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 OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 17/9/2018, SPi

WORDSWORTH AND COLERIDGE

OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 17/9/2018, SPi
 OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 17/9/2018, SPi

Wordsworth and
Coleridge
The Radical Years

Second Edition

NICHOLAS ROE

1
OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 17/9/2018, SPi

3
Great Clarendon Street, Oxford, OX2 6DP,
United Kingdom
Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford.
It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship,
and education by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade mark of
Oxford University Press in the UK and in certain other countries
© Nicholas Roe 1988
The moral rights of the author have been asserted
First Edition published in 1988
Second Edition published in 2018
Impression: 1
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in
a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the
prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted
by law, by licence or under terms agreed with the appropriate reprographics
rights organization. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the
above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the
address above
You must not circulate this work in any other form
and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer
Published in the United States of America by Oxford University Press
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Links to third party websites are provided by Oxford in good faith and
for information only. Oxford disclaims any responsibility for the materials
contained in any third party website referenced in this work.
Originally published in the Oxford English Monographs series
OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 17/9/2018, SPi

To the memory of
JOHN THELWALL
Citizen, Poet, Prophet
1764–1834
OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 17/9/2018, SPi
 OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 17/9/2018, SPi

‘And please what’s Hulks?’ said I.

‘That’s the way with this boy!’ exclaimed my sister, pointing me out
with her needle and thread, and shaking her head at me. ‘Answer
him one question, and he’ll ask you a dozen directly. Hulks are
prison-ships, right ’cross th’ meshes.’ We always used that name for
marshes, in our country.
‘I wonder who’s put into prison-ships, and why they’re put there?’
said I, in a general way, and with quiet desperation.
It was too much for Mrs Joe, who immediately rose. ‘I tell you what,
young fellow,’ said she, ‘I didn’t bring you up by hand to badger
people’s lives out. People are put in the Hulks because they murder,
and because they rob, and forge, and do all sorts of bad; and they
always begin by asking questions.’
(Charles Dickens, Great Expectations, ch. 2)
OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 17/9/2018, SPi
 OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 17/9/2018, SPi

Preface, 1988–2018

On Tuesday 30 September 1794 the following advertisement appeared

on the front page of the Morning Chronicle:
Those Families whose Husbands and Fathers are now in Confinement under
a Charge of HIGH TREASON, and whose Trials will come on in a few Days
intreat the IMMEDIATE PECUNIARY ASSISTANCE of the REAL Friends to Liberty.
The husbands and fathers charged with treason were the leaders of the
London Corresponding Society and the Society for Constitutional Infor-
mation. They had been arrested in May and held in the Tower and
Newgate over the summer; not surprisingly, their dependents were in
need of support after four months—hence the subscription organized by
the Corresponding Society’s Committee of Correspondence.
The ‘REAL Friends to Liberty’ responded generously. On 19 November,
the committee announced that £314 19s. 3d. had been collected, and
published a list of subscribers. Among them were the Countess Dowager
of Stanhope, £20; Charles James Fox, £10; Thomas Walker of Manches-
ter, 3 guineas; and Francis Place, breeches-maker, 5s. But one contribu-
tion in particular leaps out of the list: ‘Citizen Wordsworth 1s.—0d.’ This
donation was received by John Smith, a bookseller in Portsmouth Street,
Lincoln’s Inn Fields. Smith was also a leader of the 29th Division of the
Corresponding Society, and a member of the committee that had organ-
ized the subscription. But who was ‘Citizen Wordsworth’, and was he in
fact William Wordsworth?
As it turns out, no. ‘Citizen Wordsworth’ was Henry Wordsworth of
Jewin Street, London, and a member of bookseller Smith’s 29th Division.
Still, the tantalizing possibility that William Wordsworth might be found
among the massed friends of liberty in the Corresponding Society was my
starting-point for the more extensive study of Wordsworth’s and Cole-
ridge’s radical years in this book. I have taken the years between 1789 and
the poets’ departure for Germany in September 1798 as my period, and
have looked back at religious dissent in Cambridge since 1770 to provide a
context for Coleridge’s politics, and forwards by way of incorporating The
Prelude, The Friend, Biographia Literaria, and other later writings.
This new edition of the book has been revised, updated, and slightly
expanded. I have taken account of the most significant work in the field over
the three decades since the book first appeared, drawn fresh material from
manuscripts, newspapers, and electronic sources, and given more attention
 OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 17/9/2018, SPi

x Preface, 1988–2018
to the poetry. The bibliography has grown. The chapters are in a broadly
chronological sequence. Chapter 1 presents some of the difficulties in
Wordsworth’s and Coleridge’s retrospective accounts of their radical years,
and is in effect a manifesto for the documentary and biographical research
that underpins the whole study. Chapter 2 looks at early responses to the
French Revolution during the years 1789–91; Chapter 3 explores Words-
worth’s visits to France in 1790 and 1792, and his intervening months at
London in spring 1791. Chapter 4 offers a retrospect on radical dissent at
Cambridge in the decades prior to 1789, focusing upon William Frend and
George Dyer as well as Coleridge’s political career from 1794 on. Taking
bearings from these different backgrounds, Chapter 5 treats both poets’
opposition to war after February 1793, arguing that contemporary literature
of protest encouraged Wordsworth’s imaginative encounters in ‘Salisbury
Plain’, The Borderers, ‘The Ruined Cottage’, and some of his poems in Lyrical
Ballads (1798). Chapter 6 reconsiders Wordsworth’s and Coleridge’s con-
nections with the popular reform movement, and to John Thelwall and
William Godwin in particular. As with ‘Citizen Wordsworth’, I’m afraid
I cannot reveal that the poets joined the Corresponding Society; there were no
secret subscriptions, no furtive donations. That said, both of them were so
closely linked with the Society’s leadership that the matter of formal mem-
bership was of little significance. Chapter 7 presents Robespierre as a cau-
tionary but not unattractive figure for Wordsworth, Coleridge, and Thelwall,
arguing that the poets’ self-recognition in the Jacobin leader has much to tell
us about Wordsworth’s ‘crisis’ in the years 1795–6 and Coleridge’s role in
their early friendship. My final chapter uses the Spy Nozy incident as a way
into the poets’ lives of ‘philosophic amity’ at Nether Stowey and Alfoxden,
1797–8. Their experiences are presented alongside those of contemporaries
who also figure throughout the book, by way of complicating the rusty old
story in which radical commitment is inevitably succeeded by ‘apostasy’. In
all chapters I have tried to show how the radical years are integral to each
poet’s later creative life; to substantiate this, a short Epilogue offers close
readings of ‘Fears in Solitude’ and ‘Tintern Abbey’.
Throughout this book there are episodes, incidents, and individuals
I would like to know more about. Who did Wordsworth meet at Paris
and elsewhere in France during 1792? We know a few names, but these
comprise a tiny fraction of the people he encountered. All too often
the records are incomplete or missing. Thomas Carlyle’s anecdote that
Wordsworth said he had seen Gorsas guillotined at Paris in October 1793
seems to me to ring true: how or why would Carlyle—or Wordsworth—
have invented such a story? There is much more to be said about
Coleridge’s Watchman journal of 1796, and I suspect that the ‘Spy
Nozy’ episode of the following year may still be incompletely understood.
 OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 17/9/2018, SPi

Preface, 1988–2018 xi
An early draft chapter on Southey was omitted, and subsequently pub-
lished in my book The Politics of Nature: William Wordsworth and Some
Contemporaries; Southey deserves more thorough consideration than proved
possible in this study.
I am grateful to the staff of the following institutions: Bath Public
Reference Library; the Bibliothèque Municipale, Blois; The Bodleian
Library; Bristol City Library and Bristol University Library; The British
Library; Cambridge University Library; Dove Cottage Library, Grasmere;
Dundee Public Reference Library; the libraries of Emmanuel College,
Cambridge, and Nuffield College, Oxford; the Public Record Offices at
Chancery Lane and Kew; St Andrews University Library; Tullie House
Library, Carlisle; and Queen’s University Library, Belfast. I would like to
thank the following for permission to quote from manuscripts and to
reproduce visual material: Lord Abinger, for the Abinger–Shelley Papers;
Viscount Knebworth, for the Lovelace–Byron Papers; the Librarian of
Bristol University Library, for the Pinney Papers; the Trustees of Dove
Cottage, for Basil Montagu’s ‘Narrative of the birth and upbringing of
his son’; the National Library of Wales; the National Portrait Gallery,
London; and the National Library of Scotland for the Blackwood Papers.
My original research for this book was materially helped by grants from
the President and Fellows of Trinity College, Oxford; from Queen’s
University, Belfast; and from the University of St Andrews.
In preparing this new edition I have made use of electronic databases
that give access in a few seconds to material that would formerly have
taken weeks to research; of particular help were British Library Newspapers;
The British Newspaper Archive; Ed Pope History: Lives of the Forgotten; Gale
Historical Newspapers; The Times Digital Archive 1785–2011; and The
Diary of William Godwin. Web addresses and access details for each are
given in the footnotes and the bibliography.
Part of Chapter 6 was delivered to the Wordsworth Summer Confer-
ence at Grasmere back in August 1982, and subsequently published as
‘Citizen Wordsworth’ in the Wordsworth Circle; earlier versions of
Chapters 2 and 8 have also appeared in the Wordsworth Circle, and I’m
grateful to the editor for permission to reproduce this material here.
Chapter 7 was presented as a lecture at the Wordsworth Summer Con-
ference in August 1984, and published the following year as an essay in
Coleridge’s Imagination: Essays in Memory of Peter Laver. Passages that refer
to George Dyer have been drawn from a lecture on ‘Radical George’ given
at a meeting of the Charles Lamb Society in April 1984, later published in
the Charles Lamb Bulletin. The New Introduction was presented as a
lecture on ‘The Radical Years Revisited’ at the ‘Politics of Romanticism’
international conference of the Gesellschaft für Englische Romantik
 OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 17/9/2018, SPi

xii Preface, 1988–2018

(Society for English Romanticism) at the University of Bamberg, 5–8
October 2017.
I am much indebted to specific volumes in the Cornell Wordsworth
Series and the Bollingen Collected Coleridge, some of which have been
published since this book first appeared. Mary Thale’s Selections from the
Papers of the London Corresponding Society, 1792–1799 continues to be an
invaluable reference. Over the years distinguished scholars have inspired
my own efforts on the radical 1790s: John Barrell, David Bromwich,
David Erdman, Kelvin Everest, David Fairer, Stephen Gill, Albert Good-
win, Richard Holmes, Kenneth R. Johnston, Marjorie Levinson, Michael
O’Neill, Seamus Perry, E. P. Thompson, Richard Marggraf Turley, Jenny
Uglow, and Damian Walford Davies.
Friends and colleagues offered support and advice when I was writing
the first edition of this book: Michael Alexander, Robert Crawford, Ashley
Goodall, Julia Green, Lucy Newlyn, Neil Rhodes, Jane Stabler, and Jane
and Simon Taylor. Sadly, all too many are no longer here: Michael Allen,
John Beer, Dennis Burden, John Cronin, Michael Foot, Peter Laver,
Molly Lefebure, Thomas McFarland, Paul Magnuson, Bill Ruddick,
Sally Woodhead, Jonathan Wordsworth, and Richard Wordsworth.
Mary Taylor skilfully prepared the original typescript, and Kim Scott
Walwyn saw the first edition of this book through the press.
I am grateful to Jacqueline Norton at Oxford University Press for
commissioning this new edition of Wordsworth and Coleridge. The Radical
Years, and to Aimee Wright and Helen Belgian for their editorial advice.
Jeff Cowton, John Coombe, and Melissa Mitchell at the Wordsworth
Trust helped with Wordsworth’s edition of Burke. Colin Harris at the
Bodleian Library clarified the renumbering of the Abinger–Shelley manu-
scripts, and entries in the bibliography have been updated. Frank Bowles
at Cambridge University Library has checked shelfmarks for the Frend
papers, and confirms that they are unchanged.
St Andrews 1988–2018
 OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 17/9/2018, SPi

Contents

List of illustrations xv
Abbreviations xvii
A note on texts xxi

New Introduction 1
1. Voices from the Common Grave of Liberty 18
2. ‘Europe was Rejoiced’: Responses to Revolution, 1789–1791 31
3. ‘Pretty Hot in It’: Wordsworth and France, 1791–1792 51
4. ‘Mr. Frend’s Company’: Cambridge, Dissent, and Coleridge 88
5. ‘War is Again Broken Out’: Protest and Poetry, 1793–1798 118
6. ‘A Light Bequeathed’: Coleridge, Thelwall, Wordsworth,
Godwin 145
7. ‘A Sympathy with Power’: Imagining Robespierre 201
8. Inner Emigrants: Kindly Interchange, Rash Disdain 232
Epilogue: Daring to Hope 261
Appendix 1: Wordsworth and Daniel Isaac Eaton’s
Philanthropist 273
Appendix 2: Wordsworth’s Lost Satire 277

Bibliography 283
Index 305
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 OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 17/9/2018, SPi

List of illustrations
1. ‘I knew this man. W.W’: Wordsworth’s marginal note about Gorsas,
from Edmund Burke, The Works of the Right Honourable Edmund
Burke. A New Edition (16 vols; London, 1812–1815), vii. 305.
© The Wordsworth Trust, Grasmere. 54
2. The author of Peace and Union, William Frend, by Andrew Birrell,
after Silvester Harding; stipple engraving, published 1793.
© National Portrait Gallery, London. 98
3. ‘Un petit souper, a la Parisiènne;—or—a family of sans-culotts
refreshing, after the fatigues of the day’ by James Gillray, published
by Hannah Humphrey, hand-coloured etching, published
20 September 1792. © National Portrait Gallery, London. 120
4. ‘The plain fact is, Citizens . . . ’. ‘Copenhagen House’ by James
Gillray, published by Hannah Humphrey, hand-coloured
etching, published 16 November 1795. © National Portrait Gallery,
London. 147
5. ‘The Democrats are . . . sturdy in the support of me . . . ’. Samuel
Taylor Coleridge by Robert Hancock, black, red, and brown
chalk and pencil, 1796. © National Portrait Gallery, London. 149
6. ‘The most powerful and admired writers of their day . . . ’. Thomas
Holcroft and William Godwin by Sir Thomas Lawrence, pencil
with black and red chalk, 1794. © National Portrait Gallery,
London. Holcroft and Godwin are depicted in court during the
treason trials of 1794. 175
7. ‘We are shocked to hear that Mr. Thelwall has spent some time at
Stowey this week . . . ’. John Thelwall, attributed to John Hazlitt, oil
on canvas, circa 1800–1805. © National Portrait Gallery, London. 235
8. ‘I soon gained positive intelligence they had disembarked about 1200
men, but no cannon . . . ’. James Baker, ‘Goodwick Sands’, circa 1797.
By permission of Llyfrgell Genedlaethol Cymru/The National
Library of Wales. 251
9. ‘Wordsworth a Name I think known to Mr. Ford . . . ’. William
Wordsworth by Robert Hancock, black, red, and brown chalk
and pencil, 1798. © National Portrait Gallery, London. 256
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 OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 17/9/2018, SPi

Abbreviations
Account William Frend, An Account of the Proceedings in the University of
Cambridge against William Frend, M.A. (Cambridge, 1793).
A–S Dep. Abinger–Shelley papers, in the Bodleian Library.
BL S. T. Coleridge, Biographia Literaria, ed. J. Engell and
W. Jackson Bate, CC, vii. (2 vols; Princeton, NJ, 1983).
Bod. Bodleian Library, Oxford.
BUL Bristol University Library.
Butler William Wordsworth, ‘The Ruined Cottage’ and ‘The Pedlar’, ed.
J. Butler (Cornell Wordsworth Series; Ithaca, NY, 1979).
BV Jonathan Wordsworth, The Borders of Vision (Oxford, 1982).
BWS Bicentenary Wordsworth Studies, ed. Jonathan Wordsworth
(Ithaca and London, 1970).
CC Collected Coleridge (Bollingen Series 75; Princeton, NJ,
1969–2002).
CL The Collected Letters of Samuel Taylor Coleridge, ed. E. L. Griggs
(6 vols; Oxford, 1956–71).
CPW S. T. Coleridge, Poetical Works, ed. J. C. C. Mays, CC, xvi.
(3 vols in 6; Princeton, NJ, 2001).
CUL Cambridge University Library.
Curry New Letters of Robert Southey, ed. K. Curry (2 vols; New York and
London, 1965).
DC Dove Cottage.
ET S. T. Coleridge, Essays on his Times, ed. D. V. Erdman, CC, iii.
(3 vols; Princeton, NJ, 1978).
EY The Letters of William and Dorothy Wordsworth, ed. E. de
Selincourt, 2nd edn, The Early Years, 1787–1805, rev.
C. L. Shaver (Oxford, 1967).
Friend S. T. Coleridge, The Friend, ed. B. Rooke, CC, iv. (2 vols;
Princeton, NJ, 1969).
GD The Diary of William Godwin, eds. Victoria Myers, David O’
Shaughnessy, and Mark Philp (Oxford Digital Library, 2010),
online at http://godwindiary.bodleian.ox.ac.uk/index2.html
References will give an electronic link to the entry quoted
or cited.
Gill William Wordsworth, The Salisbury Plain Poems, ed. S. Gill
(Cornell Wordsworth Series; Ithaca, NY, 1975).
Goodwin A. Goodwin, The Friends of Liberty: The English Democratic
Reform Movement in the Age of the French Revolution (London,
1979).
 OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 17/9/2018, SPi

xviii Abbreviations
Gunning Henry Gunning, Reminiscences of the University, Town and
County of Cambridge, from the Year 1780 (2 vols; London, 1854).
HO Home Office files at the Public Record Office, London.
Howe The Complete Works of William Hazlitt, ed. P. P. Howe (21 vols;
London, 1930–4).
ITT Jenny Uglow, In these Times: Living in Britain through Napoleon’s
Wars, 1793–1815 (London, 2014).
L–B Dep. Lovelace–Byron papers, in the Bodleian Library.
LD James Losh’s MS Diary, at Tullie House Library, Carlisle.
Lects 1795 S. T. Coleridge, Lectures 1795 on Politics and Religion, ed.
L. Patton and P. Mann, CC, i. (Princeton, NJ, 1971).
Lefebvre, i, ii G. Lefebvre, The French Revolution, i. From its Origins to 1793,
trans. E. M. Evanson (London and New York, 1962); ii. From
1793 to 1799, trans. J. S. Hall and J. Friguglietti (London and
New York, 1964).
Marrs The Letters of Charles and Mary Anne Lamb, ed. E. W. Marrs, Jr.
(3 vols; Ithaca, NY, 1975–8).
MH Jonathan Wordsworth, The Music of Humanity (London, 1969).
Moniteur Réimpression de l’Ancien Moniteur depuis la Réunion des États-
Généraux jusqu’au Consulat (Mai 1789–Novembre 1799)
(31 vols; Paris, 1840–7).
Moorman Mary Moorman, William Wordsworth, A Biography: The Early
Years, 1770–1803 (Oxford, 1957).
MWC E. P. Thompson, The Making of the English Working Class
(Harmondsworth, 1968).
N&Q Notes & Queries.
Osborn William Wordsworth, The Borderers, ed. R. Osborn (Cornell
Wordsworth Series; Ithaca, NY, 1982).
P&U William Frend, Peace and Union, Recommended to the Associated
Bodies of Republicans and Anti-Republicans (St Ives, 1793).
Parl Hist Cobbett’s Parliamentary History of England. From the Norman
Conquest, in 1066, to the Year, 1803 (36 vols; London,
1806–20).
PJ William Godwin, Political Justice (2 vols; London, 1793).
PMLA Publications of the Modern Language Association of America.
PrW The Prose Works of William Wordsworth, ed. W. J. B. Owen
and J. W. Smyser (3 vols; Oxford, 1974).
PV MS minutes of Les Amis de la Constitution at Blois, Procès
Verbaux des Sociétés Populaires, Bibliothèque Muncipale de
Blois, France.
PW The Poetical Works of William Wordsworth, ed. E. de Selincourt
and H. Darbishire (5 vols; Oxford, 1940–9).
R Edmund Burke, Reflections on the Revolution in France, and on the
Proceedings in Certain Societies in London Relative to that Event,
ed. C. C. O’Brien (Harmondsworth, 1968).
 OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 17/9/2018, SPi

Abbreviations xix
Reed M. L. Reed, Wordsworth: The Chronology of the Early Years,
1770–1799 (Cambridge, MA, 1967).
RM, i. ii. Thomas Paine, The Rights of Man, Part One and Part Two, ed.
H. Collins (Harmondsworth, 1969).
Sequel William Frend, A Sequel to the Account of the Proceedings in the
University of Cambridge (London, 1795).
State Trials Cobbett’s Complete Collection of State Trials . . . from the Earliest
Period to the Present Time (33 vols; London, 1809–28).
Thale Selections from the Papers of the London Corresponding Society,
1792–1799, ed. M. Thale (Cambridge, 1983).
TLS Times Literary Supplement.
Tribune John Thelwall, The Tribune (3 vols; London, 1795–6).
TS Treasury Solicitor files at the Public Record Office, London.
TWC The Wordsworth Circle.
Watchman S. T. Coleridge, The Watchman, ed. L. Patton, CC, ii.
(Princeton, NJ, 1970).
OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 17/9/2018, SPi
 OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 17/9/2018, SPi

A note on texts

Unless indicated otherwise, quotations from Wordsworth’s poetry are

from William Wordsworth, ed. Stephen Gill, 21st-Century Oxford
Authors Series (Oxford, 2010); quotations from the 1799 and 1805
versions of The Prelude are designated thus. Quotations from the 1850
version of The Prelude are from The Prelude, 1799, 1805, 1850, ed.
J. Wordsworth, M. H. Abrams, and S. Gill (New York, 1979), and
designated 1850.
Quotations from Coleridge’s poetry and plays are from the reading texts
in Poetical Works, ed. J. C. C. Mays (6 vols; Princeton, NJ, 2001), unless
indicated otherwise.
Quotations from Chaucer’s poetry are from The Complete Works of
Geoffrey Chaucer, ed. F. N. Robinson (2nd edn; Oxford, 1974); quota-
tions from Milton are from Paradise Lost, ed. A. Fowler (London, 1968)
and Complete Shorter Poems, ed. J. Carey (London, 1968); quotations
from Shakespeare are from Complete Works, ed. P. Alexander (London and
Glasgow, 1951); quotations from Spenser are from Poetical Works, ed.
J. C. Smith and E. de Selincourt (Oxford, 1970).
Throughout this book square brackets are editorial.
OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 17/9/2018, SPi
 OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 17/9/2018, SPi

New Introduction

When Wordsworth and Coleridge. The Radical Years was written there were
no electronic research resources, no laptop computers, and no e-mail.
Accessing libraries and archives entailed correspondence with specialist
librarians—often a matter of weeks—followed by on-site searches in page
or card catalogues. Much of my material came from holdings in the
Bodleian Library and the British Library, and from the old Public Record
Office at Chancery Lane. I also drew on Jacobin Society records held at
Blois. For Coleridge, I traced materials across networks that connected the
nationwide culture of dissent—networks that in the mid-1790s the poet
navigated with particular dexterity, as his Watchman tour in the north of
England shows us.
My aim was to ask and answer questions about Wordsworth’s and
Coleridge’s careers in the 1790s, and to trace their involvement in English
radical and reformist groups. There were book-length studies of the
Romantic poets and politics by Crane Brinton (1926), David Erdman
(1954), F. M. Todd (1957), Carl Woodring (1961, 1970), and Leslie
Chard (1972), but almost nothing about their possible connections with
the 1790s reform movement embodied by the Society for Constitutional
Information (SCI) and the London Corresponding Society (LCS). That
the first generation of English Romantic poets was enthusiastic about the
French Revolution was largely taken for granted, although E. P. Thompson’s
Making of the English Working Class (1963) and ‘Disenchantment or
Default? A Lay Sermon’ (1969), alongside Kelvin Everest’s Coleridge’s Secret
Ministry: The Context of the Conversation Poems 1795–1798 (1979), signalled
that more might be done to place Wordsworth and Coleridge among
democratic ‘oppositionists’ of the day.
Several new editions were crucial to my work, principally Stephen Gill’s
Salisbury Plain Poems of William Wordsworth in the Cornell Wordsworth
Series (1975) and, in the Bollingen Collected Coleridge Series, The
Watchman edited by Lewis Patton (1970), and Lectures 1795 on Politics
and Religion edited by Lewis Patton and Peter Mann (1971). Two then-
recent books were particularly inspiring: Albert Goodwin’s The Friends of
Liberty: The English Democratic Movement in the Age of the French
OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 17/9/2018, SPi

2 Wordsworth and Coleridge

Revolution (1979) and Mary Thale’s Selections from the Papers of the
London Corresponding Society, 1792–1799 (1983). Tracing the English
democratic movement from the mid-eighteenth century to 1799, Goodwin’s
book drew in provincial centres of radicalism as well as French, Irish, and
Scottish dimensions; Thale’s edition of the Corresponding Society papers
assembled minutes of meetings and spy reports documenting the origin,
progress, and suppression of the popular reform movement. Both books
became constant companions. Folded inside my copy of The Friends of
Liberty is a letter I received from Goodwin, speculating on the where-
abouts of John Thelwall’s lost papers that were, and still are, awaiting
discovery.¹ My copy of Mary Thale’s Selections likewise preserves a letter
from David Erdman about the Anglo-Jacobin John Oswald and ‘The
English Press’ at Paris, later treated at full length in Erdman’s wonderful
book Commerce des Lumières: John Oswald and the British in Paris,
1790–1793 (1986). Aware that in 1792 ‘the British Club people’ at
Paris ‘were spied upon’, Erdman explained that they were ‘reported to
be planning a publishing campaign to spread Democracy . . . What they
were printing was John Oswald’s Review of the British Constitution. And,
probably that early, talking at least of French and English versions of his
Government of the People.’² The ‘British Club people’—that is, The
British Club, or Society of the Friends of the Rights of Man—met at
White’s Hotel in the centre of Paris, close to the Place des Victoires. Its
members included the Scots physician William Maxwell; the Unitarian
printer John Hurford Stone; Lord Edward Fitzgerald, the Irish patriot;
Francis Tweddell, brother of Wordsworth’s friend John Tweddell; Samp-
son Perry, surgeon and editor of The Argus newspaper; the Della-Cruscan
poet Robert Merry; the lawyer John Frost; and the Scottish poet, pamph-
leteer, and pedestrian, John Oswald. Charlotte Smith, Helen Maria
Williams, and Mary Wollstonecraft were linked with the club, which was
a well-known gathering place for Anglo-Jacobins in Paris. The first meet-
ing took place on Sunday 18 November 1792, four days before the procla-
mation of the French Republic, when Wordsworth is known to have been
in the city. If he was not at White’s Hotel in person, in Erdman’s view,

¹ I reconstructed the likely contents of Thelwall’s lost papers in ‘The Lives of John
Thelwall’, John Thelwall. Radical Romantic and Acquitted Felon, ed. Steve Poole (London,
2009), 17–19.
² Erdman refers to Oswald’s two pamphlets: Review of the Constitution of Great-Britain
(London, 1791; 3rd edn 1792) and The Government of the People: Or, a Sketch of a
Constitution for the Universal Commonwealth (Paris, Printed at the English Press . . . First
Year of the French Republic). Both of these scarce pamphlets are reproduced in Political
Writings of the 1790s, ed. Greg Claeys (7 vols; London, 2002), iii. 411–46; iv. 95–124.
 OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 17/9/2018, SPi

New Introduction 3
he was present ‘in spirit’.³ As I suggest in Chapter 3, Wordsworth’s ‘high
and lonely’ room at Paris, ‘near the roof / Of a large Mansion or Hotel’
(1805, x. 57–8), was almost certainly at White’s.
These were restless times in Britain, too, when Edmund Burke thought
that ‘[t]here were Jacobin Societies established in different parts of this
kingdom, corresponding with each other, and combined with the Jacobin
Societies of France, to league together and overturn all the States of
Europe’.⁴ Wordsworth and Coleridge were frequently in company or
correspondence with the most controversial thinkers and activists in
Paris, London, Bristol, and elsewhere. I wanted to find out whether they
could have been more closely involved, although few records have sur-
vived. In Wordsworth’s case, apart from a dozen letters and the cryptically
brief entries in William Godwin’s diary, there is scant evidence for the
years 1793 to 1795 when, from time to time, he was in London. As a
result, his ‘Godwinian phase’ had usually been recounted in terms of his
enthusiasm for the ‘false philosophy’ of Political Justice—that is, with
hindsight rather than through his lived experience of an argumentative
urban world in which Godwin’s book was circulated, read, discussed, and
quarrelled about. Perhaps we catch an echo of those disputes in Hazlitt’s
memory of ‘a metaphysical argument with Wordsworth, while Coleridge
was explaining the different notes of the nightingale to his sister, in which
we neither of us succeeded in making ourselves perfectly clear and
intelligible’.⁵
University education put young intellectuals like Wordsworth and
Coleridge at a distance from tradesmen in the popular reform movement,
yet they might still have visited divisions of the LCS and listened to
proceedings. Their acquaintances Anna Letitia Barbauld, George Dyer,
William Frend, William Godwin, Thomas Holcroft, Joseph Johnson,
James Losh, Samuel Nicholson, Mary Robinson, Charlotte Smith, Robert
Southey, John Tweddell, Felix Vaughan, James Watt, and Helen Maria
Williams were all associated with intellectual and popular reformist circles
in London and Paris and so, perhaps, were the poets themselves. Cole-
ridge’s Cambridge tutor William Frend took a leading role, appearing on
7 December 1795 as a speaker alongside John Thelwall at a mass gathering

³ See David V. Erdman, Commerce des Lumières: John Oswald and the British in Paris,
1790–1793 (Columbia, MO, 1986), 226–8, 305–7; see also Rachel Rogers, ‘White’s Hotel:
A Junction of British Radical Culture in Early 1790s Paris’, Caliban: French Journal of
English Studies, 33 (2013), 153–72.
⁴ Edmund Burke in the House of Commons, Friday 4 March 1793, The Times
(5 March 1793).
⁵ ‘My First Acquaintance with Poets’, Howe, xvii. 119.
OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 17/9/2018, SPi

4 Wordsworth and Coleridge

of the LCS at Mary-le-Bone Fields. Addressing the crowd on the Treasonable
Practices and Seditious Meetings Bills (the ‘Gagging Acts’) then before
parliament, Frend explained that ‘these Bills attack the Liberties of the
nation, and the foundation upon which the right of the present Monarch
has been erected’ (that is, the 1689 Bill of Rights).⁶ A Times reporter heard
Frend’s speech, dashed back to his office, and filed this copy:
The rostrum was filled by Citizen Thelwall, accompanied by Mr. Frend . . .
Libels of every kind were retailed in profusion, as well as sin; there were
Pennyworths of Treason, and Food for the Swinish Multitude. Never was
seen such a motley groupe, composed of all the blackguards and bunters in
town . . . ⁷
While Thelwall and Frend hazarded their liberty in reminding people of
their rights, Wordsworth was at Racedown in Dorset—mired in ‘specu-
lations . . . / and . . . reasonings false’ (1805, x. 877, 883),
now believing,
Now disbelieving, endlessly perplexed
With impulse, motive, right and wrong,
(1805, x. 892–4)
—until, he admits, a crisis of despair overwhelmed him. The precise time
and nature of this depression is difficult to ascertain and, for obvious
reasons, its progress resists chronological ordering. There is no trace of it in
letters and poems from 1795–6, and Wordsworth’s account in The
Prelude is vague—‘then it was / . . . about this time’ (1805, x. 904–5)—
reflecting the poem’s purpose to trace how the poet’s imagination was
impaired and restored. Was Wordsworth’s crisis exaggerated, or even
invented, to fit the narrative of The Prelude? I return to this question at
several points in this book, as it is in many ways crucial to Wordsworth’s
development as a writer between 1795 and 1797.⁸

⁶ Frend’s speech appears in ‘London Corresponding Society. Meeting in Mary-le-Bone

Fields’, The London Corresponding Society 1792–1799, ed. Michael T. Davis (6 vols;
London, 2002), ii. 60–1. It is worth pointing out that although Thelwall and Frend
occupied the ‘grand rostrum’, neither was at that moment a member of the
LCS. Thelwall had resigned following his trial for treason in December 1794, and Frend
probably never joined. See Chapter 6.
⁷ The Times (8 Dec. 1795).
⁸ See Reed, 120 n. In ‘Wordsworth’s Crisis’, a review of Wordsworth and Coleridge. The
Radical Years, E. P. Thompson claimed that Wordsworth’s ‘climactic crisis with “false
philosophy” ’ was missing from the book; it was and is dealt with in Chapters 5 and 6, and
cited numerous times elsewhere. See London Review of Books, 10. 22 (8 Dec. 1988), rpt. in
The Romantics. England in a Revolutionary Age (Woodbridge, 1997), 84–5.
 OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 17/9/2018, SPi

New Introduction 5
Coleridge, by contrast, recently married and dividing his time between
Bristol and Clevedon, was waging his ‘bloodless fight’ in poems, lectures,
and The Watchman. In tracing his career as a Unitarian, I became aware of
connections from Cambridge University to London reformist circles, the
Unitarian community at Bristol, and (I later realized) the school at Enfield
attended by John Keats from 1803 to 1810. John Clarke, Keats’s school-
master, was a former colleague of George Dyer—author of Complaints of
the Poor People of England (1793), member of the SCI, and, by 1794, in
contact with Coleridge and ‘enraptured’ by his scheme for Pantisocracy.⁹
Clarke was also on familiar terms with Joseph Priestley and Major John
Cartwright, who had founded the SCI back in 1780 and was a near
neighbour at Enfield: ‘The Firm, Consistent, & Persevering Advocate of
UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE, Equal Representation, Vote by Ballot, and
ANNUAL PARLIAMENTS . . . the First English Writer who openly
maintained the Independence of the United States of America’.¹⁰ No
wonder the Clarkes were aware that Coleridge ‘was one of the marked
men in the early period of the French Revolution’.¹¹ Here, in 1790s
Enfield, was a suburban nest of independent-minded liberals and dissenters
that prefigured by twenty years Leigh Hunt’s circle at the Vale of Health,
Hampstead, to which Keats, Percy and Mary Shelley, Benjamin Haydon,
John Hamilton Reynolds, and William Hazlitt were drawn.
Like Frend, Coleridge migrated from Cambridge and invented himself
as a political-poetical firebrand whose Unitarian sermons ‘spread a sort of
sanctity over [his] Sedition’.¹² Sermons of a ‘political tendency’ were not
without risk: while the seditious aspect of Coleridge’s biblical quotations
was obvious to at least one ‘Aristocrat’, he was fortunate in escaping
prosecution.¹³ In this radical milieu Wordsworth and Coleridge eventu-
ally encountered John Thelwall, the courageous figurehead of the popular
reform movement. He became a presiding presence in my narrative and
this book was, and is, dedicated to his memory. In the 1980s Thelwall
was still largely unknown—‘sold short by the critics’.¹⁴ My narrative
placed him prominently at the centre of the Wordsworth–Coleridge

⁹ CL, i. 98.
¹⁰ Inscription on Cartwright’s monument in Cartwright Gardens, London WC1.
¹¹ Charles and Mary Cowden Clarke, Recollections of Writers (1878; Fontwell, 1969),
5, 34.
¹² CL, i. 179.
¹³ See the anecdote in Coleridge’s letter to Rev. John Edwards, 29 January 1796, CL,
i. 179–80; the episode is treated as a joke (like the ‘Spy Nozy’ story in Biographia Literaria,
BL, i. 193–7), but it could have had unfunny consequences.
¹⁴ E. P. Thompson, ‘Disenchantment or Default? A Lay Sermon’ in C. C. O’Brien and
W. D. Vanech (eds.), Power and Consciousness (London and New York, 1969), rpt. in The
Romantics. England in a Revolutionary Age, 45.
OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 17/9/2018, SPi

6 Wordsworth and Coleridge

story for the first time, tracking the path that took him from leadership
of the LCS to his acquaintance with Coleridge and arrival at Nether
Stowey. In recent years new editions and studies of Thelwall’s writings
have appeared, and there is now a John Thelwall Society to promote
public knowledge, understanding and enjoyment of Thelwall’s life, ideals,
and accomplishments.¹⁵
Over the last thirty years the 1790s has proved an extraordinarily
rewarding decade for scholars, critics, and biographers: the bibliography
in this new edition has been updated to incorporate recent work in the
field. Stephen Gill’s William Wordsworth. A Life (1989, and shortly to
appear in a second edition) gives close attention to the poet’s political
activities and writings from the 1790s, and Richard Holmes’s biographies
of Coleridge (1989, 1998) are likewise attentive to the revolutionary and
dissenting contexts of Coleridge’s early visions. My chapter in Gill’s
Cambridge Companion to Wordsworth (2003) explored an episode that
I now regard as probably the most momentous for Wordsworth during the
difficult and dangerous year 1793–4; it informed his Godwinian phase,
the murderous action of The Borderers, and surfaced again, as we’ll see, in
‘Tintern Abbey’. He seems to have been introduced to royalist circles at
Orléans by Jean-Henri Gellet-Duvivier, his landlord, and possibly by Paul
Vallon, the brother of his lover Annette. On 16 March 1793 both of
these men, and probably others known to Wordsworth, were involved in
attacking a Commissioner from the National Convention at Paris, Léonard
Bourdon.¹⁶ ‘At Orléans’, The Times reported, ‘the Commissioners of the
Convention have been treated as criminals, and received with the but-ends of
muskets [sic]. One of them, Léonard Bourdon, was attempted to be murdered
in the Hotel de Ville’.¹⁷ News of this journée and its aftermath was widely
reported in British newspapers, and Wordsworth would have been alert to its
implications: Paul Vallon’s involvement might ensnare Annette and, with her,
their three-month-old daughter, Caroline. Add to this Wordsworth’s anger
at Britain’s war with France and we can appreciate his desperation as he
looked on, unable to help or intervene. Many of the conspirators, including
Gellet-Duvivier, were arrested and taken to Paris, where in July 1793 they

¹⁵ See, for example, Michael Scrivener, Seditious Allegories: John Thelwall and Jacobin
Writing (University Park, 2001); John Thelwall. Radical Romantic and Acquitted Felon, ed.
Poole; Judith Thompson, John Thelwall in the Wordsworth Circle; The Silenced Partner
(New York, 2012); Yasmin Solomonescu, John Thelwall and the Materialist Imagination
(Basingstoke, 2014). For John Thelwall’s poetry, see in particular David Fairer, ‘A Matter of
Emphasis: Coleridge and Thelwall, 1796–7’ in Organising Poetry: The Coleridge Circle,
1790–1798 (Oxford and New York, 2009), 236–59. For the John Thelwall Society, go to
http://www.johnthelwall.org/ [date accessed: 25 Jan. 2018].
¹⁶ For Wordsworth and royalists at Orléans, see Chapter 3, pp. 59–61.
¹⁷ The Times (25 Mar. 1793).
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Preacher, as a, 91, 102, 181
Preaching in Chinese, 109, 204
Premises of school and college, 129, 135, 147, 209, 210, 229
Presbyterian Board of Foreign Missions, 335
Presbytery of Shantung, 199, 200
Presidency of college, 179, 214, 229, 231
Press, the mission, 152, 155, 157, 278
Profession of religion, 33
Provincial college, 215, 247, 309
Publications, 150, 160, 161, 162, 164, 165, 166, 167, 169, 170
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Religious life, 33, 89, 93, 101, 104
Removal to Wei Hsien, 226
Revisers, Mandarin version, 256, 258, 264, 272

Sabbath School letters, 133

School-Book Commission, 159
Science Hall, 228, 229
Science teaching, 212
Shanghai, 62, 152, 202, 252, 278, 282, 285
Shantung, province, 71, 111, 284, 289
Shantung college, 128, 207, 220, 253, 303
Shantung Christian University, 222, 234
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Siberian trip, 243, 300, 302
Social life, 82, 193
Southern Baptist mission, 70, 220
Stated supply, 178, 179
Stereotyping, 155
Stove, making a, 75
Student visitors, 108, 245
Students converted, 142, 143, 149
Superintending the mission press, 152, 153
Surgery, 86
Synod of China, 152, 201

Tai An, 124

Tengchow, 68, 70, 84, 108, 208, 215, 264, 280, 281, 304
Tengchow church, 72, 174, 177, 192
Tengchow school, 129, 132, 135, 138, 140, 146, 149, 153, 277
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Terms, ecclesiastical, 204
Terms, technical and scientific, 159, 160
Theological student, a, 46, 96
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Tsingtao, 233, 322, 325
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Type-making, 155

Union in Shantung Christian University, 226

Union of Presbyterians in China, 204, 205

Voyage, first, 58, 99

Walker, Mrs. Lillian, 17, 18, 146, 147

Wang Yuen Teh, 259, 327
War, Chino-Japanese, 284
Wedding journey, 303
Wei Hsien, 119, 226, 228, 285, 295, 330
Wei Hsien, at, 228, 243, 248, 250, 295
Welcome at Tengchow, 145
Wells, Mrs. Margaret G., 82
Wells, Mason, 82, 285, 326
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Western Theological Seminary, 43, 46
Wilson, Samuel, 33
Workshop, 240, 241
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Yuan Shih K’ai, 215, 284
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