantages of waterfall development are that it allows for departmentalization and control.
A schedule can be set with deadlines for each stage of development and a product can proceed
through the development process model phases one by one.

Development moves from concept, through design, implementation, testing, installation,

troubleshooting, and ends up at operation and maintenance. Each phase of development proceeds
in strict order.

Some of the major advantages of the Waterfall Model are as follows −

 Simple and easy to understand and use

 Easy to manage due to the rigidity of the model. Each phase has specific deliverables and
a review process.

 Phases are processed and completed one at a time.

 Works well for smaller projects where requirements are very well understood.

 Clearly defined stages.

 Well understood milestones.

 Easy to arrange tasks.

 Process and results are well documented.

Waterfall Model - Disadvantages

The disadvantage of waterfall development is that it does not allow much reflection or revision.
Once an application is in the testing stage, it is very difficult to go back and change something
that was not well-documented or thought upon in the concept stage.

The major disadvantages of the Waterfall Model are as follows −

 No working software is produced until late during the life cycle.

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 High amounts of risk and uncertainty.

 Not a good model for complex and object-oriented projects.

 Poor model for long and ongoing projects.

 Not suitable for the projects where requirements are at a moderate to high risk of
changing. So, risk and uncertainty is high with this process model.

 It is difficult to measure progress within stages.

 Cannot accommodate changing requirements.

 Adjusting scope during the life cycle can end a project.

 Integration is done as a "big-bang. at the very end, which doesn't allow identifying any
technological or business bottleneck or challenges early.

ITERATIVE MODEL

In the Iterative model, iterative process starts with a simple implementation of a small set of the
software requirements and iteratively enhances the evolving versions until the complete system
is implemented and ready to be deployed.

An iterative life cycle model does not attempt to start with a full specification of requirements.
Instead, development begins by specifying and implementing just part of the software, which is
then reviewed to identify further requirements. This process is then repeated, producing a new
version of the software at the end of each iteration of the model.

Iterative Model - Design

Iterative process starts with a simple implementation of a subset of the software requirements
and iteratively enhances the evolving versions until the full system is implemented. At each
iteration, design modifications are made and new functional capabilities are added. The basic
idea behind this method is to develop a system through repeated cycles (iterative) and in smaller
portions at a time (incremental).

The following illustration is a representation of the Iterative and Incremental model −

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Iterative and Incremental development is a combination of both iterative design or iterative

method and incremental build model for development. "During software development, more than
one iteration of the software development cycle may be in progress at the same time." This
process may be described as an "evolutionary acquisition" or "incremental build" approach."

In this incremental model, the whole requirement is divided into various builds. During each
iteration, the development module goes through the requirements, design, implementation and
testing phases. Each subsequent release of the module adds function to the previous release. The
process continues till the complete system is ready as per the requirement.

The key to a successful use of an iterative software development lifecycle is rigorous validation
of requirements, and verification & testing of each version of the software against those
requirements within each cycle of the model. As the software evolves through successive cycles,
tests must be repeated and extended to verify each version of the software.

Iterative Model - Application

Like other SDLC models, Iterative and incremental development has some specific applications
in the software industry. This model is most often used in the following scenarios −

 Requirements of the complete system are clearly defined and understood.

 Major requirements must be defined; however, some functionalities or requested

enhancements may evolve with time.

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 There is a time to the market constraint.

 A new technology is being used and is being learnt by the development team while
working on the project.

 Resources with needed skill sets are not available and are planned to be used on contract
basis for specific iterations.

 There are some high-risk features and goals which may change in the future.

Iterative Model - Pros and Cons

The advantage of this model is that there is a working model of the system at a very early stage
of development, which makes it easier to find functional or design flaws. Finding issues at an
early stage of development enables to take corrective measures in a limited budget.

The disadvantage with this SDLC model is that it is applicable only to large and bulky software
development projects. This is because it is hard to break a small software system into further
small serviceable increments/modules.

The advantages of the Iterative and Incremental SDLC Model are as follows −

 Some working functionality can be developed quickly and early in the life cycle.

 Results are obtained early and periodically.

 Parallel development can be planned.

 Progress can be measured.

 Less costly to change the scope/requirements.

 Testing and debugging during smaller iteration is easy.

 Risks are identified and resolved during iteration; and each iteration is an easily managed
milestone.

 Easier to manage risk - High risk part is done first.

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 With every increment, operational product is delivered.

 Issues, challenges and risks identified from each increment can be utilized/applied to the
next increment.

 Risk analysis is better.

 It supports changing requirements.

 Initial Operating time is less.

 Better suited for large and mission-critical projects.

 During the life cycle, software is produced early which facilitates customer evaluation
and feedback.

The disadvantages of the Iterative and Incremental SDLC Model are as follows −

 More resources may be required.

 Although cost of change is lesser, but it is not very suitable for changing requirements.

 More management attention is required.

 System architecture or design issues may arise because not all requirements are gathered
in the beginning of the entire life cycle.

 Defining increments may require definition of the complete system.

 Not suitable for smaller projects.

 Management complexity is more.

 End of project may not be known which is a risk.

 Highly skilled resources are required for risk analysis.

 Projects progress is highly dependent upon the risk analysis phase

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SPIRAL MODEL

The spiral model combines the idea of iterative development with the systematic, controlled
aspects of the waterfall model. This Spiral model is a combination of iterative development
process model and sequential linear development model i.e. the waterfall model with a very high
emphasis on risk analysis. It allows incremental releases of the product or incremental
refinement through each iteration around the spiral.

Spiral Model - Design

The spiral model has four phases. A software project repeatedly passes through these phases in
iterations called Spirals.

Identification

This phase starts with gathering the business requirements in the baseline spiral. In the
subsequent spirals as the product matures, identification of system requirements, subsystem
requirements and unit requirements are all done in this phase.

This phase also includes understanding the system requirements by continuous communication
between the customer and the system analyst. At the end of the spiral, the product is deployed in
the identified market.

Design

The Design phase starts with the conceptual design in the baseline spiral and involves
architectural design, logical design of modules, physical product design and the final design in
the subsequent spirals.

Construct or Build

The Construct phase refers to production of the actual software product at every spiral. In the
baseline spiral, when the product is just thought of and the design is being developed a POC
(Proof of Concept) is developed in this phase to get customer feedback.

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Then in the subsequent spirals with higher clarity on requirements and design details a working
model of the software called build is produced with a version number. These builds are sent to
the customer for feedback.

Evaluation and Risk Analysis

Risk Analysis includes identifying, estimating and monitoring the technical feasibility and
management risks, such as schedule slippage and cost overrun. After testing the build, at the end
of first iteration, the customer evaluates the software and provides feedback.

The following illustration is a representation of the Spiral Model, listing the activities in each
phase.

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Based on the customer evaluation, the software development process enters the next iteration and
subsequently follows the linear approach to implement the feedback suggested by the customer.
The process of iterations along the spiral continues throughout the life of the software.

Spiral Model Application

The Spiral Model is widely used in the software industry as it is in sync with the natural
development process of any product, i.e. learning with maturity which involves minimum risk
for the customer as well as the development firms.

The following pointers explain the typical uses of a Spiral Model −

 When there is a budget constraint and risk evaluation is important.

 For medium to high-risk projects.

 Long-term project commitment because of potential changes to economic priorities as the

requirements change with time.

 Customer is not sure of their requirements which is usually the case.

 Requirements are complex and need evaluation to get clarity.

 New product line which should be released in phases to get enough customer feedback.

 Significant changes are expected in the product during the development cycle.

Spiral Model - Pros and Cons

The advantage of spiral lifecycle model is that it allows elements of the product to be added in,
when they become available or known. This assures that there is no conflict with previous
requirements and design.

This method is consistent with approaches that have multiple software builds and releases which
allows making an orderly transition to a maintenance activity. Another positive aspect of this
method is that the spiral model forces an early user involvement in the system development
effort.

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On the other side, it takes a very strict management to complete such products and there is a risk
of running the spiral in an indefinite loop. So, the discipline of change and the extent of taking
change requests is very important to develop and deploy the product successfully.

The advantages of the Spiral SDLC Model are as follows −

 Changing requirements can be accommodated.

 Allows extensive use of prototypes.

 Requirements can be captured more accurately.

 Users see the system early.

 Development can be divided into smaller parts and the risky parts can be developed
earlier which helps in better risk management.

The disadvantages of the Spiral SDLC Model are as follows −

 Management is more complex.

 End of the project may not be known early.

 Not suitable for small or low risk projects and could be expensive for small projects.

 Process is complex

 Spiral may go on indefinitely.

 Large number of intermediate stages requires excessive documentation.

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V-MODEL

The V-model is an SDLC model where execution of processes happens in a sequential manner in
a V-shape. It is also known as Verification and Validation model.

The V-Model is an extension of the waterfall model and is based on the association of a testing
phase for each corresponding development stage. This means that for every single phase in the
development cycle, there is a directly associated testing phase. This is a highly-disciplined model
and the next phase starts only after completion of the previous phase.

V-Model - Design

Under the V-Model, the corresponding testing phase of the development phase is planned in
parallel. So, there are Verification phases on one side of the ‘V’ and Validation phases on the
other side. The Coding Phase joins the two sides of the V-Model.

The following illustration depicts the different phases in a V-Model of the SDLC.

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V-Model - Verification Phases

There are several Verification phases in the V-Model, each of these are explained in detail
below.

Business Requirement Analysis

This is the first phase in the development cycle where the product requirements are understood
from the customer’s perspective. This phase involves detailed communication with the customer
to understand his expectations and exact requirement. This is a very important activity and needs
to be managed well, as most of the customers are not sure about what exactly they need.
The acceptance test design planning is done at this stage as business requirements can be used
as an input for acceptance testing.

System Design

Once you have the clear and detailed product requirements, it is time to design the complete
system. The system design will have the understanding and detailing the complete hardware and
communication setup for the product under development. The system test plan is developed
based on the system design. Doing this at an earlier stage leaves more time for the actual test
execution later.

Architectural Design

Architectural specifications are understood and designed in this phase. Usually more than one
technical approach is proposed and based on the technical and financial feasibility the final
decision is taken. The system design is broken down further into modules taking up different
functionality. This is also referred to as High Level Design (HLD).

The data transfer and communication between the internal modules and with the outside world
(other systems) is clearly understood and defined in this stage. With this information, integration
tests can be designed and documented during this stage.

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Module Design

In this phase, the detailed internal design for all the system modules is specified, referred to
as Low Level Design (LLD). It is important that the design is compatible with the other modules
in the system architecture and the other external systems. The unit tests are an essential part of
any development process and helps eliminate the maximum faults and errors at a very early
stage. These unit tests can be designed at this stage based on the internal module designs.

Coding Phase

The actual coding of the system modules designed in the design phase is taken up in the Coding
phase. The best suitable programming language is decided based on the system and architectural
requirements.

The coding is performed based on the coding guidelines and standards. The code goes through
numerous code reviews and is optimized for best performance before the final build is checked
into the repository.

Validation Phases

The different Validation Phases in a V-Model are explained in detail below.

Unit Testing

Unit tests designed in the module design phase are executed on the code during this validation
phase. Unit testing is the testing at code level and helps eliminate bugs at an early stage, though
all defects cannot be uncovered by unit testing.

Integration Testing

Integration testing is associated with the architectural design phase. Integration tests are
performed to test the coexistence and communication of the internal modules within the system.

System Testing

System testing is directly associated with the system design phase. System tests check the entire
system functionality and the communication of the system under development with external

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systems. Most of the software and hardware compatibility issues can be uncovered during this
system test execution.

Acceptance Testing

Acceptance testing is associated with the business requirement analysis phase and involves
testing the product in user environment. Acceptance tests uncover the compatibility issues with
the other systems available in the user environment. It also discovers the non-functional issues
such as load and performance defects in the actual user environment.

V- Model ─ Application

V- Model application is almost the same as the waterfall model, as both the models are of
sequential type. Requirements have to be very clear before the project starts, because it is usually
expensive to go back and make changes. This model is used in the medical development field, as
it is strictly a disciplined domain.

The following pointers are some of the most suitable scenarios to use the V-Model application.

 Requirements are well defined, clearly documented and fixed.

 Product definition is stable.

 Technology is not dynamic and is well understood by the project team.

 There are no ambiguous or undefined requirements.

 The project is short.

V-Model - Pros and Cons

The advantage of the V-Model method is that it is very easy to understand and apply. The
simplicity of this model also makes it easier to manage. The disadvantage is that the model is not
flexible to changes and just in case there is a requirement change, which is very common in
today’s dynamic world, it becomes very expensive to make the change.

The advantages of the V-Model method are as follows −

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 This is a highly-disciplined model and Phases are completed one at a time.

 Works well for smaller projects where requirements are very well understood.

 Simple and easy to understand and use.

 Easy to manage due to the rigidity of the model. Each phase has specific deliverables and
a review process.

The disadvantages of the V-Model method are as follows −

 High risk and uncertainty.

 Not a good model for complex and object-oriented projects.

 Poor model for long and ongoing projects.

 Not suitable for the projects where requirements are at a moderate to high risk of
changing.

 Once an application is in the testing stage, it is difficult to go back and change a

functionality.

 No working software is produced until late during the life cycle.

BIG BANG MODEL

The Big Bang model is an SDLC model where we do not follow any specific process. The
development just starts with the required money and efforts as the input, and the output is the
software developed which may or may not be as per customer requirement. This Big Bang
Model does not follow a process/procedure and there is a very little planning required. Even the
customer is not sure about what exactly he wants and the requirements are implemented on the
fly without much analysis.

Usually this model is followed for small projects where the development teams are very small.

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Big Bang Model ─ Design and Application

The Big Bang Model comprises of focusing all the possible resources in the software
development and coding, with very little or no planning. The requirements are understood and
implemented as they come. Any changes required may or may not need to revamp the complete
software.

This model is ideal for small projects with one or two developers working together and is also
useful for academic or practice projects. It is an ideal model for the product where requirements
are not well understood and the final release date is not given.

Big Bang Model - Pros and Cons

The advantage of this Big Bang Model is that it is very simple and requires very little or no
planning. Easy to manage and no formal procedure are required.

However, the Big Bang Model is a very high risk model and changes in the requirements or
misunderstood requirements may even lead to complete reversal or scraping of the project. It is
ideal for repetitive or small projects with minimum risks.

The advantages of the Big Bang Model are as follows −

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 This is a very simple model

 Little or no planning required

 Easy to manage

 Very few resources required

 Gives flexibility to developers

 It is a good learning aid for new comers or students.

The disadvantages of the Big Bang Model are as follows −

 Very High risk and uncertainty.

 Not a good model for complex and object-oriented projects.

 Poor model for long and ongoing projects.

 Can turn out to be very expensive if requirements are misunderstood.

AGILE SDLC MODEL

Agile SDLC model is a combination of iterative and incremental process models with focus on
process adaptability and customer satisfaction by rapid delivery of working software product.
Agile Methods break the product into small incremental builds. These builds are provided in
iterations. Each iteration typically lasts from about one to three weeks. Every iteration involves
cross functional teams working simultaneously on various areas like −

 Planning

 Requirements Analysis

 Design

 Coding

 Unit Testing and

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 Acceptance Testing.

At the end of the iteration, a working product is displayed to the customer and important
stakeholders.

What is Agile?

Agile model believes that every project needs to be handled differently and the existing methods
need to be tailored to best suit the project requirements. In Agile, the tasks are divided to time
boxes (small time frames) to deliver specific features for a release.

Iterative approach is taken and working software build is delivered after each iteration. Each
build is incremental in terms of features; the final build holds all the features required by the
customer.

Here is a graphical illustration of the Agile Model −

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The Agile thought process had started early in the software development and started becoming
popular with time due to its flexibility and adaptability.

The most popular Agile methods include Rational Unified Process (1994), Scrum (1995), Crystal
Clear, Extreme Programming (1996), Adaptive Software Development, Feature Driven
Development, and Dynamic Systems Development Method (DSDM) (1995). These are now
collectively referred to as Agile Methodologies, after the Agile Manifesto was published in
2001.

Following are the Agile Manifesto principles −

 Individuals and interactions − In Agile development, self-organization and motivation

are important, as are interactions like co-location and pair programming.

 Working software − Demo working software is considered the best means of

communication with the customers to understand their requirements, instead of just
depending on documentation.

 Customer collaboration − As the requirements cannot be gathered completely in the

beginning of the project due to various factors, continuous customer interaction is very
important to get proper product requirements.

 Responding to change − Agile Development is focused on quick responses to change

and continuous development.

Agile Vs Traditional SDLC Models

Agile is based on the adaptive software development methods, whereas the traditional SDLC
models like the waterfall model is based on a predictive approach. Predictive teams in the
traditional SDLC models usually work with detailed planning and have a complete forecast of
the exact tasks and features to be delivered in the next few months or during the product life
cycle.

Predictive methods entirely depend on the requirement analysis and planning done in the
beginning of cycle. Any changes to be incorporated go through a strict change control
management and prioritization.

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Agile uses an adaptive approach where there is no detailed planning and there is clarity on
future tasks only in respect of what features need to be developed. There is feature driven
development and the team adapts to the changing product requirements dynamically. The
product is tested very frequently, through the release iterations, minimizing the risk of any major
failures in future.

Customer Interaction is the backbone of this Agile methodology, and open communication
with minimum documentation are the typical features of Agile development environment. The
agile teams work in close collaboration with each other and are most often located in the same
geographical location.

Agile Model - Pros and Cons

Agile methods are being widely accepted in the software world recently. However, this method
may not always be suitable for all products. Here are some pros and cons of the Agile model.

The advantages of the Agile Model are as follows −

 Is a very realistic approach to software development.

 Promotes teamwork and cross training.

 Functionality can be developed rapidly and demonstrated.

 Resource requirements are minimum.

 Suitable for fixed or changing requirements

 Delivers early partial working solutions.

 Good model for environments that change steadily.

 Minimal rules, documentation easily employed.

 Enables concurrent development and delivery within an overall planned context.

 Little or no planning required.

 Easy to manage.

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 Gives flexibility to developers.

The disadvantages of the Agile Model are as follows −

 Not suitable for handling complex dependencies.

 More risk of sustainability, maintainability and extensibility.

 An overall plan, an agile leader and agile PM practice is a must without which it will not
work.

 Strict delivery management dictates the scope, functionality to be delivered, and

adjustments to meet the deadlines.

 Depends heavily on customer interaction, so if customer is not clear, team can be driven
in the wrong direction.

 There is a very high individual dependency, since there is minimum documentation

generated.

 Transfer of technology to new team members may be quite challenging due to lack of
documentation.

RAD (RAPID APPLICATION DEVELOPMENT) MODEL

The RAD (Rapid Application Development) model is based on prototyping and iterative
development with no specific planning involved. The process of writing the software itself
involves the planning required for developing the product.

Rapid Application Development focuses on gathering customer requirements through workshops

or focus groups, early testing of the prototypes by the customer using iterative concept, reuse of
the existing prototypes (components), continuous integration and rapid delivery.

What is RAD?

Rapid application development is a software development methodology that uses minimal

planning in favor of rapid prototyping. A prototype is a working model that is functionally
equivalent to a component of the product.

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In the RAD model, the functional modules are developed in parallel as prototypes and are
integrated to make the complete product for faster product delivery. Since there is no detailed
preplanning, it makes it easier to incorporate the changes within the development process.

RAD projects follow iterative and incremental model and have small teams comprising of
developers, domain experts, customer representatives and other IT resources working
progressively on their component or prototype.

The most important aspect for this model to be successful is to make sure that the prototypes
developed are reusable.

RAD Model Design

RAD model distributes the analysis, design, build and test phases into a series of short, iterative
development cycles.

Following are the various phases of the RAD Model −

Business Modeling

The business model for the product under development is designed in terms of flow of
information and the distribution of information between various business channels. A complete
business analysis is performed to find the vital information for business, how it can be obtained,
how and when is the information processed and what are the factors driving successful flow of
information.

Data Modeling

The information gathered in the Business Modelling phase is reviewed and analyzed to form sets
of data objects vital for the business. The attributes of all data sets is identified and defined. The
relation between these data objects are established and defined in detail in relevance to the
business model.

Process Modeling

The data object sets defined in the Data Modelling phase are converted to establish the business
information flow needed to achieve specific business objectives as per the business model. The

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process model for any changes or enhancements to the data object sets is defined in this phase.
Process descriptions for adding, deleting, retrieving or modifying a data object are given.

Application Generation

The actual system is built and coding is done by using automation tools to convert process and
data models into actual prototypes.

Testing and Turnover

The overall testing time is reduced in the RAD model as the prototypes are independently tested
during every iteration. However, the data flow and the interfaces between all the components
need to be thoroughly tested with complete test coverage. Since most of the programming
components have already been tested, it reduces the risk of any major issues.

The following illustration describes the RAD Model in detail.

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RAD Model Vs Traditional SDLC

The traditional SDLC follows a rigid process models with high emphasis on requirement
analysis and gathering before the coding starts. It puts pressure on the customer to sign off the
requirements before the project starts and the customer doesn’t get the feel of the product as
there is no working build available for a long time.

The customer may need some changes after he gets to see the software. However, the change
process is quite rigid and it may not be feasible to incorporate major changes in the product in
the traditional SDLC.

The RAD model focuses on iterative and incremental delivery of working models to the
customer. This results in rapid delivery to the customer and customer involvement during the
complete development cycle of product reducing the risk of non-conformance with the actual
user requirements.

RAD Model - Application

RAD model can be applied successfully to the projects in which clear modularization is possible.
If the project cannot be broken into modules, RAD may fail.

The following pointers describe the typical scenarios where RAD can be used −

 RAD should be used only when a system can be modularized to be delivered in an

incremental manner.

 It should be used if there is a high availability of designers for Modelling.

 It should be used only if the budget permits use of automated code generating tools.

 RAD SDLC model should be chosen only if domain experts are available with relevant
business knowledge.

 Should be used where the requirements change during the project and working prototypes
are to be presented to customer in small iterations of 2-3 months.

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RAD Model - Pros and Cons

RAD model enables rapid delivery as it reduces the overall development time due to the
reusability of the components and parallel development. RAD works well only if high skilled
engineers are available and the customer is also committed to achieve the targeted prototype in
the given time frame. If there is commitment lacking on either side the model may fail.

The advantages of the RAD Model are as follows −

 Changing requirements can be accommodated.

 Progress can be measured.

 Iteration time can be short with use of powerful RAD tools.

 Productivity with fewer people in a short time.

 Reduced development time.

 Increases reusability of components.

 Quick initial reviews occur.

 Encourages customer feedback.

 Integration from very beginning solves a lot of integration issues.

The disadvantages of the RAD Model are as follows −

 Dependency on technically strong team members for identifying business requirements.

 Only system that can be modularized can be built using RAD.

 Requires highly skilled developers/designers.

 High dependency on Modelling skills.

 Inapplicable to cheaper projects as cost of Modelling and automated code generation is

very high.

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 Management complexity is more.

 Suitable for systems that are component based and scalable.

 Requires user involvement throughout the life cycle.

 Suitable for project requiring shorter development times.

SOFTWARE PROTOTYPING MODEL

The Software Prototyping refers to building software application prototypes which displays the
functionality of the product under development, but may not actually hold the exact logic of the
original software.

Software prototyping is becoming very popular as a software development model, as it enables

to understand customer requirements at an early stage of development. It helps get valuable
feedback from the customer and helps software designers and developers understand about what
exactly is expected from the product under development.

The prototype model requires that before carrying out the development of actual software, a
working prototype of the system should be built. A prototype is a toy implementation of the
system. A prototype usually turns out to be a very crude version of the actual system, possible
exhibiting limited functional capabilities, low reliability, and inefficient performance as
compared to actual software. In many instances, the client only has a general view of what is
expected from the software product. In such a scenario where there is an absence of detailed
information regarding the input to the system, the processing needs, and the output requirement,
the prototyping model may be employed.

What is Software Prototyping?

Prototype is a working model of software with some limited functionality. The prototype does
not always hold the exact logic used in the actual software application and is an extra effort to be
considered under effort estimation.

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Prototyping is used to allow the users evaluate developer proposals and try them out before
implementation. It also helps understand the requirements which are user specific and may not
have been considered by the developer during product design.

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Prototyping is defined as the process of developing a working replication of a product or system

that has to be engineered. It offers a small-scale facsimile of the end product and is used for
obtaining customer feedback as described below:

The Prototyping Model is one of the most popularly used Software Development Life Cycle
Models (SDLC models). This model is used when the customers do not know the exact project
requirements beforehand. In this model, a prototype of the end product is first developed, tested,
and refined as per customer feedback repeatedly till a final acceptable prototype is achieved
which forms the basis for developing the final product.

In this process model, the system is partially implemented before or during the analysis phase
thereby giving the customers an opportunity to see the product early in the life cycle. The
process starts by interviewing the customers and developing the incomplete high-level paper
model. This document is used to build the initial prototype supporting only the basic
functionality as desired by the customer. Once the customer figures out the problems, the
prototype is further refined to eliminate them. The process continues until the user approves the
prototype and finds the working model to be satisfactory.

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Following is a stepwise approach explained to design a software prototype.

Basic Requirement Identification

This step involves understanding the very basics product requirements especially in terms of user
interface. The more intricate details of the internal design and external aspects like performance
and security can be ignored at this stage.

Developing the initial Prototype

The initial Prototype is developed in this stage, where the very basic requirements are showcased
and user interfaces are provided. These features may not exactly work in the same manner
internally in the actual software developed. While, the workarounds are used to give the same
look and feel to the customer in the prototype developed.

Review of the Prototype

The prototype developed is then presented to the customer and the other important stakeholders
in the project. The feedback is collected in an organized manner and used for further
enhancements in the product under development.

Revise and Enhance the Prototype

The feedback and the review comments are discussed during this stage and some negotiations
happen with the customer based on factors like – time and budget constraints and technical
feasibility of the actual implementation. The changes accepted are again incorporated in the new
Prototype developed and the cycle repeats until the customer expectations are met.

Prototypes can have horizontal or vertical dimensions. A Horizontal prototype displays the user
interface for the product and gives a broader view of the entire system, without concentrating on
internal functions. A Vertical prototype on the other side is a detailed elaboration of a specific
function or a sub system in the product.

Software Prototyping - Application

Software Prototyping is most useful in development of systems having high level of user
interactions such as online systems. Systems which need users to fill out forms or go through

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various screens before data is processed can use prototyping very effectively to give the exact
look and feel even before the actual software is developed.

Software that involves too much of data processing and most of the functionality is internal with
very little user interface does not usually benefit from prototyping. Prototype development could
be an extra overhead in such projects and may need lot of extra efforts.

Software Prototyping - Pros and Cons

Software prototyping is used in typical cases and the decision should be taken very carefully so
that the efforts spent in building the prototype add considerable value to the final software
developed. The model has its own pros and cons discussed as follows.

The advantages of the Prototyping Model are as follows −

 Increased user involvement in the product even before its implementation.

 Since a working model of the system is displayed, the users get a better understanding of
the system being developed.

 Reduces time and cost as the defects can be detected much earlier.

 Quicker user feedback is available leading to better solutions.

 Missing functionality can be identified easily.

 Confusing or difficult functions can be identified.

The Disadvantages of the Prototyping Model are as follows −

 Risk of insufficient requirement analysis owing to too much dependency on the

prototype.

 Users may get confused in the prototypes and actual systems.

 Practically, this methodology may increase the complexity of the system as scope of the
system may expand beyond original plans.

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 Developers may try to reuse the existing prototypes to build the actual system, even when
it is not technically feasible.

 The effort invested in building prototypes may be too much if it is not monitored
properly.

SELECTION OF SOFTWARE PROCESS MODELS

The software process model framework is specific to the project. Thus, it is essential to select the
software process model according to the software which is to be developed. The software project
is considered efficient if the process model is selected according to the requirements. It is also
essential to consider time and cost while choosing a process model as cost and/ or time
constraints play an important role in software development. The basic characteristics required to
select the process model are project type and associated risks, requirements of the project, and
the users.

One of the key features of selecting a process model is to understand the project in terms of size,
complexity, funds available, and so on. In addition, the risks which are associated with the
project should also be considered. Note that only a few process models emphasize risk
assessment. Various other issues related to the project and the risks are listed in Table.

Table Selections on the Basis of the Project Type and Associated Risks

Project Type and Waterfall Prototype Spiral RAD

Associated Risks

Reliability requirements No No Yes No

Stable funds Yes Yes No Yes

Reuse components No Yes Yes Yes

Tight project schedule No Yes Yes Yes

Scarcity of resources No Yes Yes No

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The most essential feature of any process model is to understand the requirements of the project.
In case the requirements are not clearly defined by the user or poorly understood by the
developer, the developed software leads to ineffective systems. Thus, the requirements of the
software should be clearly understood before selecting any process model.

Table Selection on the Basis of the Requirements of the Project

Requirements of the Project Waterfall Prototype Spiral RAD

Requirements are defined early in SDLC Yes No No Yes

Requirements are easily defined and Yes No No Yes

understandable

Requirements are changed frequently No Yes Yes No

Requirements indicate a complex System No Yes Yes No

Software is developed for the users. Hence, the users should be consulted while selecting the
process model. The comprehensibility of the project increases if users are involved in selecting
the process model. It is possible that a user is aware of the requirements or has a rough idea of
the requirements. It is also possible that the user wants the project to be developed in a sequential
manner or an incremental manner (where a part is delivered to the user for use).

Table Selection on the Basis of the Users

User Involvement Waterfall Prototype Spiral RAD

Requires Limited User Involvement Yes No Yes No

User participation in all phases No Yes No Yes

No experience of participating in similar No Yes Yes No

projects

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