ASIA

• Asia is the largest continent, covering about 30% of the Earth's land area, and is the most populous, with
roughly 60% of the global population. It includes the largest country (Russia) and the most populous
country (China).

• Asia is also the youngest and most structurally complicated continent. Its evolution began nearly four
billion years ago, and more than half remains seismically active.

• New continental material is currently forming in the island arc systems to the east and southeast, where
land emerges from episodic collisions with the mainland.

• The continent contains the greatest mountain mass on Earth, including the Plateau of Tibet and mountain
ranges such as the Himalayas, Karakoram, Hindu Kush, Pamirs, Kunlun, and Tien Shan.

• Asia features many morphological extremes, including the highest and lowest points, the longest
coastline, and the largest area of continental shelf.

• Its diverse landscape of mountain ranges, coastlines, and plains has profoundly influenced human
history.

• Asia is a major producer of fossil fuels (petroleum, natural gas, coal) and minerals (about three-fifths of
the world’s tin), highlighting its geological significance for global welfare.

ASIA’S BORDERS

• Eurasia comprises two parts: Asia (eastern) and Europe (western).

• Asia is bordered by the Arctic, Pacific, and Indian Oceans, with its western border including the Ural
Mountains, Caucasus Mountains, Caspian Sea, and Black Sea.

• No clear geological separation exists between Asia and Europe, and perspectives on the division vary
among populations.

• "Europe" and "Asia" derive from Mesopotamian words meaning "sunset" and "sunrise."

• The term "Eurasia" gained prominence after World War I, particularly among Russians in Eastern Europe,
to emphasize connections between the continents.

• The concept is significant for understanding political relationships involving Russia, China, and countries
like Kazakhstan.

PHYSICAL REGIONS

Asia can be divided into five major physical regions: mountain systems; plateaus; plains, steppes and deserts;
freshwater environments; and saltwater environments.

MOUNTAIN SYSTEMS

• The Himalayas extend 2,500 kilometers (1,550 miles), separating the Indian subcontinent from Asia. They
formed 50 to 55 million years ago when the Indian subcontinent collided with the Eurasian continent.

• The region is culturally significant, with Mount Kailash being a holy site for Tibetan Buddhists and
Hindus.

• The Himalayas cover over 612,000 square kilometers (236,000 square miles), passing through northern
India and making up much of Nepal and Bhutan. They consist of three mountain belts, with the
northernmost, the Great Himalayas, having the highest average elevation at 6,096 meters (20,000 feet).

• The Great Himalayas include nine of the world’s tallest peaks, including Mount Everest, which stands at
approximately 8,850 meters (29,035 feet). Indigenous names for Everest include Chomolungma (Tibetan),
Sagarmatha (Nepalese), and Qomolangma Feng (Chinese).

• The Tien Shan Mountain system stretches 2,400 kilometers (1,500 miles) along the Kyrgyzstan-China
border. "Tien Shan" means "Celestial Mountains" in Chinese. Its highest peaks are Victory Peak (7,439
 meters) and Khan Tängiri Peak (6,995 meters), with over 10,100 square kilometers (3,900 square miles)
of glaciers.

• The Engil'chek Glacier is the largest in the Tien Shan, at about 60 kilometers (37 miles) long. The Silk
Road traversed this region, facilitating cultural exchange.

• The Ural Mountains run approximately 2,500 kilometers (1,550 miles) from Russia to Kazakhstan. They
are among the world’s oldest mountains, formed 250 to 300 million years ago, with an average elevation
of 914 to 1,220 meters (3,000 to 4,000 feet). The highest peak is Mount Narodnaya at 1,895 meters (6,217
feet).

PLATEAUS

• Asia is home to many plateaus, areas of relatively level high ground.

• The Iranian Plateau includes most of Iran, Afghanistan, and Pakistan. It features high mountains and low
river basins, with Damavand volcano as its highest peak. The plateau also contains two major deserts:
Dasht-e Kavir and Dasht-e Lut.

• The Deccan Plateau occupies much of southern India, averaging about 600 meters (2,000 feet) in
elevation. It is bordered by the Satpura Range in the north and the Eastern and Western Ghats. The
plateau slopes gently toward the Eastern Ghats and the Bay of Bengal, and it is home to Hindu, Muslim,
and Jain communities with ancient temples and mosques.

• The Tibetan Plateau, known as the “Rooftop of the World,” is considered the largest and highest plateau
in Earth's history, covering an area about half the size of the contiguous United States and averaging
over 4,500 meters (14,764 feet) above sea level.
• This plateau plays a crucial role in the world’s water cycle, containing the largest volume of ice outside
the poles. Its glaciers feed Asia’s largest rivers, supporting approximately 2 billion people.

• The Tibetan Plateau is also culturally significant, known for textiles and traditional crafts. Thangkas, or
scrolls depicting Buddhist teachings, originated here and helped spread Buddhism through trade.

PLAINS, STEPPES, AND DESERTS

• West Siberian Plain: One of the largest continuous flatlands, extends 2,400 km north to south and 1,900
km west to east. Over 50% below 100 meters. Known for swamps and flood plains. Reindeer herding
remains important.

• Central Asia: Dominated by steppe landscape. Mongolia has mountain forest steppe, arid steppe, and
desert steppe, transitioning from mountains in the north to the Gobi Desert in the south.

• Rub' al Khali: World's largest sand sea, larger than France, across several countries. Inhospitable except
for Bedouin tribes. Archaeological remains date back to the prehistoric era.

FRESHWATER

• Lake Baikal: Located in southern Russia, it is the deepest lake in the world, reaching a depth of 1,620
meters. Contains 20% of the world’s unfrozen fresh water. The oldest lake, at 25 million years old.

• Yangtze River: Longest River in Asia and the third longest in the world at 6,300 km. Originates in the
Tibetan Plateau, flowing to the East China Sea. Vital to China, draining one-fifth of its land area, and
home to one-third of its population. It has 42 World Cultural Heritage sites along its banks.

• Tigris and Euphrates: Flow from eastern Turkey through Syria and Iraq, converging in Qurna before
emptying into the Persian Gulf. Region of Mesopotamia, the cradle of early civilizations. Under threat
from agricultural/industrial use and dams, leading to desertification and loss of cultural sites, like
Hasankeyf.

SALTWATER

• Persian Gulf: Covers over 234,000 square km, bordered by Iran, Oman, UAE, Saudi Arabia, Qatar,
Bahrain, Kuwait, and Iraq. Known for high evaporation rates, making it shallow and salty. Contains 50%
of the world’s oil reserves, leading to political instability and conflicts.
• Sea of Okhotsk: Covers 1.5 million square km between the Russian mainland and the Kamchatka
Peninsula. Frozen from October to March, with large ice floes hindering navigation.

• Bay of Bengal: World’s largest bay, covering 2.2 million square km. Bordered by Bangladesh, India, Sri
Lanka, and Burma. The Ganges-Brahmaputra Delta is the largest delta in the world. The Ganges River is
sacred to Hindus.

TERRESTRIAL FLORA AND FAUNA

• China's landscapes: Range from the Gobi Desert to tropical rain forests in Yunnan Province. Many
familiar flowers (roses, peonies) and fruit trees (peaches, oranges) originated in northern China. Home to
the dawn redwood, the only redwood outside North America.

• Himalayas: Communities use yaks, large animals related to cattle, for transportation, plowing, and fiber.
Yak milk is also used for butter and cheese. Yaks thrive in high-altitude, oxygen-poor environments.

• Mongolian steppe: Bactrian camels (two-humped) are traditional beasts of burden. Their humps store
nutrient-rich fat for survival in harsh conditions. Historically used in Silk Road caravans. Critically
endangered in the wild.

AQUATIC FLORA AND FAUNA

• Lake Baikal: Unique due to its age and isolation, earning it the title “Galápagos of Russia”. Home to 1,340
animal species and 570 plant species, many of which are endemic. Notable species include the Baikal seal,
which feeds on the Baikal oil fish and omul.

• Bay of Bengal: One of the world’s largest tropical marine ecosystems, home to marine mammals like
dolphins and Bryde’s whale. Supports tuna, jack, and marlin fisheries. Coastal wildlife reserves protect
the region's biodiversity.

• Sundarbans: A mangrove forest at the Ganges-Brahmaputra delta, known for its hardy mangroves and rich
biodiversity. The ecosystem supports fish, shrimp, crabs, and over 200 bird species, along with wild boar,
macaque monkeys, monitor lizards, and Bengal tigers.

❖ Asia: The largest and most populous continent, bordering Europe, Africa, Oceania, and North America.
Forms part of the Arctic alongside North America and Europe. Combined with Europe, the landmass is
called Eurasia.
❖ Border regions: Countries like Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Georgia are sometimes considered part of Asia
or Europe. Russia is divided into European Russia (west) and Russia (east). Turkey is divided into Thrace
(European side) and Anatolia (Asian side).

❖ Asia and Oceania: Islands between Asia and Oceania like parts of Indonesia and the Philippines are
sometimes difficult to classify but remain part of their respective countries. European Russia, Russia,
Thrace, and Anatolia are all part of their respective nations.

❖ Taktshang Goemba (Tiger's Nest Monastery): A Buddhist monastery in West Asia, which includes
countries like Afghanistan, Bahrain, Iran, Iraq, Israel, and others.

❖ Caucasus region: Located northeast of Turkey, includes Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, and parts of
Russia.

❖ Central Asia: Located north of Iran and Afghanistan, includes Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan,
Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan.

❖ East Asia: Located between Central Asia, Russia, and the Pacific Ocean, including countries like China,
Japan, North Korea, South Korea, Mongolia, and regions like Hong Kong, Macau, and Taiwan.

❖ South Asia: Also known as the Indian Subcontinent, defined by the Indian Tectonic Plate and includes
countries like Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka.

❖ Southeast Asia: A tropical region between South and East Asia and Oceania. Includes Brunei,
Cambodia, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, East Timor, and
Vietnam.

❖ Porous borders: Some countries can be organized differently. Pakistan can be part of West Asia rather
than South Asia, and Afghanistan can be considered Central or South Asian.

❖ Russia: The largest country in the world, stretching across Asia's borders from East to West, but not
included in any specific region.

• Unrecognized/Partially Recognized States:

➢ Palestine: Declared independence in 1988, recognized by 134 countries, but not a full UN member.
➢ Abkhazia, Nagorno-Karabakh, and South Ossetia: Declared independence in the 1990s, with limited
international recognition.
➢ Northern Cyprus: Declared independence in 1983, recognized only by Turkey.
➢ Hong Kong, Macau, and Taiwan: Considered part of China but operate with varying degrees of
autonomy. Taiwan functions as the Republic of China (ROC) but has contested statehood with
limited international recognition.

GEOGRAPHY

❖ Asia, the largest continent, spans approximately 17,212,048 square miles (44,579,000 square kilometers),
accounting for about 30% of the Earth's landmass. The continent exhibits a vast range of climates and
weather patterns due to its size and diverse geography.

❖ In West Asia, extreme heat is prevalent, with recorded temperatures exceeding 160°F (71°C) in parts of
Iraq and Iran. Conversely, the coldest inhabited places on Earth are found in Siberia, specifically in the
towns of Verkhoyansk and Oymyakon, where temperatures can drop to -90°F (-67.7°C).

❖ Asia experiences some of the highest and lowest precipitation levels globally. The wettest place is
Mawsynram, India, which receives an average of 467.4 inches (11,872 mm) of rainfall annually. In
contrast, deserts in West Asia, Central Asia, China, and Mongolia are among the driest regions on Earth.
 ❖ In South Asia, the climate is characterized by monsoon weather and tropical savannas. East Asia
experiences temperate climates with significant monsoon influences, while Southeast Asia features both
savannah climates and tropical rainforests.

❖ The Himalayas play a crucial role in shaping these weather patterns by blocking moisture-laden winds
from the Indian Ocean. This results in hot monsoons in South Asia and cold deserts and steppes in Central
Asia.

❖ Among the largest deserts in Asia are the Syrian Desert, the Arabian Desert, and the Gobi Desert.

❖ In terms of size, the largest countries include Russia at 6.6 million square miles (17.1 million km²), China
at 3.7 million square miles (9.6 million km²), India at 1.3 million square miles (3.3 million km²), and
Kazakhstan at 1.05 million square miles (2.7 million km²). The smallest countries are the Maldives at 120
square miles (300 km²), Singapore at 278 square miles (719 km²), Bahrain at 295 square miles (765 km²),
and Brunei at 2,226 square miles (5,765 km²). If considering Hong Kong and Macau as separate entities,
Macau is the smallest at 12.1 square miles (31.3 km²).

HISTORY

❖ West Asia is often referred to as the “Cradle of Civilization,” where Neolithic humans transitioned from
a nomadic to a sedentary lifestyle, inventing the wheel and basic agriculture. This region was home to
the first known human civilizations, including Ancient Sumer, and the ancient Assyrian, Babylonian,
and Akkadian empires.

❖ In South Asia, the Indus Valley Civilization (or Harappan Civilization) represents the first known
civilization, flourishing around 2600 BCE. In East Asia, the Xia Dynasty marks the first recorded
account of Ancient China.
DEMOGRAPHICS

❖ With a population of roughly 4.4 billion, or 62% of the global population (about 7.1 billion), Asia is the
most populated continent. The most populous countries in Asia are China (1.4 billion), India (1.3 billion),
Indonesia (259 million), and Pakistan (193 million). The least populated countries include the Maldives
(341 thousand), Brunei (412 thousand), Bhutan (771 thousand), and East Timor (1.2 million). If Hong
Kong and Macau are considered separate countries, then Macau (647 thousand) becomes the third-least
populous.

❖ Asia is home to several major religions. Islam is the most widely followed, with about 1.1 billion
adherents, or 25% of the continent's population, particularly prevalent in West Asia, where it is the official
religion in many countries like Kuwait and Saudi Arabia. Most Muslims reside in South and Southeast
Asia, with significant populations in Bangladesh, India, and Pakistan, while Indonesia has the largest
Muslim population globally, exceeding 200 million.

❖ The second-largest religion is Hinduism, with roughly 1 billion adherents, primarily in India and Nepal,
where it is followed by over 80% of the population. Other notable religions include Christianity, which
has a strong presence in countries like Armenia, Georgia, and the Philippines, as well as smaller religions
such as Sikhism, Jainism, and Zoroastrianism.

❖ Approximately 21% of Asia's population identifies as irreligious, especially in countries like China, Hong
Kong, Japan, and North Korea. This trend can be attributed to Communist policies in China and North
Korea, as well as philosophical traditions like Confucianism and Taoism, which differ from organized
religions.

❖ Asia boasts a staggering number of languages, ranging from local dialects to international languages. The
most widely spoken language is Mandarin, with about 1.3 billion speakers, followed by Russian
(approximately 260 million) and Arabic (about 230 million). English is also popular across Asia, serving
as an official or regional language in countries like Hong Kong, India, Pakistan, the Philippines, and
Singapore.

❖ In terms of national languages, Hindi is India's primary language with roughly 400 million speakers,
followed by other populous languages such as Indonesian (240 million), Bengali (150 million), Japanese
(120 million), and Filipino (90 million).

Additional Asia Geography Notes:

▪ Burma has been officially referred to as Myanmar since 1989 by military authorities, although this change
was not approved by any sitting legislature and is not recognized by the U.S. government. However, many
countries and the United Nations accept the name Myanmar.
 ▪ European Russia refers to the western part of the Russian Federation, which is geographically situated in
Europe. This region is not a separate country but is recognized for its political, cultural, and geographical
ties to Europe. It constitutes about 80% of Russia's population and covers roughly 40% of Europe's total
landmass.

▪ The Middle East, also known as West Asia, includes countries that are part of Asia, though opinions vary
on which countries are included in this definition. Historically, Armenia and Azerbaijan have been
associated with the Middle East, but recent trends suggest they align more closely with Europe.

▪ Taiwan is viewed by China as its 23rd province, with very few governments recognizing its independence.
Similarly, Turkey straddles both Asia and Europe; the northwestern region of Turkey, known as Thrace,
is recognized as part of Europe, while the larger portion, Anatolia, is located in Asia.

SYMBOLS REPRESENTING A SPECIFIC RELIGION

RELIGIOUS TRADITIONS NAME SYMBOL ORIGI NOTES AND REFERENCES

N

The Christian cross has traditionally

been a symbol
representing Christianity or Christendo
m as a whole, and is the best-
known symbol of Christianity.The
Christian cross was in use from the
Christian time of early Christianity, but it
cross remained less prominent than
Christianity 32 AD
competing symbols
(Ichthys, Staurogram, Alpha and
Omega, Christogram, Labarum, etc.)
until the medieval Crusades. Early
Christianity had use for such symbols
due to the persecution of Christians in
the Roman Empire, as the symbol
allowed inconspicuous identification of
one Christian to another.

At first, the sign of Christianity was the

image of a fish. Fish in Old Greek -
Ichthys 2nd ἰχθύς ("ichthys (ichthus)"), which
Centur corresponds to the abbreviation of the
y AD Christian postulate "Ἰησοῦς Χριστός,
Θεοῦ Υἱός, Σωτήρ" (ΙΧΘΥΣ) - "Jesus
Christ - B God's Son Savior"

1900s The star and crescent symbol was used

as the flag of the Ottoman Empire from
1844. It was only gradually associated
with Islam, in particular due to its
Star and ubiquitous use in the decorations of
crescent Ottoman mosques in the late 19th
century. It was only occasionally
adopted as an emblem of Islamic
organisations, such as the All-India
Muslim League in 1940 (later
becoming the Flag of Pakistan), and the
Islam US American Nation of Islam in the
1970s.

The strong tradition of aniconism in

Islam prevented the development of
symbols for the religion until recently
(other than single-coloured flags,
see Green in Islam, Black Standard).
The lack of a symbol representing Islam
Islamic as a religion paired with the desire to
calligraph come up with national flags for the
y newly formed Islamist states of the
1970s led to the adoption of written text
 expressing core concepts in such flags:
the shahada in the flag of Saudi
Arabia (1973). The Flag of Iraq (2008)
and the Flag of Iran (1979) has
the takbir.

The Wheel has been used as a symbol

for the concept of Dharma since at least
the 3rd century BC. It represents
Gautama Buddha's teaching of the path
to Nirvana. It is incorporated in the
emblems of Buddhist organizations in
Buddhism Wheel of India, Sri Lanka and Mongolia. It has
Dharma been defined as
representing Buddhism as a religious
tradition as one of the United States
military chaplain symbols in
[3][4]
1990. However, in most countries
where Mahayana Buddhism is
prevalent such as China, Taiwan, Korea
and Japan, the Swastika is traditionally
used as the symbol of Buddhism instead
of the Dharma Wheel.

According to the Abjad system

of Isopsephy, the word Bahá' has a
Nine- numerical equivalence of 9, and thus
pointed there is frequent use of the number 9 in
Baháʼí star Baháʼí symbols.[5] It was recognized as
a grave marker by the United States
Department of Veterans Affairs in
2005.

Krustu krusts, known as cross

crosslet in English, a sigil used in Latvia
Dievturība Krustu for more than 1000 years, is the
krusts religious symbol of Dievturība,
the ethnic religion of the Latvians since
1925.[6]

Druidism Triskelion As a Celtic symbol, it is used by various

eclectic or syncretic traditions such
as Neopaganism.

The Druze strictly avoid iconography,

but use five colors ("Five Limits") on
their Druze star and Druze flag as a
religious symbol:[7][8][9] green, red,
yellow, blue, and white. Each color
pertains to a metaphysical power
Druze Druze star called ḥadd, literally "a limit", as in the
distinctions that separate humans from
animals, or the powers that make human
the animalistic body. Each ḥadd is
color-coded in the following manner:
Green for ʻAql "the Universal
Mind/Intelligence/Nous", Red
for Nafs "the Universal Soul/Anima
mundi", Yellow for Kalima "the
Word/Logos", Blue for Sabiq "the
Potentiality/Cause/Precedent", and
White for Tali "the
Future/Effect/Immanence".

The Angel Moroni is an important

figure in the theology of the Latter-Day
Saint movement, and is featured
prominently in Mormon architecture
 and art. An angel with trumpet motif
was first used as the weather vane for
The Church of Jesus Christ Angel 1844 the 1844 Nauvoo Temple, and starting
of Latter-day Saints Moroni with the 1892 Salt Lake Temple,
most LDS temples feature an Angel
Moroni statue, including the rebuilt
2002 Nauvoo Illinois Temple.

The lamb and lion have been used

informally in Community of
Christ since the Latter Day Saints'
"Kirtland" period. Its original formal
Community of Christ A child 1874 iteration, prominently featuring the
with the lion, the lamb, and child, along with the
lamb and motto Peace, was designed by Joseph
lion Smith III, Jason W. Briggs, and Elijah
Banta, and approved in the
denomination's General Conference in
1874.

The syllable "om" or "aum" is first

described as all-encompassing mystical
entity in the Upanishads. Hindus
believe that as creation began, the
divine, all-encompassing consciousness
took the form of the first and original
vibration manifesting as sound
Om.[10] Before creation began there was
shunyākāsha, the emptiness, or the
Hinduism Om void. The vibration of Om symbolises
the manifestation of God in form
(sāguna brahman). Om is the reflection
of the absolute reality, it is said to be
"Adi Anadi", without beginning or the
end and embracing all that
[10]
exists. The mantra Om is the name of
God, the vibration of the Supreme.
When taken letter by letter, A-U-M
represents the divine energy (shakti)
united in its three elementary aspects:
Brahma Shakti (creation), Vishnu
Shakti (preservation) and Shiva Shakti
(liberation, and/or destruction).[10]

The Gorgoneion symbol was used as a

form of apotropaic
Hellenism Gorgoneio magic for Hellenists for much or all of
n the Hellenic period and maybe even
the Mycenaean period.
A Gorgoneion is a depiction of a
decapitated gorgon's head.

Jainism Jain 1974 An emblem representing Jainism was

emblem introduced in 1974. The hand with a
wheel on the palm symbolises Ahimsa.

Chakra (meaning "wheel, circle") is

psychic-energy centers, a Bhuwana
(meaning "earth, universe"). Since
prehistoric times the tribes of the
Chakra Indonesian Archipelago often revered
Bhuwana earth and nature spirits as a life-giving
mother, a female deity of nature. Chakra
Bhuwana is form representing an earth,
centers of earth, and four mountains. in
 Javanism: earth is the mother and sky is
the father.
Javanism
The Javanism Calligraphy Hyang is an
unseen spiritual entity that has
supernatural power in ancient
Indonesian mythology. This spirit can
Hyang be either divine or ancestral. The
reverence for this spiritual entity can be
found in Sunda Wiwitan, Kejawen, and
Balinese Hinduism. In the modern
Indonesian this term tends to be
associated with gods, devata, or God.

Jewish flags featuring hexagrams

alongside other devices appear from as
Star of 17th early as the 14th or 15th century CE.
David century Use of the Star of David as representing
Judaism CE the Jewish community is first recorded
in Vienna in the 17th century CE.

The Menorah, originally a symbol from

the Temple in Jerusalem, became a
Menorah 4th symbol of Jewish communities after the
century destruction and exile. Eventually it was
CE overtaken in popularity by the Star of
David, but is still used to this day.

A symbol from Ancient Egyptian

religion symbolizing protection, royal
Kemetism Eye of power, and good health, as well as the
Horus god Horus.

Mithraism is notable for its extensive

use of graphical symbols, mostly
Mithraic mysteries Taurocton 2nd associated
y century with astrological interpretations. The
CE central symbol is the scene of Mithras
slaying the bull; Mithras could also be
symbolized in simplified form by
representing a Phrygian cap.

During the gradual Christianization of

Scandinavia, from roughly 900 to 1100
Norse polytheism Mjölnir 9th CE, there was a fashion of wearing
century Thor's Hammer pendants, apparently in
CE imitation of the Cross pendants worn by
Christians. These pendants have been
revived since the 1970s in Germanic
Neopaganism.

The tetractys is a triangular figure of

four rows adding up to the number ten,
which ancient Pythagoreans regarded as
the "perfect number".[13] Pythagoras
Pythagoreanism Tetractys 6th himself was credited with having
century devised the tetractys[13] and it was
BCE regarded as being of utmost
holiness.[13][14] Iamblichus, in his Life of
Pythagoras, states that the tetractys was
"so admirable, and so divinised by those
who understood [it]," that Pythagoras's
students would swear oaths by
it.[15][14][13]

Long used as symbol for Sun gods, the

crown became the symbol of the divine
status of the Roman Emperor, identified
Roman imperial cult Radiant 2nd with Sol Invictus, around the 2nd
crown century century CE. The concept gave rise to
CE the royal crowns familiar throughout
the European Middle Ages.

The Sigil of Baphomet is the official

insignium of LaVeyan Satanism and
the Church of Satan. The Sigil was
derived from an older symbol that
appeared in the 1897 book "La Clef de
la Magie Noire". This symbol was for a
Satanism Sigil of 1960s time used by the Church of Satan during
Baphomet its formative years. During the writing
of The Satanic Bible, it was decided that
a unique version of the symbol should
be rendered to be identified exclusively
with the Church of Satan. The complete
graphic now known as the Sigil of
Baphomet, named such for the first time
in Anton LaVey's The Satanic Rituals,
first appeared on the cover of The
Satanic Mass LP in 1968 and later on
the cover of The Satanic Bible in
1969.[16] The symbol is copyrighted by
the Church.[17]

A traditional Japanese gate most

commonly found at the entrance of or
within a Shinto shrine,[18] where it
symbolically marks the transition from
the profane to sacred; two uprights and
two crossbars denoting the separation.
Their first appearance in Japan can be
reliably pinpointed to at least the mid-
Heian period. However, the idea of
Shinto Torii having a single Shinto symbol is foreign
to most Japanese people.[18] Only non-
Shintoist Westerners perceive Torii as a
symbol of the religion, possibly as a
result of analogizing the relationships
between Torii and Shinto from that of
the Cross and Christianity. Generally
speaking, Japanese people associated
with Shinto do not treat Torii as a
religious symbol, but rather as a gate
that symbolizes the entrance to a sacred
realm. However, the symbol can be
used to indicate the location of Shinto
shrines in Japanese maps.

A graphical representation of the Sikh

slogan Deg Tegh Fateh (1765), adopted
Sikhism Khanda 1920 by the Shiromani Gurdwara
Parbandhak Committee in 1920.

The modern "yin and yang symbol"

develops into its current shape in the
Taoism Taijitu 1800s 17th century, based on earlier (Song
era) diagrams. It is occasionally used as
representing Taoism in Western
literature by the late 19th century.

In Aleister Crowley's Thelema, the

hexagram is usually depicted with a
five-petalled flower in the centre which
symbolizes a pentacle. The symbol
itself is the equivalent of the ancient
Egyptian Ankh, or
 the Rosicrucian's Rosy Cross; which
represents the microcosmic forces (the
pentacle, representation of the
pentagram with five elements,
Thelema Unicursal 1904 the Pentagrammaton, YHSVH
hexagram or Yahshuah) interweave with the
macro-cosmic forces (the hexagram, the
representation of the planetary or
heavenly cosmic forces, the divine).

Originates as a logo drawn for

the Unitarian Universalist Service
Unitarian Universalism Flaming 1960s Committee in 1940; adapted to
chalice represent Unitarian Universalism in
1962; recognized by the US Department
for Veteran Affairs in 2006.

Swastika comes
from Sanskrit (Devanagari: स्वस्तिक),
and denotes "conducive to well-being or
auspicious". In Hinduism, the
clockwise symbol is
called swastika symbolizing surya (sun
Various,
), prosperity, and good luck, while the
including Buddhism, Hindui
Swastika counterclockwise symbol is
sm, and Jainism
called sauvastika symbolizing night
or tantric aspects of Kali. In Jainism, a
swastika is the symbol
for Suparshvanatha – the 7th of 24
Tirthankaras (spiritual teachers and
saviours), while in Buddhism it
symbolizes the auspicious footprints of
the Buddha.

The pentacle or pentagram has a long

history as a symbol used
in alchemy and western occultism; it
was adopted as a symbol in Wicca in c.
Wicca Pentacle 1960 the 1960s. There was a campaign to
recognize it as a symbol representing
Wicca as a religion on US veteran
headstones since the late 1990s, and the
symbol was recognized for use on such
headstones in 2007.[19]

The symbol is currently thought to

represent a Fravashi (approximately
a guardian angel). It is regarded as a
national icon in Iran, as well as a
symbol among
Zoroastrians.[20][21][22] There are various
Zoroastrianism Faravahar interpretations of what the faravahar
symbolizes, and there is no universal
consensus except to note that it does not
represent the fravashi.[23][24] It
symbolizes good thoughts, good words,
and good deeds - the basic tenets and
principles of Zoroastrianism.

Kailas Range.
Northern side of Kangrinboqê Peak (Mount Kailas),
in the Kailas Range, Trans-Himalayas, Tibet
Autonomous Region, China.
TECTONIC FRAMEWORK

Mount Belukha, Altai Mountains, southwestern Siberia, Russia.

❖ The morphology of Asia conceals a complex geologic history predating the active deformations that shape
its current landforms. Tectonic units, defined by active structures, differ from those based on fossil
structures. Thus, it is useful to discuss Asia's tectonic framework through two maps: one for paleotectonic
(older) units and another for neotectonic (active) units.

❖ According to plate tectonics, forces within Earth drive sections of its crust, forming continents and oceans.
Oceans typically open through rifting and close along subduction zones, where ocean floors sink beneath
adjacent plates. This process leads to continental collision and the accretion of tectonic collages, including
fragments, island arcs, and sediment deposits. In creating Asia’s paleotectonic map, it is essential to
outline these accreted objects and the sutures where they join.

❖ Continued convergence post-collision can disrupt existing tectonic collages along new lines, particularly
through faulting. Such disruptions may reactivate older tectonic lines, which define Asia's neotectonic
units. Most former continental collisions have generated secondary structures that contribute to the
continent's structural diversity.

❖ Paleotectonic units in Asia are categorized into two primary classes: continental nuclei and orogenic
(mountain-building) zones. Continental nuclei consist of platforms stabilized during Precambrian time
(approximately 4 billion to 541 million years ago), largely covered by undisturbed sedimentary rocks.
These include the Angaran, Indian, and Arabian platforms. Smaller platforms, known as paraplatforms,
like the North China and Yangtze paraplatforms, have experienced more deformation.

❖ Orogenic zones consist of large tectonic collages accreted around continental nuclei, including recognized
zones such as the Altaids, Tethysides (further divided into Cimmerides and Alpides), and the circum-
Pacific belt. The Alpides and circum-Pacific belt are currently undergoing tectonic deformation, evident
in earthquake and volcanic activity.

❖ The Precambrian continental nuclei were formed by similar plate tectonic processes that created later
orogenic zones but are treated separately for three reasons: they occupy about one-fourth of Asia's area;
less than one-third consists of exposed Precambrian rocks; and they have remained stable during most of
the Phanerozoic era (the last 541 million years), acting as hosts for accumulating orogenic zones.

❖ The paleotectonic evolution of Asia concluded around 40 to 50 million years ago with the collision of the
Indian subcontinent and Eurasia. The subsequent neotectonic development has largely disrupted this
preexisting fabric. The first-order neotectonic units include Stable Asia, the Arabian and Indian cratons,
the Alpide plate boundary zone, and various island arcs and marginal basins.

CHRONOLOGICAL SUMMARY

1. Satellite image of the Tarim Basin, Uygur Autonomous Region of Xinjiang, western China.
2. Coast of Sakhalin Island, eastern Russia.

❖ Oldest Rocks in Asia are found in continental nuclei. Rocks over 3 billion years old exist in the
Angaran, Indian, and North China paraplatforms. These consist of island-arc magmatic and sparse
sedimentary rocks along greenstone belts. The Angaran basement formed by 1.5 billion years ago, while
the Indian platform consolidated by 600 million years ago through various mountain-building episodes.
 ❖ In the Arabian platform, formation began by arc and microcontinent accretion around 900 million years
ago. The North China paraplatform experienced intense island-arc magmatism between 3.5 and 3 billion
years ago, consolidating around 1.7 billion years ago. The Yangtze paraplatform's final consolidation
occurred about 800 million years ago.

❖ Orogenic deformation resumed along the margins of the Angaran platform, marking a period of
subduction and sedimentary pile development in Altaid Asia. Orogenic activity continued from the late
Proterozoic Eon (about 850 million years ago) into the early Mesozoic Era (about 220 million years
ago).

❖ The Altaid collage formed alongside the assembly of the supercontinent Pangea (between 320 and 250
million years ago) north of the Paleo-Tethys Ocean. The continental strip, called the Cimmerian
continent, collided with Altaid Asia to create the Cimmeride orogenic belt.

❖ As the Cimmerian continent drifted, a new ocean, the Neo-Tethys, opened, closing around 155 million
years ago. Fragments of Gondwanaland, specifically India and Arabia, collided with Asia during the
Eocene and Miocene epochs, forming the Alpides, which make up today’s Alpine-Himalayan ranges.

❖ Most island arcs east of Asia formed through subduction during the Cenozoic Era, continuing to be a
major source of tectonism. India and Arabia are moving northward at rates of about 2.4 inches (6 cm)
and 1.6 inches (4 cm) per year, causing significant geological distortion in southern Asia and creating a
continuous chain of mountain ranges from Turkey to Myanmar (Burma).

STRATIGRAPHY AND STRUCTURE

Aravalli Range, northern India.

❖ Precambrian covers over 80% of Earth’s geologic history, divided into two eons: Archean (4 to 2.5
billion years ago) and Proterozoic (2.5 billion to 541 million years ago).

❖ In Asia, Archean rocks are found in the Angaran and Indian platforms, the North China and Yangtze
paraplatforms, and smaller fragments like the North Tarim fragment.

❖ Early Archean evolution featured granodiorite intrusions, subduction-related magmatism, and the
formation of greenstone belts, remnants of ancient oceanic crust and immature island arcs.

❖ In India, over 3-billion-year-old mafic-ultramafic associations represent old greenstone belts. The Sargur
schist belts may be the oldest suture zones in India.

❖ The Angaran platform's basement shows a progression from ophiolites to more silicic rocks like
andesites.

❖ The North China paraplatform's early episode corresponds to the Qianxi Stage (3.5 to 3 billion years
ago), featuring mafic-ultramafic rocks and granitic gneisses.

❖ After about 3 billion years ago, granitic island arcs began forming the earliest continental nuclei,
including the Fuping Stage in North China and Dharwar-type greenstone belts in India.

❖ Present-day continental nuclei largely formed during the Proterozoic through further agglomeration of
smaller Archean assemblages.

❖ The Angaran platform's basement formed between 2.1 and 1.8 billion years ago, marked by intense
granitic intrusive activity.

❖ A rifting event around 1.45 billion years ago created its southern and western margins, possibly
separating Angara from North America.

❖ Orogenic activity began around 850 million years ago, forming the Baikal Mountain belt.
 ❖ In India, Dharwar greenstone activity lasted until about 2.3 billion years ago, while the Aravalli and
Bijawar groups were deformed by the Satpura orogeny around 2 billion years ago.

❖ The Bijawar Group contains evidence of an early Proterozoic ice age with the Gangan tillite (about 1.8
billion years old).

❖ The Aravalli orogeny occurred between 1.7 and 1.6 billion years ago, with northeastern India
experiencing orogeny starting around 1.7 billion years ago, culminating in a continental collision
approximately 950 million years ago.

❖ Granitic magmatism in north-central India continued until about 600 million years ago, extending into
the Middle Ordovician Period (around 470 million years ago) in what became the Himalayas.

❖ In the Arabian platform, a hypothetical rifting event between 1.2 billion and 950 million years ago may
have created an ocean basin that existed 950 million years ago, potentially forming microcontinents with
basements older than 2 billion years.

❖ Island arcs formed between 900 and 650 million years ago through intraoceanic subduction, coalescing
by collisions between 715 and 630 million years ago.

❖ Intracontinental deformation occurred between 630 and 550 million years ago, leading to structures like
the Najd fault belt in Saudi Arabia.

❖ The oldest rocks in the Yangtze paraplatform are found in eastern Yunnan province, aged between 2.5
and 1.7 billion years, while granites of about 2.1 billion years old are known from the Dabie Mountains.

❖ A widespread volcanic episode ended tectonic evolution in the Yangtze paraplatform between 800 and
650 million years ago.

❖ Evidence for ice ages at the beginning of the Proterozoic is scarce, but at least three late Proterozoic ice
ages are recorded from regions including North Tarim, Yangtze paraplatform, Kazakhstan, central India,
and northern Korea.

❖ Correlations among rock layers of continental nuclei in Asia have been aided by evaporites like halite,
gypsum, and anhydrite from late Proterozoic to early Cambrian times (about 590 to 530 million years
ago) found in various platforms.

❖ It is believed that these nuclei coalesced at the end of the Pan-African episode, with Angara potentially
separating later during the Early Ordovician (about 490 million years ago).

THE PALEOZOIC ERA

The Paleozoic Era (about 541 to 252 million years ago) in Asia is categorized into three tectonic events:
Altaids, Tethysides, and continental nuclei. Previous associations with the Caledonian and Hercynian orogenies
of Europe are largely abandoned due to the complex nature of tectonic events.

PALEOZOIC EVENTS IN THE ALTAIDS

❖ The Altaids formed a complex tectonic collage around the Angaran platform from late Proterozoic to
early Mesozoic.
❖ The oldest part, the Baikalides, formed between 850 and 570 million years ago along Angara's southern
edge.
❖ Island arcs and microcontinents were accreted along a suture containing remnants of old ocean floor.
❖ After Baikalian collisions, rifting opened a new oceanic area, leading to subduction during the
Ordovician Period (about 485 to 444 million years ago).

❖ This subduction created an accretionary prism consisting of deep-sea muds, sandstones, and siliceous
rocks, now forming much of the Altai Mountains.
❖ The later Paleozoic saw the convergence of the Kazakhstan continental block with the Angaran nucleus
during the middle Carboniferous (about 320 million years ago) along the southwestern Altai suture.

❖ Another Carboniferous collision in the Tien Shan welded the North Tarim fragment to the Altaid
collage.
 ❖ In the early Permian (about 290 million years ago), subduction along the Kunlun Mountains opened the
Junggar and Tarim basins.

END OF ALTAID EVOLUTION

The Altaid evolution concluded when the Russian platform collided with Asia along the Ural Mountains,
occurring during the Carboniferous in the south and later in the Permian in the north, forming the
supercontinent Laurasia. Subsequent collisions in southern and southeastern regions terminated Altaid
evolution.

PALEOZOIC EVENTS IN THE TETHYSIDES

alluvial fan, China.

Satellite image of a river's large alluvial fan
between the Kunlun and Altun ranges, Uygur
Autonomous Region of Xinjiang, western China.

❖ The northern margin of the Tethysides transitions from Altaid evolution to Cimmeride evolution.

❖ The Kunlun Mountains in northern Tibet, part of the Cimmerides, are the southernmost part of the
Altaid collage, consisting of a subduction-accretion complex and arc-related magmatic rocks (granites,
granodiorites, and andesites) dating from the early Cambrian to Late Triassic (about 540 to 200 million
years ago).

❖ This complex accumulated along the southern margin of the North Tarim fragment, separated by the
opening of the Tarim Basin during the Permian.

❖ The accretionary complex extends into the Pamir and Hindu Kush ranges in Tajikistan and northern
Afghanistan, forming much of Turkmenistan's pre-Triassic basement.

❖ The North China block became part of Asia in the late Paleozoic, although a small ocean remained open
between it and nuclear Asia.

❖ During the Carboniferous and Permian, orogenic deformation, magmatism, and metamorphism occurred
in regions that were part of Gondwanaland or had just separated from it due to rifting of the Paleo-
Tethys Ocean.

❖ In areas like northern Turkey, southwestern Iran, and Oman, folding and thrust faulting were
accompanied by granitic and andesitic magmatism, indicating subduction activity beneath
Gondwanaland.

❖ This subduction zone may have caused rifting in the Neo-Tethys during the middle Permian.

❖ Late Permian andesitic volcanics in the Hoh Xil Mountains and Paleozoic granites in Thailand suggest a
subduction zone along the northern margin of the Cimmerian continent.

❖ The separation from Gondwanaland began during the Carboniferous, evidenced by glacially modified
sedimentary rocks in western Thailand.

❖ The Yangtze paraplatform and Kontum block were parts of Gondwanaland during the early Paleozoic
but rifted away in the Devonian.

❖ Two island arcs collided with the Kontum block during Paleozoic times, forming the Annamia block.

❖ The earlier arc docked along a suture in northern Vietnam during the Devonian; a later arc collided
along a suture zone during the early Carboniferous.
 ❖ Subduction along Annamia's western margin during Carboniferous to Permian times led to significant
arc-related magmatism, extending into eastern Malaysia.

❖ Subduction was likely active along the western margins of Huan’an and Dongnanya blocks, though late
Paleozoic magmatism was less prominent than in Southeast Asia.

PALEOZOIC EVENTS IN THE CONTINENTAL NUCLEI

Arabian Platform

➢ Experienced a significant extensional tectonic event from the late Proterozoic to the middle Cambrian.
➢ Created large rift basins, including Arabian-trend and Najd-trend, where clastics and evaporites (e.g.,
Jubaylah and Hormuz) were deposited.

➢ Reactivated these basins until the early Carboniferous and again in the late Permian.
➢ Late Ordovician normal faulting (about 460 to 444 million years ago) coincided with sediment
deposition from Saharan glaciation (Raʾan shales).

➢ A major marine invasion in the late Permian covered more than half of the Arabian platform, coinciding
with the opening of the Neo-Tethys and a global rise in sea level.

Indian Platform

➢ Characterized by a prolonged period of emergence until the late Carboniferous, except for its northern
margin, involved in Himalayan deformation.
➢ Late Carboniferous saw glacially influenced sedimentation with the Talcher tillite formation.

➢ Early Permian rift valleys formed, possibly linked to extensions that opened the Neo-Tethys.
➢ Terrestrial deposition continued until early Cretaceous, forming Gondwanan deposits.

➢ Continuous marine sedimentation occurred farther north, with local interruptions due to global sea level
changes.

Angaran Platform

➢ After early Cambrian evaporite deposition, remained geologically calm with shallow marine clastic and
carbonate rock deposition.
➢ Late Devonian (385 to 359 million years ago) rifting created large rift valleys (e.g., Vilyuy and
Chatanga rifts) and extensive basaltic volcanism.

➢ Heavy sedimentation followed along a northeast-facing continental margin.

➢ These tectonic events highlight significant geological processes affecting each platform during the
Paleozoic Era.

THE MESOZOIC ERA

The events in Asia of the Mesozoic Era (about 252 to 66 million years ago) may be summarized as follows:
events in the Tethysides, events in the Altaids, events in the continental nuclei, and events in the circum-Pacific
orogenic belts.

MESOZOIC EVENTS IN THE TETHYSIDES

Jinsha River
Jinsha River, Yunnan province, China

❖ The Cimmerian continent moved across the Tethyan realm, eliminating the Paleo-Tethys Ocean and
enlarging the Neo-Tethys.

❖ It fragmented into a northern part (Farāh block, central Pamirs, western Qiangtang block) and a southern
part (Helmand block, southern Pamirs, Lhasa block).
 ❖ An ocean formed between these fragments, with ophiolitic remnants found in eastern Iran, along the
Farāh River, and in the Tanggula Mountains, opening in the Permian and closing in the early Cretaceous
(before about 125 million years ago).

❖ The northern fragment, comprising modern-day Iran and northern Turkey, collided with the Altaid
collage along a suture zone from northern Iran through Afghanistan to western Thailand during the late
Triassic (about 220 million years ago) and early Jurassic (about 200 million years ago), forming the
Cimmeride Mountains, extending from Turkey to Southeast Asia.

❖ This collision created a rich tin-bearing granite belt in western Thailand and Malaysia.

❖ The southern fragment later collided with Asia by the late Jurassic (about 160 to 145 million years ago),
eliminating the Paleo-Tethys and its basins, with the rain shadow effect of the Cimmeride Mountains
causing widespread aridity in Central Asia.

❖ The Late Triassic to Late Jurassic saw collisions among the Yangtze paraplatform, Huan’an,
Dongnanya, and Annamia blocks, contributing to the Cimmeride mountain ranges, including the Qin
Mountains in China.

❖ In the Middle East, rifting of the Cimmerian continent opened the eastern Mediterranean Sea during the
Late Triassic (about 230 to 201 million years ago), with Turkey moving away from Africa.

❖ The fragmentation of Gondwanaland accelerated in the middle Mesozoic, leading to the opening of the
central and southern Atlantic and Indian oceans, while partially closing the Neo-Tethys.

❖ Subduction zones began forming along Neo-Tethyan ocean floor margins in Iran and what became the
Himalayas during the Late Jurassic.

❖ A unified subduction zone developed during the Early Cretaceous (about 145 to 100 million years ago),
extending from northern Turkey through Iran to Myanmar and Sumatra.

❖ Intraoceanic subduction zones formed north of former Gondwanan margins in Turkey, Iran, and Oman
during the Early Cretaceous, resulting in giant ophiolite sheets like the Semail Nappe in Oman.

❖ A sliver of continental crust from northwestern Australia rifted off and collided with Sumatra during the
Late Cretaceous, leading to opening segments of the Indian Ocean.

MESOZOIC EVENTS IN THE ALTAIDS

❖ Most Mesozoic events in the Altaids were influenced by the Cimmeride collisions to the south.

❖ These collisions split the Altaid structure, creating extensional basins such as the Turgay Valley in
Kazakhstan and the West Siberian Plain, which contains Jurassic and younger sedimentary rocks with
significant hydrocarbon reserves.
❖ Near the collision front, major thrust faults uplifted the basement, forming mountain ridges in areas like
the Tupqaraghan Peninsula and the Kyzylkum Desert.

❖ Between these regions, large compressional basins formed (e.g., Turkmenian basins) or older ones were
accentuated (e.g., Tarim and Junggar), accumulating thick sedimentary layers and hydrocarbon reserves.

❖ Compressional structures were connected to extensional structures through large strike-slip fault
systems, notably in the Fergana Valley of southern Central Asia.

MESOZOIC EVENTS IN THE CONTINENTAL NUCLEI

❖ The Angaran platform was affected by the Cimmeride collisions, reacting more mildly than the Altaids.
❖ Tunguska trap basalts erupted during the transition between the Permian and Triassic, continuing into
the Triassic, linked to the rifting of the West Siberian Plain and coeval with eruptions in the Turgay
Valley.
❖ Proterozoic rifts on the Angaran platform were compressed at the end of the Jurassic due to ongoing
shortening from the Cimmeride continent.

Arabian Platform

➢ The northern part experienced major Late Jurassic–Early Cretaceous extension and basaltic volcanism,
part of a broader extensional province in north-central Africa.
 ➢ Another extensional event occurred in the northern and eastern regions during the Late Cretaceous,
creating deep shelf basins.

Indian Subcontinent

➢ During the Mesozoic, the Indian subcontinent separated from Gondwanaland.

➢ Eastern margin formed in the Early Cretaceous (about 145 million years ago) when India split from
Australia.

➢ Rifting rejuvenated older Gondwanan rifts.

➢ India separated from Madagascar (about 80 to 90 million years ago).

➢ Another rifting event around 65 million years ago removed the Seychelles and Saya de Malha banks
from India.
➢ Significant Deccan trap basalt eruptions involved about 50 distinct flows in less than a million years.

MESOZOIC EVENTS IN THE CIRCUM-PACIFIC ORORGENIC BELTS

❖ Subduction of the Pacific Ocean floor influenced the evolution of Asia's Pacific margin during the latter
half of the Mesozoic Era.

❖ Formation of subduction-accretion complexes in Japan and Borneo.

❖ Kolyma block collided with the Angaran platform (Late Jurassic to Early Cretaceous), forming the
Verkhoyansk fold-and-thrust belt and leading to coal deposition in post-collisional molasse basins.

❖ Development of a major magmatic arc between Japan and peninsular Southeast Asia (Late Jurassic to
Late Cretaceous), connecting with the Neo-Tethyan arc system in Borneo.

❖ Extensional tectonics along the arc (Late Cretaceous to Paleogene, about 80 to 55 million years ago)
formed numerous offshore basins along the Chinese continental margin.

THE CENOZOIC ERA

The Cenozoic (i.e., the past 66 million years) was the time when Asia acquired its present appearance.

Zagros Mountains
Zagros Mountains, southwestern Iran.

CENOZOIC EVENTS IN THE ALPIDE PLATE BOUNDARY ZONE AND IN THE ARABIAN AND
INDIAN CARTONS

• Collision with India (40-50 million years ago), 1,250 miles (2,000 km) south of Indus-Brahmaputra
suture.
• Horizontal shortening of 500 miles (800 km), formation of the Himalayas, and Plateau of Tibet (crustal
thickness: 43 miles (69 km)).
• Volcanism caused by uplift and melting in thickened continental crust, with extensional basins
indicating spreading.

• Geographical effects:

➢ North to Lake Baikal, rejuvenating compressional basins (e.g., Tarim, Dzungaria).

➢ Creation of mountain ridges (e.g., Tien Shan).
➢ Formation of Ganges basin; shortening of southern tip near Anai Peak.

• Arabian platform collided in middle Miocene Epoch (13 million years ago), converging at 1.6 inches (4
cm) per year, uplifting Zagros Mountains, and high plateaus of Turkey and Iran. Displacement along the
North Anatolian Fault.
• Characterized by complex deformation, vast salt steppes, and deserts in rain shadow areas.
 • Subduction continues under Asia in the Tethysides, affecting eastern Mediterranean, Arabian Sea, and
Indian Ocean. Banda arc in Indonesia collided with Australia (Pliocene Epoch), with active arc-related
magmatism.

CENOZOIC EVENTS IN STABLE ASIA

• Siberia: Vast expanses, absence of seismic activity, subdued relief, no active tectonism.
• Exception: Gakkel spreading centre, Arctic Ocean, propagating into Asia, Sadko Trough, Chersky
Range.

CENOZOIC EVENTS IN THE ISLAND ARCS AND THE MARGINAL BASINS

Kuril Islands.
Satellite image of the Kuril Islands between the
Kamchatka Peninsula, Russia, and Hokkaido, Japan.

Halmahera
Portion of the shoreline of Halmahera Island, North
Maluku province, northeastern Indonesia.

• The subduction zone that was active along the eastern margin of Asia late in the Mesozoic started
migrating away from the continent in the Late Cretaceous in China. This action led to crustal extension,
creating several present-day offshore basins along the Chinese continental margin.

• The South China Sea opened as an ocean-floored marginal basin in the Oligocene Epoch (34 to 23
million years ago). Earlier, a midoceanic subduction zone had formed along the Kyushu-Palau Ridge,
and above it, the West Mariana Basin opened in the Oligocene-Miocene interval.

• About 5 million years ago, the East Mariana Basin began opening behind the present Mariana Island arc.
Japan moved away from mainland Asia in the Middle Miocene, which opened the Sea of Japan behind
it. The Kuril Basin behind the Kuril Islands arc has a similar age.

• The Cenozoic history of the island arc systems and the marginal basins they delimit against the Pacific
Ocean has been dominated by extensional tectonics of the arc massifs, concurrent with mainly basaltic
and subordinate andesitic volcanism, limited subduction-accretion, and strike-slip faulting (e.g., the
Philippine Fault).

• Some arcs, such as Sengihe and Halmahera, collided with each other, while others have split apart in
recent geologic time, creating newer marginal basins such as the Okinawa Trough. Some islands, such
as eastern Taiwan or those of the Banda arc, have collided with continents.

• Of the young marginal basins, only the Sea of Japan may have begun closing again. The extraordinarily
complex tectonic evolution of the East and Southeast Asian Island arcs and marginal basins constitutes
an excellent present-day analogue of the processes that may have produced the Altaid collage during the
Paleozoic.

LAND
RELIEF
THE MOUNTAIN BELTS

Tien Shan, Kyrgyzstan

Rocky streambed in the Kyrgyz Range of the Tien
Shan, near Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan.

• Characteristic of the surface of Asia is the great predominance of mountains and plateaus, constituting
about three-fourths of the continent’s total area.

• The mountains are grouped into two belts: those located on the stable platforms (cratons) and those
located in active orogenic zones. The former usually occur on the margins of the platforms and are
generally characterized by smooth eroded peaks and steep faulted slopes.

• Marginal mountain ranges, with average heights of 8,200 to 9,850 feet (2,500 to 3,000 meters), typically
enclose the inner tablelands and plateaus. Examples include:

➢ The Western and Eastern Ghats in India

➢ The mountains of the Hejaz and Yemeni highlands on the Arabian Peninsula
➢ The Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon mountains in the Levant
➢ The Aldan Plateau and Stanovoy Range lie along the eastern margin of the Angaran (Siberian)
platform, where the isolated and uplifted Putoran Mountains are located in central Siberia.

• Mountains in the orogenic zones are much higher in elevation and have a more complicated structure.
Tectonic movements in those zones have given rise to structures of different age and composition.

• Mesozoic and Cenozoic foldings (i.e., those of roughly the past 250 million years) created boundaries
between basic types of mountains over vast areas of Asia.

• The largest mountain belt on Mesozoic structures (i.e., from about 252 to 66 million years ago) extends
from the Chukchi Peninsula at the eastern extremity of Asia through the Kolyma Upland and the
Dzhugdzhur and Stanovoy ranges to the mountains of southern Siberia (the Sayan and Altai mountains)
and to the Tien Shan and Gissar-Alay ranges.

• The Chersky and Verkhoyansk ranges are the western spurs of that belt.

Annamese Cordillera
Pu Mat National Park in the Annamese Cordillera,
north-central Vietnam

• Along the edges of the Central Asian plateaus extend the elongated mountain chains of the Da Hinggan
(Greater Khingan), Taihang, and Daxue ranges.

• The Hinggan-Bureya mountains (Xiao Hinggan [Lesser Khingan] and Bureya ranges) demarcate the
Zeya-Bureya Depression.

• The Manchurian-Korean and Sikhote-Alin mountain ranges separate the plains of the Amur and Sungari
(Songhua) rivers, the Lake Khanka lowland, and the Northeast (Manchurian) Plain.

• The coastal ranges in the southeast consist of the mountains of southern China and the Annamese
Cordillera.

• A generally latitudinal branch springs from the Pamirs region and runs eastward through the Kunlun,
Qilian, and Qin (Tsinling) mountains.
 Mount Aragats, Armenia
Mount Aragats rising above the plain, west-central
Armenia

• The Alpine-Himalayan Mountain belt runs in a west-east direction and includes the Taurus Mountains,
the Caucasus, the Zagros and Elburz mountains, the Hindu Kush, the Pamirs, the Karakoram Range, the
Plateau of Tibet, and the Himalayas.
• It then turns to the south and southeast, running through the Rakhine (Arakan) Mountains to the islands
of the Malay Archipelago.

• The western part of that belt consists, for a considerable distance, of two series of mountain chains that
converge in dense knots in the Armenian Highland, in the Pamirs, and in the southeast of the Plateau of
Tibet.
• The two chains then diverge to encompass the interior plateaus.

• The average elevation of highlands and marginal ranges increases from west to east, from about 2,600 to
3,000 feet (800 to 900 metres) on the Anatolian Plateau to about 13,000 to 16,400 feet (4,000 to 5,000
metres) on the Plateau of Tibet.
• It ranges from about 8,200 to 11,500 feet (2,500 to 3,500 metres) in the Pontic and Taurus mountains to
19,000 feet (5,800 metres) in the Himalayas.

❖ On the northeastern and eastern edges of Asia, a vast belt of Cenozoic Era folding (i.e., of the past 66
million years) extends from the Koryak Mountains of the Kamchatka-Koryak arc along the Sredinny
(Central) range on the Kamchatka Peninsula of Russia.

❖ The marginal seas of the western Pacific Ocean are bordered by the East Asian islands, which form a
line of arcs running from the Kamchatka Peninsula in the north to the Sunda Islands of Indonesia in the
south.

❖ Many of these islands are part of the Ring of Fire, a belt of volcanic and seismic activity in the Pacific
Rim.

THE PLAINS AND LOWLANDS

birch trees and conifers, West Siberian Plain.

A stand of birch trees and conifers in the taiga of the
West Siberian Plain, near Nizhnevartovsk, Russia.

• Low plains occupy the rest of the Asian mainland, particularly the vast West Siberian and Turan plains
of the interior.
• The remaining lowlands are distributed either in the maritime regions—such as the North Siberian and
Yana-Indigirka lowlands and the North China Plain—or in the piedmont depressions of Mesopotamia,
the Indo-Gangetic Plain, and mainland Southeast Asia.

• Those plains have monotonously level surfaces with wide valleys, through which the great Asian rivers
and their tributaries flow.
• The topography of the plains in densely populated regions has been greatly modified through the
construction of canals, dams, and levees.

• To the south of the zone of piedmont depressions lie extensive tablelands and plateaus, including the
Deccan Plateau in India and the Syrian-Arabian Plateau in the west.
• In addition, there are the intermontane basins of Kashgaria, Junggar, Qaidam (Tsaidam), and Fergana
and the plateaus of central Siberia and the Gobi, all of which lie at elevations of 2,600 to 4,900 feet (800
to 1,500 meters).
 • Most of their surfaces are smooth or gently rolling, with isolated hillocks.
• The plateaus inside the Tibet Autonomous Region of China, the Tien Shan, and the Pamirs lie at
elevations of some 12,000 feet (3,700 meters) or more.

THE ISLANDS

Mount Pinatubo
Mount Pinatubo erupting in 1991, western Luzon,
Philippines.

• A large proportion of the islands of Asia are mountainous.

• The highlands of Sri Lanka rise to 8,281 feet (2,524 meters).

• Mount Kinabalu in Malaysia reaches 13,455 feet (4,101 meters).

• Mount Fuji on the Japanese island of Honshu has an elevation of 12,388 feet (3,776 meters).

• Numerous volcanoes on Sumatra, Java, and Mindanao reach 10,000 feet (3,000 meters).
• Among the active volcanoes associated with the Ring of Fire are Krakatoa on Rakata Island in
Indonesia, Mount Pinatubo on Luzon in the Philippines, and Mount Aso on Kyushu in Japan.

GEOLOGIC AND CLIMATIC INFLUENCES

1. Ancient processes of planation (leveling).

2. Larger vertical movements of the surface during the Cenozoic Era.
3. Severe erosive dissection of the edges of the uplifted highlands, accompanied by the accumulation of
alluvium in low-lying troughs, which were either settling downward or being uplifted more slowly than
the adjoining heights.

Sayan Mountains
Western Sayan Mountains, Siberia, Russia.

• The interior portions of the uplifted highlands and the plateaus and tablelands of peninsular India,
Arabia, Syria, and eastern Siberia are relatively low-lying but composed of resistant rock and have
largely preserved their ancient peneplaned (leveled) surfaces.
• Central Asia experienced particularly spectacular uplifting, with the amplitude of uplift of the mountain
ranges of Tibet, the Pamirs, and the Himalayas exceeding 13,000 feet (4,000 meters).

• Meanwhile, the eastern margin of these highlands underwent subsidences of up to 2,300 feet (700
meters).
• Uplifting resulted from fractures at great depths, as seen in the Kopet-Dag and ranges surrounding the
Fergana Valley, as well as folding over large radii, exemplified by the Tien Shan and Gissar and Alay
ranges.

• Erosional dissection transformed many ancient plateaus into mountainous regions, carving majestic
gorges into the highlands of the western Pamirs and southeastern Tibet.
• The Himalayas, Kunlun, Sayan mountains, Stanovoy, and Chersky ranges, along with the marginal
ranges of the West Asian highlands, were deeply cut by rivers, creating deep superimposed gorges and
canyons.
 Loess Plateau
Loess Plateau, Shanxi province, China.

• Vast areas of Middle, Central, and East Asia, particularly in the Huang He (Yellow River) basin, are
covered with loess, a loamy unstratified deposit formed by wind or glacial meltwater deposition. The
thickness of the deposits on the Loess Plateau of China sometimes exceeds 1,000 feet (300 meters).

• The region also features broad expanses of badlands, eolian (wind-produced) relief, and karst
topography, which is limestone terrain associated with vertical and underground drainage.

• Karst terrain is characteristic of several regions, including the Kopet-Dag, the eastern Pamirs, the Tien
Shan, the Gissar and Alay ranges, the Ustyurt Plateau, the western Taurus Mountains, and the Levant.

• In South China, tropical karst landscapes are renowned for their picturesque residual hills.

Pamirs and Silk Road, China.

Peaks of the Pamirs rising above a portion of the
Silk Road (foreground), Uygur Autonomous Region
of Xinjiang, western China.

❖ The mantle of glaciation from the Pleistocene Epoch (approximately 2,600,000 to 11,700 years ago)
reached only northwestern Asia up to latitude 60° N.

❖ East of the Khatanga River, which flows from Siberia into the Arctic Ocean, only isolated glaciation of
the mantle debris and mountains occurred due to the extremely dry climate in northeastern Asia during
that time.

❖ The high mountain regions primarily experienced mountain glaciation. There are traces of several
periods when glaciers advanced, separated by warmer interglacial epochs. Glaciation continues in many
mountainous areas, including the Severnaya Zemlya archipelago.

❖ The Karakoram Range, Pamirs, Tien Shan, Himalayas, and eastern Hindu Kush are noted for their
extensive contemporary glaciers, most of which are retreating.

❖ The elevation of the permanent snow line is relatively high, averaging between 14,800 and 16,400 feet
(4,500 and 5,000 meters), reaching 21,000 feet (6,400 meters) in central Tibet.

❖ An enormous area of permafrost covers northern Asia, extending over 4.25 million square miles (11
million square kilometers) and reaching lower latitudes than anywhere else in the world. Due to aridity,
little snowfall occurs, resulting in deep soil freezing. The depth of permafrost in continental northern
and eastern Siberia exceeds 1,000 to 1,300 feet (300 to 400 meters).

❖ Volcanism has added broad lava plateaus and chains of young volcanic cones to Asia's relief. Ancient
lavas and intrusions of magma, exposed by later erosion, cover the terraced plateaus of peninsular India
and central Siberia.

❖ Extensive zones of young volcanic relief and contemporary volcanism are primarily found in the
unstable arcs of the East Asian islands, along with the Kamchatka Peninsula, the Philippines, and the
Sunda Islands.

❖ The highest active volcano in Asia, Klyuchevskaya, rises to 15,584 feet (4,750 meters) on Kamchatka.

❖ Geologically recent volcanism is also characteristic of the West Asian highlands, the Caucasus,
Mongolia, the Manchurian-Korean mountains, and the Syrian-Arabian Plateau. Historical eruptions have
occurred in the interior of the continent in the Xiao Hinggan Range and the Anyuy highlands.
THE REGIONS OF ASIA

1. North Asia: This region encompasses most of Siberia and the northeastern edges of the continent.

2. East Asia: This includes the continental part of the Russian Far East region of Siberia, the East Asian
islands, Korea, and eastern and northeastern China.

3. Central Asia: This region comprises the Plateau of Tibet, the Junggar and Tarim basins, the Inner
Mongolia Autonomous Region of China, the Gobi Desert, and the Sino-Tibetan ranges.

4. Middle Asia: This area includes the Turan Plain, the Pamirs, the Gissar and Alay ranges, and the Tien
Shan mountains.

5. South Asia: This region consists of the Philippine and Malay archipelagoes, peninsular Southeast Asia,
peninsular India, the Indo-Gangetic Plain, and the Himalayas.

6. West (or Southwest) Asia: This region includes the West Asian highlands (such as Anatolia, Armenia,
and Iran), the Levant, and the Arabian Peninsula.

➢ Sometimes, the Philippines, the Malay Archipelago, and peninsular Southeast Asia are grouped
separately as Southeast Asia, rather than being considered part of South Asia.
NORTH ASIA

• Northeastern Siberia consists of faulted • On the eastern side, the Central Yakut
and folded mountains of moderate Lowland serves as the drainage basin for
height, such as the Verkhoyansk, the lower Lena River, while the northern
Chersky, and Okhotsk-Chaun Mountain boundary is defined by the North
arcs. These mountains are primarily Siberian Lowland, which retains its
Mesozoic structures that have original marine deposits.
experienced rejuvenation due to recent
geological events. • The West Siberian Plain features a
stratified composition, primarily made
• The Koryak Mountains, with a Cenozoic up of Cenozoic sediments deposited over
origin, are also present in this region and Mesozoic materials and folded bedrock.
show evidence of volcanic activity This northern area has undergone several
during the Cenozoic. glaciation periods throughout the
Quaternary Period (the past 2.6 million
• Within areas of ancient massifs, such as years), while the southern region
the Kolyma Mountains, there are primarily consists of glaciofluvial and
plateaus, alongside remnants of former fluvial deposits.
mountain glaciers and lowlands that
were once covered by the sea, like the • In the northern region, one finds the
New Siberian Islands. mountains and islands of the Asian
Arctic, including the Severnaya Zemlya
• The Prilenskoye and Aldan plateaus archipelago, formed from fragments of
feature ancient peneplains resting on an fractured Paleozoic folded structures.
underlying platform, occasionally Vigorous contemporary glaciation is a
exposed on the surface. Signs of ancient significant characteristic of the entire
glaciation are also evident. region.

• The Central Siberian Plateau, a dominant

feature of north-central Siberia, consists
of a series of plateaus and stratified
plains uplifted during the Cenozoic. This
region includes terraced and dissected
mesas with exposed horizontal volcanic
intrusions, plains formed from uplifted
Precambrian blocks, and a young
uplifted mesa that is dissected at the
edges and partly covered with traprock
(the Putoran Mountains).
Kulunda Steppe.
Meandering river on the Kulunda Steppe, western
Siberia, Russia.
EAST ASIA

Akaishi Range
Peak in the Akaishi Range, central Honshu, Japan.

• Mountain Ranges: Key ranges include the Da Hinggan, Xiao Hinggan, and Bureya ranges, which are
notable for their elevation and geological history.

• Depressions and Lowlands: The Zeya-Bureya Depression and lowlands of the Amur and Sungari rivers,
as well as Lake Khanka, represent significant low-lying areas formed through geological processes.

• Highlands: The Manchurian-Korean highlands extend along the border of North Korea and China, with
additional ranges found on the eastern side of the Korean Peninsula.

• Plains: The Northeast (Manchurian) Plain and the lowlands of the Liao River basin contribute to the flat
terrain, alongside the more extensive North China Plain.
 ➢ In southeastern China, the mountains are primarily composed of Precambrian and Paleozoic
remnants from the Yangtze paraplatform. These mountains were shaped by folding and
faulting during the Mesozoic and Cenozoic eras. They are numerous, typically low to
moderate in elevation, and dominate the landscape, leaving only small, irregularly shaped
plains interspersed throughout the region.

• Island Arcs: The Ryukyu Islands, Japan, Sakhalin, and the Kuril Islands are all uplifted remnants of the
Ryukyu-Korean, Honshu-Sakhalin, and Kuril-Kamchatka mountain-island arcs. These arcs date back to
the Mesozoic and Cenozoic eras and exhibit complex junctions characterized by notable topography,
particularly evident in the Japanese islands of Kyushu and Hokkaido.

• The mountains in these regions are generally low to moderate in height and consist of folded and faulted
blocks. Alongside these mountains, one can also find volcanic peaks and small alluvial lowlands that
contribute to the diverse landscape.

• Kamchatka Peninsula: This peninsula is primarily formed from fragments of the Kamchatka-Koryak and
Kuril-Kamchatka arcs, which are arranged in parallel mountain ranges. The geology of Kamchatka
features geologically young folds that enclose older, more rigid structures.

• The region is noted for its pronounced Cenozoic (including contemporary) volcanism, resulting in
numerous geysers and hot springs across the peninsula.

• Additionally, Kamchatka hosts extensive plains composed of alluvium and volcanic ash, adding to the
complexity of its geological landscape.

Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky.
Port of Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky, with
Koryakskaya Sopka volcano in the background,
Kamchatka kray, Russia.

CENTRAL ASIA AND SOUTH SIBERIA

Tarim River.
Tarim River in the Takla Makan Desert,
northwestern China.

• This region consists of mountains and plateaus formed from fragments of ancient platforms, surrounded
by a folded area that emerged during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras.

• The mountains of southern Siberia and Mongolia have been uplifted from old faulted and folded blocks,
creating distinct ranges separated by intermontane troughs. The Alpine mountains, including the Altai,
Sayan, and Stanovoy ranges, are particularly prominent, exhibiting features shaped by ancient
glaciation. The Altai mountains, for instance, still host contemporary glaciers.

• The Central Asian plains and tablelands encompass regions such as the Junggar Basin, Takla Makan
Desert, Gobi Desert, and Ordos Desert.

• The relief features of Central Asia range from surfaces that have been leveled by erosion during the
Mesozoic and Cenozoic eras to plateaus with low mountains. Additionally, the region contains eroded
plateaus where loess has accumulated, as well as vast sandy deserts that are often covered with wind-
borne alluvium and lacustrine deposits, contributing to the region's unique geography.
 Pangong Range
Lake in the Pangong (Bangong) Range, between the
Indian-administered and Chinese-administered
portions of Kashmir.

• Alpine Asia (High Asia): Pamirs, eastern Hindu Kush, Kunlun Mountains, Tien Shan, Gissar and Alay
ranges, Plateau of Tibet, Karakoram Range, Himalayas
• Sharply uplifted, dissected ridges, gorges, Paleozoic age

• Present throughout region, concentrated in western Himalayas, Karakoram Range

• Plateau of Tibet: Fractured alpine zone, Mesozoic, Cenozoic structures, recent uplifting

• Sandy and rocky desert, erosion, glaciers

• Karakoram Range, Himalayas, late Cenozoic, exposed older rocks, earlier tectonic events

SOUTH ASIA

Indus River
Indus River in Gilgit-Baltistan, Pakistani-
administered portion of Kashmir.

• South Asia: Indo-Gangetic Plain, peninsular India, Sri Lanka

• Indo-Gangetic Plain: Alluvial plains, Indus, Ganges, Brahmaputra rivers, marginal depression,
subsidence
• Sediments: Fertile soil in Ganges, Brahmaputra basins, irrigated Indus basin, sandy deserts in Indus
margins
• Peninsular India, Sri Lanka: Platform plateaus, tablelands, Deccan plateau, Mesozoic, Cenozoic uplift
• Tablelands: Uplifted margins, Western, Eastern Ghats, terraced, dissected plateaus, lava mantles,
intrusions

SOUTHEAST ASIA

• Southeast Asia: Peninsular region, islands, peninsulas

• Mainland: Western mountains (Myanmar), Cenozoic fold belt, medium elevation, alluvial valleys

• Central/Eastern Thailand, Southern Vietnam: Low to moderate height mountains, moderately fractured,
Mesozoic structures, Kontum block, plateaus, alluvial deposits
• Archipelagoes: Island arcs, oceanic trenches, Indian Ocean arcs (Sumatra, Java, Lesser Sunda Islands),
Alpine folds, volcanic activity, alluvial lowlands

• Borneo, Malay Peninsula: Fractured continental land, Alpine-Himalayan, East Asiatic downwarp, folded
blocks, alluvial lowlands
• Pacific Ocean islands: Celebes, Moluccas, Philippine Islands, Taiwan, tectonic processes, volcanism,
moderate height mountains, volcanic ranges, coral reef islets

Thailand: coral reef

Coral reef exposed at low tide off the coast of
Thailand.
MIDDLE ASIA

Lake Balkhash, Kazakhstan

Satellite image of Lake Balkhash (upper left),
eastern Kazakhstan.

• Middle Asia: Plains and hills between Caspian Sea and Lake Balkhash.
• Geology: Flat plains on continental platforms, folded Paleozoic and Mesozoic bedrock.
• Topography: Low rounded hills (Kazakh region), low mountains (Tupqaraghan, Türkmenbashy
peninsulas), mesas (Ustyurt Plateau, Karakum Desert).
• Alluvium: Wind-transported sandy deserts in the south.
• Sediments: Marine and lacustrine sediments near Caspian, Aral seas, Lake Balkhash.

WEST ASIA

• West Asia: Highlands of Anatolia, Caucasus, Armenian, and Iranian highlands.

• Anatolia: Pontic Mountains (parallel to Black Sea), Taurus, and Anatolian tablelands; severe
fragmentation, erosion, and volcanism.

• Caucasus: Greater Caucasus Mountains running northwest to southeast between Black and Caspian seas.
• Armenian Highland: Discontinuous mountains including Lesser Caucasus and Kurt Mountains; recent
uplift and volcanism during Cenozoic.

• Seismic Activity: Known for destructive earthquakes.

• Iranian Highlands: Mountain arcs (Elburz, Kopet-Dag, Khorāsān, Safīd Range, western Hindu Kush,
Zagros, Makrān, Soleymān, Kīrthar); plateaus of central and eastern Iran; isolated Cenozoic volcanoes;
remnants from ancient erosion; saline and sandy deserts in depressions; stony deserts (hammadas) on
tablelands.

Caucasus: Prielbrusye National Park

Peaks in Prielbrusye National Park, central
Caucasus, southwestern Russia.

SOUTHWEST ASIA

Abu Dhabi: desert

Desert sand dunes in Abu Dhabi, United Arab
Emirates.

• Southwest Asia: Composed of ancient platform fragments of Gondwanaland; sloping plains in marginal
downwarps.
• Main Components: Arabian Peninsula and Mesopotamia.
• Arabian Peninsula: Tilted platform; highest along Red Sea; erosion under arid conditions; features
include plateaus with uplifted margins, Cenozoic lava plateaus, stratified plains, and cuestas.
• Deserts: Ancient marine sands and alluvium forming vast sandy deserts due to subsidence and
sedimentation.
 Tigris River
Tigris River near Ashur, northern Iraq.

• Mesopotamia: Tigris and Euphrates floodplains; deltas from Baghdad to Persian Gulf; original lowland
covered with late Cenozoic sedimentation; elevated plain dissected by erosion and denudation under late
Cenozoic continental conditions.

RIVERS

Yenisey River
The frozen Yenisey River in winter, near its
confluence with the Angara River, south-central
Siberia, Russia.

• Asia's Rivers: Major rivers include Ob, Irtysh, Yenisey (with Angara), Lena (Aldan, Vilyuy), Yana,
Indigirka, Kolyma (flowing north into Arctic Ocean).
• Pacific Ocean Drainage: Anadyr, Amur (with Sungari, Ussuri), Huang He, Yangtze, Xi, Red, Mekong,
Chao Phraya.
• Indian Ocean Drainage: Salween, Irrawaddy, Brahmaputra, Ganges, Godavari, Krishna, Indus; Shatt al-
Arab (Tigris, Euphrates confluence).
• Caspian Sea: Kura and Aras rivers.
• Other Basins: Amu Darya, Syr Darya, Ili, Tarim, Helmand, Harīrūd (end in interior basins, lakes, deltas,
oases).
• Seasonal Changes: Siberian rivers freeze in winter; spring flooding occurs from snowmelt.
• Transportation: Rivers as communication routes (watercraft in summer, sleighs/snowmobiles in winter);
rich in fish.
• Dry Regions: Temporary rivers fed by melting snow/glaciers peak in summer; dry regions may have
fluctuating levels.
• Monsoon Regions: Rivers peak in summer, utilized for irrigation.
• Mediterranean Vicinity: Non-snow-fed rivers grow shallow in summer and may dry up.
• Tropical Regions: Perennial water flow in rivers.

LAKES OF ASIA

• Largest Lakes: Caspian Sea (fluctuating size) and Aral Sea (shrinking due to irrigation from Amu Darya,
Syr Darya).
• Tectonic Depressions: Lakes Baikal, Ysyk-Köl, Hövsgöl (Khubsugul), Dead Sea.
• Lava-Encircled Basins: Lakes Van, Sevan, Urmia; Lake Telets formed by ancient glaciation.
• Formation Types: Landslide (Lake Sarez, Pamirs), karst processes (western Taurus, Turkey), lava dams
(Lake Jingpo, northeastern China, Kuril Islands).
• Volcanic Regions: Lakes in craters and calderas (eastern Asian islands, Philippines, Malay
Archipelago).
• Subarctic Lakes: Numerous lakes from melting permafrost, subsidence, and ancient glacial moraine.
• Lagoonal Lakes: Common along low coastlines.

Dead Sea
Salt deposits on the southwestern shore of the Dead
Sea near Masada, Israel.
 Lake Baikal
Small rowboat near the coast of Lake Baikal,
southern Siberia, Russia.

GROUNDWATER
• Arid Regions: Groundwater is the primary water source.
• Large Accumulations: Found in artesian basins and beneath dipping plains at mountain foothills.
• Key Areas: Central Asia, Kashgaria, and other regions with extensive oases.
SOILS

• Soils in Asia: Shaped by climate, topography, hydrology, biology, age, and economic activities.
• Variation: Significant differences across regions, latitudes, and elevations.
• Horizontal Zoning: Especially evident in the continental plains.

ASIAN SOIL GROUPS

Distribution of Asian soil groups as classified by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO).

THE ARCTIC ZONE

• Arctic soils: Skeletal, low in humus, and rudimentary due to harsh climate.
• Subarctic tundra soils: Characterized by poor drainage from permafrost, accumulation of undecomposed
peat, and formation of gley (bluish, oxygen-poor soil). Common soil movements include solifluction,
frost heaving, and thaw-related ground settling.
• Stone rings, solifluction, and boulder-covered regions.

THE FOREST TUNDRA

• Transitional belt of the forest tundra.

• Tundra and sparse forest alternate regularly.
• Tundra soils and taiga (boreal forest) soils alternate.
 • Taiga is a cold, swampy forested region.
• Soils below frozen taiga are cryogenic (frost-influenced).
• Mountainous regions feature peaty-gley soils.

• Peaty-gley soils replaced by mountain tundra.

• Presence of weakly developed, often embryonic soils.
• Composed of detritus and stony fragments.

THE FOREST ZONE

❖ Occupies the largest part of the temperate zone.

• Characterized by leaching, where soluble components are washed down into deeper soil layers.
• Decomposition of forest litter (leaves, needles, and dead grass) by organic acids.

• Transports nutrients deeper into the soil while leaving undecomposed quartz grains in the upper horizon.
• Light-gray, infertile soils resembling ashes due to quartz retention.
• Result of leaching, leading to accumulation of iron and aluminum oxides in lower layers.

• A dense, impervious layer that inhibits water drainage and contributes to self-swamping in taiga forests.
• Color is rusty brown due to iron and aluminum oxide accumulation.
• In regions like east of the Yenisey River, permafrost complicates soil drainage and leaching, leading to
cryogenic taiga soils.

• Common in taiga subzones, indicating waterlogged conditions.

• Small-leafed forests (birch and aspen) on gray forest soils.
• Grayer than podzols, higher in organic substances and humus, leading to greater fertility.

• Extends from the Xiao Hinggan Range to Honshu.

• Warmth and moisture enhance chemical weathering, resulting in iron oxide accumulation in surface
soils.
• Brown forest soils (forest burozems) formed from this process.

THE FOREST-STEPPE

• Soil cover in the forest-steppe region formed by equilibrium of precipitation and evaporation.
• Leaching process alternates with upward flow of soil solutions during dry periods.
• Dense vegetation leads to considerable humus accumulation.

• Dark-colored soils known as chernozems are the most fertile in Asia.

• Chernozems are thickest among forest-steppe and mixed-grass soils.
• Wooded-meadow plains of the Amur River basin feature dark, moist meadow soils, often with blue gley.

• Drier steppes have reduced humus and increased unleached mineral salts.
• Upward flow intensifies transport of dissolved salts to the surface, causing bleaching and salinization.
• Drier steppes transition from shallow southern chernozems to chestnut soils.

• Rich granaries under cultivation in broad expanses of forest-steppe and steppe.

• Severe wind erosion during hot, dry seasons.
• Surface washout and gully erosion impoverish soil despite preventive efforts.

SEMIDESERT AND DESERT

• Zone of semidesert stretches through inner Kazakhstan and Mongolia.

• Middle Asia features the Junggar Basin, Takla Makan Desert, and Inner Mongolia.
• Belt of temperate-zone deserts present in these areas.

• Subtropical deserts extend through the Levant, Iranian highlands, and southern Middle Asia.
• Semideserts have a mosaic of desert and arid-steppe vegetation.
• Light chestnut and light brown semidesert soils are low in humus but high in alkalinity.

• Gray-brown soils form beneath temperate deserts with low organic substances and humus.
• Gray desert soils (sierozems) develop in arid subtropics.
• Saline soils are common; agriculture requires irrigation.
 • Specific cultivated types of sierozems arise from irrigation.
• Tropical desert zone is well-defined only in western Asia.
• Characterized by embryonic soils, desert crusts, and blowing sands.

THE ASIAN MEDITERRANEAN

• Maritime areas of the Asiatic Mediterranean include Anatolia and the Levant.
• Xerophytic vegetation adapted to low water availability.
• Types of vegetation: maquis (evergreen), shiblyak (deciduous), and frigana (thorny, cushionlike bushes).
• Predominant soils are brown, rich in iron
• Iron accumulation due to intense chemical weathering in wet Mediterranean winters.
• Upward flow of soil solutions during dry summers contributes to soil characteristics.
• Frigana vegetation prevalent in West Asian semidesert highlands.
• Soils here are transitional between brown soils and sierozems.

THE SUBTROPICAL MONSOONAL REGIONS

• Typical of Asia's monsoonal subtropics are soils beneath evergreen forests.

• Regions include southern Korean peninsula, southwestern Japan, and southeastern China.
• Intensive chemical weathering occurs during warm, wet summer monsoon season.
• Leads to decomposition and leaching of soil minerals.
• Accumulation of residual iron and aluminum oxides.
• Resulting soils are predominantly red and yellow, along with podzolized soils.
• Agriculture is widespread on alluvial soils of plains and terraced slopes.
• Dominated by irrigated paddy-rice cultivation.

THE SUBEQUATORIAL AND EQUATORIAL REGIONS

• Savannas (grassy parklands) and dry-tropical deciduous forests on leeward slopes; wet-tropical
evergreen forests on windward slopes.
• Soils characterized by intensive leaching followed by evaporation.
• Under wet-tropical forests, red-yellow laterites (leached, hardened iron-bearing soils) predominate.
• Beneath savannas and dry-tropical forests, red lateritic soils transition to red-brown and desert brown
soils with increasing aridity.
• Unique black soils called regurs found beneath dry savannas of peninsular India, thought to develop
from basalt rock.
• In the equatorial zone (southern Malaysia and Greater Sunda Islands), typical tropical rainforests
develop.
• In southwestern Sri Lanka and Java, rainforests largely replaced by agricultural landscapes with tea,
coconut, and rubber plantations.
• Soils are lateritic, red-yellow or brick-red, with marginal degrees of laterization.
• In subequatorial and equatorial valleys, alluvial soils predominate, developed through long-term rice
cultivation and irrigation.
• Large-scale artificial terracing of slopes for irrigation and soil erosion prevention.

THE MOUNTAINS

• Different soil types found at various elevations in mountain zones.

• Soils are generally skeletal and underdeveloped, reflecting rock structure and slope exposure.
• Vertical zones rise from north to south, with an increasing number of zones.

• Mountain soils correspond to different vegetation zones at varying elevations.

• Vertical soil zones align with landscape zones as elevation increases.
• Characteristic zones: forest at lower elevations, meadows higher up, and snow cover at the highest
altitudes, particularly in western maritime regions.

• Example in the western Caucasus: broad-leaved mountain forests on brown mountain-forest soils,
followed by coniferous forests on mountain podzolic soils, then stunted trees, subalpine and alpine
meadows on mountain-meadow soils, and finally perennial snow and glaciers at the peaks.
• Interior Asia features associations of desert, steppe, meadowland, and snow zones, often including
mountain-forest zones.
• In Tien Shan, mountain-desert and semidesert landscapes are associated with gray-brown and brown
mountain soils in foothills, while higher elevations have mountain steppes linked to mountain chestnut
soils and mountain chernozems.
 • Podzolized soils under mountain forest-steppe and mountain forests.
• Eastern Siberia showcases taiga-tundra spectra in vertical zones: mountain taiga on taiga-cryogenic
soils, followed by dwarfed trees, mountain tundra, and bald peaks.

• In eastern Asia, subalpine and alpine meadow zones may disappear, replaced by mountain-forest
landscapes extending to crests, succeeded only by stunted trees and shrubs.
• Alpine regions of South Asia (Himalayas) exhibit a complex variety of vegetation and soil types.

EFFECTS OF HUMAN ACTIVITY ON THE SOIL

• Virgin soils transformed in areas with long-term agriculture.

• Primary soils may be buried under thick cultivated layers rich in humus, nitrogen, phosphorus, and trace
elements.
• Irrigated soils in valleys and deltas (Murgab, Tigris, Euphrates, Indus) can have agricultural deposits 10
to 15 feet (3 to 5 meters) thick.
• "Black-land" (heitu) soils of the Loess Plateau in China feature a fertile layer 1 to 3 feet (30 to 90 cm)
thick, accumulated by farmers.
• Rice cultivation in monsoonal regions impacts primary-soil cover, leading to degradation due to
flooding and the gleying process.
• Basic soil properties remain constant for centuries, but fertility is low.
• Secondary salinization is a harmful phenomenon from improper irrigation practices.
• Widespread in arid, semiarid, and subhumid zones irrigated without adequate drainage.
• Salt-affected soils cover large areas in Central, South, and Southwest Asia.
• Soil degradation from erosion negatively affects agricultural production.
• Significant erosion occurs in the Ganges basin, lower Himalayas, Huang He basin, and Loess Plateau.
• Severe soil erosion caused by year-round cultivation and deforestation of water-catchment areas in
mountains.

CLIMATE OF ASIA
Air masses and wind patterns

CONTINENTAL CLIMATE

• Asia's vast expanse and diverse geography lead to significant regional differences in solar radiation,
atmospheric circulation, precipitation, and overall climate.
• A continental climate predominates, marked by an extreme annual temperature range.

• Air from the Atlantic Ocean transforms into continental air, losing moisture as it travels over land.
• Eastward movement of midlatitude air masses and isolation by mountain ranges limit the influence of
Pacific Sea air to eastern Asia.
• Arctic air has direct access to the continent from the north.

• Tropical and equatorial air masses dominate the south but are restricted from penetrating central Asia by
mountain ridges (West Asia, Himalayas, southern China).
• Winter months see further restrictions due to dense cold air over the interior.

• Strong summer heating (May to September) contrasts with winter chilling, leading to sharp seasonal
variations in atmospheric circulation.
• Winter chilling creates a persistent high-pressure anticyclone over Siberia, Mongolia, and Tibet,
centered southwest of Lake Baikal.

• This area experiences temperature inversions, very cold, calm weather, and minimal snowfall.
• The anticyclone is sustained by subsiding upper air and Arctic air influx, alongside persistent westerly
air drift from cyclonic storm systems.

• High pressure drives cold, dry air eastward and southward, impacting eastern and southern Asia in
winter.
• Few winters cyclonic lows from Europe cross Asia but bring more weather variability to western Siberia
than central Siberia.

• The cold pole, with extreme low temperatures (−90 °F/−68 °C near Verkhoyansk and −96 °F/−71 °C in
Oymyakon), is located in northeast Asia.
• Outward winter air drift creates a temperature anomaly in eastern/northeastern Asia, resulting in colder
climates than the global average for similar latitudes.
 • East Asian islands experience milder conditions due to surrounding seas; air masses warm and saturate
with moisture before precipitation falls on northwestern slopes.
• Occasionally, strong cold air bursts reach as far south as Hong Kong and Manila.

THE POLAR FRONT

• Cyclonic storms form along the polar front, where temperate and tropical air masses meet, shifting
southward in winter.
• The winter rainy season in southern West Asian highlands, typical of Mediterranean climates, is linked
to this southward polar front movement.

• In northern West and Middle Asia, cyclonic activity is strong in spring, coinciding with the polar front's
northward shift, leading to peak annual precipitation.
• During northern winter, South and Southeast Asia experience dry, moderately warm weather due to
northeasterly winds from high-pressure areas in the North Pacific to the equatorial low-pressure zone,
known as the northeast (winter) monsoon.

• Rainfall occurs primarily on the windward sides of maritime regions (e.g., Tamil Nadu in India,
southern Vietnam).
• Cyclonic storms from the Mediterranean Basin during winter are often deflected south of the Tibetan
Plateau, affecting northern India and southwestern China, bringing short periods of cloudy weather but
minimal winter rain.

• In summer, the polar front shifts northward, causing cyclonic rains in Siberia.
• A hot, dry continental tropical wind prevails in West, Middle, and Central Asia.
• Over the Indus River basin, heating leads to a low-pressure area (South Asian or Iranian low),
developing fully from June to August.

• The onset of the monsoon in India and Southeast Asia is tied to circulation changes by June, including
southern jet stream disintegration and low-pressure formation over southern Asia.
• Monsoon air masses flow into the low-pressure zone from a high-pressure cell off southern Africa's
eastern coast.

• The Coriolis force causes winds south of the Equator to shift direction from southeast to southwest in
the Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal.
• The southwest monsoon begins on the Malabar Coast of southwestern India in early June, gradually
spreading northward, delivering 80 to 90 percent of annual precipitation in the region.

• In eastern Asia, the Pacific Ocean polar front generates atmospheric disturbances in summer.
• A summer high-pressure center over the western Pacific brings warm, moist air from the southeast
toward the continent.

• South of latitude 38° N, the warm Kuroshio current enhances rainfall and humidity along the Japanese
coast, creating a hothouse climate.
• Air cooling over cold ocean currents to the north results in fogs and drizzling rains in northeastern Asia.

MONSOONS AND TYPHOONS

• Summer in China features variable air movement from the western Pacific.
• Strong drift and intense continental low pressure can enable the summer monsoon to deliver moisture
into Mongolia.

• If conditions are weak, the monsoon may falter, leading to irregular weather patterns and potential crop
failures.
• The summer monsoon accounts for 50 to 60 percent of China’s annual rainfall.

• Tropical cyclones, known as typhoons in the Pacific, can occur year-round in coastal and insular South,
Southeast, and East Asia, peaking in late summer and early autumn.
• Typhoons bring strong winds and torrential rains, sometimes exceeding total precipitation from normal
summer monsoons.

• In winter, continental tropical air dominates tropical Asia, shifting to equatorial ocean air in summer.
• Winter's dry, warm offshore winds act similarly to trade winds and contribute to the South Asian
continental monsoon.
• The transition from a dry spring to a rainy summer is marked by the monsoon, which can bring up to 25
inches (635 mm) of rain in a month.
 • Near the Equator (southern Sri Lanka, Malaysia, Greater Sunda Islands), equatorial air prevails year-
round, resulting in stable temperatures and abundant rainfall.
• The Lesser Sunda Islands have a tropical monsoon climate, with wet summers (November to February)
and dry winters (June to October) influenced by the Southern Hemisphere's seasonal rhythms.

THE INFLUENCE OF TOPOGRAPHY

• Climatic differences across Asia are significantly influenced by topography.

• Elevation-based climatic zones are evident on the southern slopes of the Himalayas, ranging from
tropical climates at the foothills to Arctic-like conditions at the peaks.

• Exposure affects climate: sunny southern slopes contrast with shady northern slopes, and windward
slopes receive more moisture than leeward slopes, which are drier due to being in the rain shadow.
• The barrier effect is prominent in monsoon regions (East, Southeast, and South Asia), where rain-
bearing winds have a consistent direction.

• Leeward slopes experience the foehn effect, where strong winds descending from mountains become
warm, dry, and erratic.
• Climatic contrasts due to exposure are notable in various locations, including the Himalayas, Elburz
Mountains, Japan, Taiwan, the Philippines, Tien Shan range, and Transbaikalia.

• The isolating barrier effect of relief is particularly clear in the West Asian highlands and Central Asia,
where surrounding mountains block moisture-laden winds.
• The interior highlands create local anticyclones during cold months, further impacting local climate
conditions.

TEMPERATURE

• Average January temperatures in Siberia are below −4 °F (−20 °C), with regions like Verkhoyansk
reaching −58 °F (−50 °C).
• Coastal areas influenced by Pacific Ocean air have milder January temperatures ranging from 23 to 5 °F
(−5 to −15 °C).

• The January isotherm of 32 °F (0 °C) extends from the Anatolian and Iranian highlands, around the
Pamirs, Karakoram Range, and Himalayas, and through northeastern China, southern Korea, and central
Honshu.
• Isotherms of 68 °F (20 °C) and 77 °F (25 °C) follow the Tropic of Cancer and extend farther south.

• In July, maximum temperatures are recorded in the lowlands of Mesopotamia, the Arabian Peninsula,
and the Thar and Takla Makan deserts.
• The 68 °F (20 °C) isotherm reaches latitudes 55° to 60° N, bending southward in the eastern Gobi and
along the cool Pacific coast.

• The far northeastern coast of Asia sees average July temperatures below 50 °F (10 °C), indicative of a
tundra climate.
• The greatest annual temperature range on Earth occurs near the "cold pole," with ranges exceeding 175
°F (97 °C) despite warm summers.

PRECIPITATION

• Annual rainfall in the equatorial belt is about 80 inches (2,000 mm).

• Cherrapunji, India, recorded 900 inches (22,900 mm) of rain in seven months in 1891.

• On windward maritime slopes in South, Southeast, and East Asia, rainfall ranges from 80 to over 120
inches (2,000 to 3,000 mm), with some areas receiving 300 to 500 inches (7,600 to 12,700 mm).

• Precipitation on tropical lee slopes averages less than 40 inches (1,000 mm) annually.

• In subtropical and temperate monsoon climates, annual rainfall is approximately 24 to 80 inches (600 to
2,000 mm).

• Northeastern Siberia receives less than 10 inches (250 mm) of precipitation annually, with averages of 6
to 8 inches (150 to 200 mm) and some desert areas in West, Middle, and Central Asia receiving less than
4 inches (100 mm).
CLIMATIC REGIONS

• Precipitation distribution in Asia varies significantly throughout the year.

• The equatorial zone experiences relatively uniform moisture.
• Subequatorial zones and regions with monsoon climates typically have maximum precipitation in
summer and minimum in winter.
• Mediterranean climates in West Asia feature wet winters and dry summers, with winter precipitation
linked to the polar front's activity.
• In the Kolkhida area of Georgia, summer rains merge with winter cyclonic Mediterranean rains.
• Some regions in Japan, Korea, and eastern China experience uniform precipitation due to the summer
and winter monsoons.

Various climate types in Asia include:

➢ Tundra climate in Arctic lowlands.

➢ Cold, sharply continental climate in eastern Siberia.
➢ Moderately humid climate in western Siberia.
➢ Humid subtropical climate in the Kolkhida region.
➢ Desert climate in the temperate zone.
➢ Mediterranean subtropical climate in western West Asia.
➢ Subtropical desert climate.
➢ Mountain-steppe highland subtropical climate in West and Central Asia.
➢ Alpine desert climate.
➢ Climate of the eastern Pamirs, Karakoram Range, and Plateau of Tibet.
➢ Climate of tropical deserts.
➢ Temperate monsoon climate in eastern Siberia and northern Japan/eastern China.
➢ Subtropical monsoon climate in southern Japan and southeastern China.
➢ Subequatorial monsoon climate in South Asia, eastern Java, and Lesser Sunda Islands.
➢ Equatorial climate in the Greater Sunda Islands.

URBAN CLIMATE

Human activities, especially cultural and economic practices, can significantly alter local climates, creating
distinct microclimates. Urban areas and large industrial complexes are particularly impactful due to emissions
of dust and gases, which can affect temperatures and wind patterns.

Examples of such microclimates include:

1. The Tokyo-Yokohama metropolitan area and the industrial region of northern Kyushu in Japan.
2. Kolkata (Calcutta) and the northeastern industrial area of peninsular India.
3. The industrial regions of the Kuznetsk Coal Basin in south-central Siberia.
4. These human-induced changes highlight the interaction between climate and human development,
shaping both local environments and broader climatic conditions.

PLANT LIFE

Asia boasts a vast diversity of vegetation, shaped by its varied latitude, elevation, and climate. However, natural
conditions alone do not account for the continent's rich array of trees, plants, and grasses. Over eight millennia
of farming and other human activities have significantly transformed these natural landscapes, influencing the
distribution and types of vegetation present today.

THE GEOGRAPHIC PATTERN OF VEGETATION

NORTH AND CENTRAL ASIA

• Sparsely populated, tundra, permafrost, lichens, mosses, sedges, dwarf trees (willow, birch), extreme
climate, short summer, poorly drained hollows, peat bogs, wind erosion.
• Higher ground, Ural Mountains, Chersky Range, Verkhoyansk Range, Kamchatka Range.

• Boreal forest, coniferous, transitional “wooded tundra,” deciduous trees (aspen, birch), grass, shrub
steppe, larch, pine, spruce, cranberry undergrowth, extensive peat bogs.
• Broad-leaved deciduous forest, limited east of Yenisey River, poplars, alders, conifers, larches near Sea
of Okhotsk, diverse species (maples, ashes, walnuts, elms, lindens).

• Forest galleries along rivers, Northeast Plain, meadow-steppe vegetation, grazing.

• From Kazakhstan to Altai Mountains, herbaceous cover (feather grass, rootstock grasses, sagebrush).
• Discontinuous semidesert, desert vegetation, transition to monsoonal landscapes of eastern China.
• Dry, cold, scattered halophilic bushes, Artemisia species.

EAST ASIA

• Monsoonal climate, hot and rainy summers, diverse temperate and tropical vegetation.
• China: 30,000 plant species, minimal Pleistocene glaciation impact, relict forest species.

• Japan: two-thirds forested, strict forestry regulations, rugged topography limits exploitation, notable
forests (Kii Peninsula).
• North of Yangtze River: primeval deciduous forest largely removed for farmland.

• South of Yangtze: original forest cover included 60 tree genera (oak, maple, linden, chestnut, hornbeam,
hickory, magnolia, tulip tree, camphor tree, Spanish cedar, sweet gum, catalpa, lianas).

• Conifers: dawn redwood in eastern Sichuan, palm trees in South China, southern South Korea, southern
Japan; bamboo varieties widespread.
• Reforestation in China, new forests primarily of pines, different from primeval forests.

SOUTH AND SOUTHEAST ASIA

• Wettest areas: peninsular India (Western Ghats), Southeast Asia; notable tropical forests, high plant
diversity.
• Dipterocarpaceae family: over 500 species, aromatic oils and resins.

• Seasonal monsoon regions: moist- and dry-deciduous forests (teak, sal, sandalwood); heavily exploited.
• Prolonged dry areas: savanna woodland, thorny thickets (acacias, euphorbias).

• Natural vegetation cleared for agriculture across climate zones.

• Mangrove swamps: coastal deltas, species include Rhizophora (red mangrove), Bruguiera, Avicennia
(white mangrove), nipa palm in bogs.

• Primeval evergreen rainforest limited; secondary forests cover larger areas.

• Deforestation effects: parklike forests, wooded savanna, herbaceous landscapes (cogonales in the
Philippines).

• Hevea brasiliensis (rubber tree): important plantations in Malaysia, Indonesia.

• Higher mountains: deciduous and coniferous temperate forests (4,250 to 10,000 feet); shrubs of the
heath family above.

• Mountain forests: diverse tree types (Rakhine Mountains—bamboo, eastern Himalayas—sal,

Castanopsis, pines).

• Central Himalayas: dry sal forest, pine forest, cedars, spruces, oaks, firs, birches, rhododendrons,
junipers, perpetual snow above 16,000 feet.

WEST ASIA

• West Asia: wild vegetation dispersed, predominantly arid; contrasts between deserts (Kyzylkum,
Karakum, Rubʿ al-Khali) and forested mountains.

• Climatic zones: continental (north), dry zone (south, except mountainous areas), Mediterranean (western
edges).

• Karakum Desert: saxaul tree (xerophytic, used for firewood, fodder for camels), interspersed bushes and
grass.
• Fertile Crescent: more than 2,000 plant species, borders of Syrian Desert rich in floral diversity.

• Pontic Mountains (northern Turkey): forests of beeches and conifers, undergrowth of cherry laurels,
hollies, creepers.

• Similar vegetation in Georgia, northern Elburz Mountains (Iran).

• Mediterranean border: holm oak, Aleppo pine, cistus, mastic tree, thick underbrush, open scrubland.

➢ Historical forests (e.g., cedar of Lebanon) reduced by logging and grazing to grassland and scrubland.
VEGETATION AND SOCIETY

Vegetation in traditional civilization

Asia's indigenous vegetation: source of many global food crops (cereal grains, oilseeds, fruits, vegetables);
cradle of agriculture.

Domestication centers:

❖ Southwest: Levant, northern Syria, southeastern Anatolia, Transcaucasia, Zagros Mountains (wheat,
barley, legumes, cherry, peach, grapevines).
❖ South and East: northeastern India, peninsular Southeast Asia, Sunda Islands, southern China (rice, taro,
yams, bananas, mangoes).
❖ Northern China: foxtail millet, soybeans, hemp.
❖ Building materials: wood, bamboo, thatch; ramie, flax (clothing); hemp (rope, sacks); bamboo (utensils);
paper mulberry (bark cloth, paper).

➢ Additional uses: silkworms (mulberry leaves), lacquer (lacquer tree), various drugs and
pharmaceuticals.

ASIA’S DESTINATIONS

1. The Angkor Complex (Cambodia)

- The Angkor Complex in Cambodia is one of the most popular Asia destinations. This impressive
archaeological site, covering an area of over 400 square kilometers, is home to multiple ancient structures of the
9th and 14th centuries.

The most famous of these structures is the magnificent

Angkor Wat, a towering ancient construction that was
once the center of the Khmer Empire. Its intricate
carvings, stunning architectural style, and beautiful
surrounding landscape make it one of the most
remarkable cultural sites in the world.

2. Hoi An Ancient Town (Vietnam)

- Hoi An Ancient Town is a charming destination located on the central coast of Vietnam. This UNESCO World
Heritage Site is known for its well-preserved architecture, vibrant cultural heritage, and peaceful atmosphere.

The town’s most famous highlights include Cau Pagoda, an iconic landmark featuring intricate carvings and a
traditional roof, and Quan Cong Temple, a Taoist temple dedicated to the legendary Chinese general Guan Yu.

Hoi An is also famous for its lantern-lit streets and

picturesque canals, where visitors can take a boat ride
and admire the town's beauty from a different
perspective. The town is also a shopper's paradise,
with its many tailors and artisans producing high-
quality clothing and handicrafts.

3. Mount Fuji (Japan)

- Mount Fuji is an iconic symbol of Japan and one of the most recognizable locations in Asia and the world.

Located on Honshu Island, this 3,776-meter-tall mountain is an active volcano that last erupted in 1707. Mount
Fuji is known for its perfectly symmetrical cone shape and its stunning viewpoints, making it a popular destination
for hikers and nature lovers.
 The mountain is also an important cultural symbol in
Japan, appearing on everything from Japanese
banknotes to food packaging. Perfect for hiking,
photography, or any other cultural activity, Mount
Fuji solidifies itself as one of the most incredible
Asia holiday destinations.

4. The Grand Palace (Thailand)

- The Grand Palace is one of the most significant landmarks in the capital city of Bangkok, Thailand. This
gorgeous building, once the residence of the royal family, remains an important symbol of Thailand's cultural
heritage.

The palace was built in 1782 with a harmonious blend of traditional Thai and European architectural styles,
highlighted by intricate golden spires, colorful mosaics, and ornate decorations.

Visitors to the palace can explore the many buildings,

including the impressive Wat Phra Kaew, which
houses the famous Emerald Buddha, a highly revered
religious icon. The palace also includes the Pavilion
of Regalia, a museum that showcases the country's
impressive collection of royal treasures.

With its stunning architecture and rich history, the

Grand Palace is a beautiful and momentous
destination for anyone interested in Thai culture and
history.

5. Ha Long Bay (Vietnam)

- Speaking of Asia's beautiful places, Ha Long Bay has to be mentioned. Ha Long Bay is a UNESCO World
Heritage Site and a mesmerizing natural wonder in northeastern Vietnam.

The bay is famous for its emerald waters, towering limestone pillars, and floating fishing villages, making it one
of the top Asia destinations for nature lovers and photographers alike.

The best way to explore the bay is by boat, to take in

the breathtaking scenery and visit the many small
islands and caves scattered around the bay.

Ha Long Bay is ideal for adventure seekers, as you

can try kayaking, swimming, or even rock climbing
here. With its spectacular natural beauty and wealth
of activities, the bay is an unforgettable location
amongst many other Asia travel destinations.

6. The Forbidden City (China)

- The Forbidden City is one of the most prominent historical sites in Chinese history. This UNESCO World
Heritage Site was once the imperial palace for the Ming and Qing dynasties and the emperor’s residence for over
500 years.

The Forbidden City is a majestic display of Chinese architecture and craftsmanship, with meticulous carvings
and sublime decorations. Visitors can explore the many halls and pavilions here, including the Hall of Supreme
Harmony, the Hall of Mental Cultivation, the Imperial Garden, and a museum that showcases imperial
collections, including porcelain, jade items, and other priceless artifacts.
 Thanks to its rich history and cultural significance,
the Forbidden City has been one of the most popular
tourist destinations in Asia for history buffs.

7. Taj Mahal (India)

- The Taj Mahal is probably the first landmark that comes to everyone’s mind at the mention of India. Built by
Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan in memory of his beloved wife Mumtaz Mahal, it is considered one of the greatest
examples of Mughal architecture.

The Taj Mahal is a stunning display of symmetry and

balance, with its white marble exterior decorated
with carvings and gemstones. Tourists can explore
the many chambers and halls here, including the
tombs of Mumtaz Mahal and Shah Jahan.

The gardens surrounding the Taj Mahal are also a

must-see, with their similarly symmetrical layout and
a reflecting pool providing a serene and peaceful
atmosphere. The Taj Mahal’s timeless beauty and
historical significance make it one of the most
outstanding Asia historical places.

8. Marble Mountain (Da Nang, Vietnam)

- Marble Mountain is a group of five marble and limestone mountains situated just outside of Da Nang, Vietnam.
These mountains have become a popular tourist attraction due to their unique geological formations, breathtaking
scenery, and cultural and religious significance.

Each of the five mountains is named after one of the

five elements: Metal, Wood, Water, Fire, and Earth.
Here, tourists can climb to the top of the mountains
and explore the many caves, pagodas, and temples in
the area. The most famous among these is Huyen
Khong Cave, which has a beautiful Buddhist shrine.

Marble Mountain is also famous for its marble

carving workshops, where visitors can observe
skilled craftsmen creating beautiful works of art from
the local marble. Marble Mountain is one of many
Asia getaway destinations for anytime you are
looking for a peaceful vacation.

9. Mehrangarh Fort (India)

- Mehrangarh Fort is a magnificent historical monument located in Jodhpur, Rajasthan, India. This impressive
fort, constructed in the 15th century, is among the most massive and remarkable forts in the country, towering
over the city from a 400-foot hill.

The fort is a fusion of Rajput and Mughal architectural styles, featuring carvings, courtyards, and panoramic
views of the surrounding terrain. Wandering through the numerous palaces here, including Phool Mahal, Sheesh
Mahal, and Moti Mahal, you can see that each has unique characteristics and embellishments.
 There is also a museum in the fort which displays an
extensive collection of artifacts, such as weaponry,
paintings, and textiles, providing visitors with a
glimpse into Rajasthan's rich history and culture.

10. Gardens by the Bay (Singapore)

- Despite not being blessed with many natural resources, Singapore still has a beautiful Gardens by the Bay, a
world-renowned green park located in the heart of the country.

The park covers an area of more than 101 hectares

and is home to a diverse collection of flora from
around the world, including rare and exotic species.
The Supertree Grove is the crown jewel of the park,
featuring towering artificial trees with a skywalk,
offering visitors breathtaking views of the park and
the cityscape.

Other highlights are the Cloud Forest, a massive

greenhouse showcasing rare plants and a stunning
indoor waterfall, and the Flower Dome, the largest
glass greenhouse in the world and home to an
incredible variety of flowers and plants.

11. Po Nagar Cham Towers (Nha Trang, Vietnam)

- Po Nagar Cham Towers is a complex of ancient towers located in Nha Trang, Vietnam. Built between the 7th
and 12th centuries by the Cham people, the towers are made of sandstone and feature impressive architectural
designs and intricate carvings.

The towers were initially used as a Hindu temple

complex dedicated to the goddess Po Nagar, but later
on, they also became a place of worship for
Buddhists.

Po Nagar Cham Towers allows you to explore the

historical and cultural significance of these towers
while enjoying an awesome view of the surrounding
landscape and the nearby Cai River.

12. Batu Caves (Malaysia)

- Batu Caves is an iconic attraction located in Selangor, Malaysia. It is a series of limestone caves and temples
that have become a significant pilgrimage site for Hindus.

The caves are accessed by climbing a flight of 272

steep stairs, leading to a massive limestone cavern
housing the main temple. The temple, known as the
Cathedral Cave, is a massive open chamber with a
100-foot-high ceiling, Hindu shrines, and colorful
murals depicting Hindu mythology. The other two
smaller caves feature intricate cave temples and are
accessible through a separate entrance.

Outside the caves, there is a massive statue of Lord

Murugan, standing 140 feet tall, which is one of the
tallest statues of Hindu deities in the world. Batu
Caves is one of the best destinations to visit in Asia
for culture and religion enthusiasts.

13. Khao Yai National Park (Thailand)

- Khao Yai National Park is an impressive nature reserve in central Thailand, with a gigantic area of approximately
2,000 square kilometers.

The park is a UNESCO World Heritage site,

renowned for its rich biodiversity, beautiful
landscapes, and unique wildlife. Khao Yai National
Park can be in the running for the best family
vacation destinations in Asia. Here, you can explore
the many hiking trails that wind through the park's
lush forests and scenic hills and spot exotic animals
such as elephants, gibbons, and tigers.

The park also boasts a range of waterfalls, including

the spectacular Haew Narok and Haew Suwat. In
addition to its natural wonders, Khao Yai National
Park is also home to several historical sites, including
ancient Khmer ruins that provide visitors with an
insight into the region's fascinating history.

14. Long Beach (Phu Quoc, Vietnam)

- Long Beach is a secluded location on the coastline of Phu Quoc, Vietnam. The beach, which stretches over 20
kilometers, is renowned for its crystal-clear turquoise waters, soft white sand, and stunning sunsets.

The beach is also home to several beachside bars and

restaurants serving up delicious seafood and
refreshing cocktails. Off the beach, visitors can
explore nearby fishing villages, indulge in a spa
treatment, or visit the many markets and shops on the
island.

Long Beach is a perfect destination for anyone

seeking a tropical paradise with plenty of relaxation
and adventure opportunities.

15. Paektu Mountain (North Korea)

- Paektu Mountain, located in North Korea, is a majestic natural wonder that is considered one of the country's
most sacred sites. The mountain is a 2,700-meter-tall active volcano surrounded by pristine forests and crystal-
clear lakes.

According to Korean mythology, the leader Kim Il-

sung was born on the slopes of Paektu Mountain, and
the site has since become an important pilgrimage
destination for North Koreans. Visitors to the
mountain can explore the surrounding forests, climb
to the summit, or visit the nearby Heavenly Lake, one
of the most beautiful natural wonders in Asia.

Paektu Mountain is a unique and fascinating

destination, offering visitors an insight into North
Korea's natural beauty and cultural heritage.

16. Petronas Towers (Malaysia)

The Petronas Towers of Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, are one of the most iconic skyscrapers in the world, standing
at over 450 meters tall.
 Built in 1998, the towers are an impressive
achievement of modern engineering and architecture
with 88 floors and a unique postmodern design. The
Petronas Towers are a symbol of Malaysia's growth
and modernization, and their striking design makes
them a not-to-be-missed destination for any Kuala
Lumpur trip.

The Petronas Towers have an observation deck on

the 86th floor, offering breathtaking views of the
cityscape below. The towers are also home to several
high-end restaurants, luxury shops, and a concert
hall, making it a popular destination for tourists and
locals alike.

17. Bunaken Marine Park, Indonesia 20. Borobudur, Java, Indonesia

18. Jaipur, India 21. Raja Ampat Islands, Indonesia

19. Ajanta Caves, India 22. Tanah Lot, Bali, Indonesia

23. Ubud, Bali, Indonesia 28. Fushimi Inari-Taisha, Kyoto, Japan

24. Masada, Israel

29. Philosopher's Walk, Kyoto, Japan

25. Isfahan, Iran

30. Himeji Castle, Japan

26. Nara Park, Japan

31. Arashiyama, Kyoto, Japan

27. Palawan, The Philippines

32. Singapore Skyline 36. Reed Flute Cave, Guilin, China

33. Donggung Palace and Wolji Pond, Gyeongju 37. Jeju Island, South Korea
National Park, South Korea

34. Luang Prabang, Laos 38. Langkawi, Malaysia

35. Bukchon Hanok Village, Seoul, South Korea 39. Paro Taktsang Monastery, Bhutan
40. Kerala Backwaters, India 44. Jal Mahal, India

45. Sheikh Zayed Mosque, Abu Dhabi, UAE

41. The Temples of Angkor, Cambodia

46. Ko Tao, Thailand

42. Great Wall of China

43. Leh, Ladakh, India 47. Lhasa, Tibet

48. Sa Pa, Vietnam 52. Gobi Desert, Mongolia

49. Hoi An, Vietnam

53. Central Market, Phnom Penh, Cambodia

50. Taroko National Park, Taiwan

54. Arkhangai, Mongolia

51. Sigiriya, Sri Lanka

55. Museum of Islamic Art, Doha, Qatar

56. Bagan, Myanmar
59. Jiufen, Taiwan

57. Petra, Jordan

60. Chiang Mai, Thailand

58. Socotra, Yemen

 ❖ Asia: Largest continent by area (17 million sq miles) and population (over 4.5 billion).
❖ Countries: 48 countries, including 3 trans-continentals.
❖ Regions: Subdivided into five major regions:
➢ Central Asia
➢ East Asia
➢ South Asia
➢ Southeast Asia
➢ Western Asia
• North Asia: Includes Siberia and northeastern parts of Asia.

Central Asia (Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, Kyrgyzstan)

• West of China, south of Russia, north of Afghanistan; borders the Caspian Sea.
• Politically divided into five countries: Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, Kyrgyzstan.
• Informally referred to as "The Stans."
• Covers 2,487,629 sq km.
• Population of over 77 million.
• Played a key role in Silk Road trade between China and Europe.

East Asia (China, Mongolia, North Korea, South Korea, Japan, Hong Kong, Taiwan, Macau)

• East of Central Asia; eastern border along the East China Sea.
• Politically divided into eight countries/regions: China, Mongolia, North Korea, South Korea, Japan,
Hong Kong, Taiwan, Macau.
• Total area of 7,356,459 sq km.
• Population exceeds 1.69 billion (22% of global population, 38% of Asia's).
• Major metropolitan areas include Beijing and Tokyo.
• Varied geography: temperate climate in inner areas, arid Gobi Desert in Mongolia, mountains/plateaus
in China, islands/coastlines in Japan.
• Home to advanced technology manufacturing, fostering economic development.
South Asia (Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, India, Afghanistan, Pakistan, Bhutan, Nepal, the Maldives, Iran)
• Peninsula-shaped, bordered by the Indian Ocean (south), Bay of Bengal (east), and Arabian Sea (west).
• Includes the Indian subcontinent and surrounding countries.
• Politically divided into nine countries: Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, India, Afghanistan, Pakistan, Bhutan,
Nepal, Iran, Maldives.
 • Covers approximately 3,218,688 sq km.
• Population exceeds 1.99 billion (nearly 25% of global population).
• Most densely populated region in the world.

Southeast Asia (Brunei, Cambodia, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand,
Timor Leste, Vietnam)

• Located north of Australia, south of East Asia, west of the Pacific Ocean, and east of the Bay of Bengal;
spans both hemispheres.

• Politically divided into 15 countries/territories: Brunei, Cambodia, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar,
Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, Timor Leste, Vietnam.

• Covers 2,792,406 sq km with a population over 684 million.

• Characterized by many archipelagos; the Indonesian Archipelago is the largest and has the most active
volcanoes.

• Historically important in global trade since the spice trade; rapidly developing economy, with Indonesia
as the largest economy in the region and a G20 member.

Western Asia (Georgia, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Turkey, Cyprus, Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Palestine, Jordan, Iraq,
Oman, Yemen, Kuwait, Bahrain, Qatar, Saudi Arabia)

• Located between Central Asia and Africa, south of Eastern Europe; often referred to as the Middle East
(excluding mainland Egypt).

• Politically divided into 18 states: Georgia, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Turkey, Cyprus, Syria, Lebanon, Israel,
Palestine, Jordan, Iraq, Kuwait, Bahrain, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates, Oman, Yemen;
includes Sinai Peninsula of Egypt.

• Covers around 3,886,565 sq km with a population of 290 million.

• Predominantly arid desert environment, but has access to major bodies of water: Black Sea, Persian
Gulf, Arabian Sea, Red Sea, Caspian Sea, Mediterranean Sea, Aegean Sea.

ADDITIONAL:

❖ China is the most populous country in both Asia and the world.

❖ India is set to overtake China as the most populous country in the world by 2027.

❖ The Sultanate of Brunei is Asia's least populated country.

❖ Asia consists of 48 countries and 3 other territories.

❖ Asia is the most populous continent in the world.

Afghanistan ➢ Currency: Euro (EUR)
➢ Capital: Kabul ➢ Religion: Christianity (Eastern Orthodox)
➢ Official Language: Dari, Pashto ➢ Demonym: Cypriot
➢ Currency: Afghan Afghani (AFN)
➢ Religion: Islam Georgia
➢ Demonym: Afghan ➢ Capital: Tbilisi
➢ Official Language: Georgian
Armenia ➢ Currency: Georgian Lari (GEL)
➢ Capital: Yerevan ➢ Religion: Christianity (Georgian Orthodox)
➢ Official Language: Armenian ➢ Demonym: Georgian
➢ Currency: Armenian Dram (AMD)
➢ Religion: Christianity (Armenian Apostolic) India
➢ Demonym: Armenian ➢ Capital: New Delhi
➢ Official Languages: Hindi, English
Azerbaijan ➢ Currency: Indian Rupee (INR)
➢ Capital: Baku ➢ Religion: Hinduism
➢ Official Language: Azerbaijani ➢ Demonym: Indian
➢ Currency: Azerbaijani Manat (AZN)
➢ Religion: Islam Indonesia
➢ Demonym: Azerbaijani ➢ Capital: Jakarta
➢ Official Language: Indonesian
Bahrain ➢ Currency: Indonesian Rupiah (IDR)
➢ Capital: Manama ➢ Religion: Islam
➢ Official Language: Arabic ➢ Demonym: Indonesian
➢ Currency: Bahraini Dinar (BHD)
➢ Religion: Islam Iran
➢ Demonym: Bahraini ➢ Capital: Tehran
➢ Official Language: Persian (Farsi)
Bangladesh ➢ Currency: Iranian Rial (IRR)
➢ Capital: Dhaka ➢ Religion: Islam
➢ Official Language: Bengali ➢ Demonym: Iranian
➢ Currency: Bangladeshi Taka (BDT)
➢ Religion: Islam Iraq
➢ Demonym: Bangladeshi ➢ Capital: Baghdad
➢ Official Languages: Arabic, Kurdish
Bhutan ➢ Currency: Iraqi Dinar (IQD)
➢ Capital: Thimphu ➢ Religion: Islam
➢ Official Language: Dzongkha ➢ Demonym: Iraqi
➢ Currency: Bhutanese Ngultrum (BTN)
➢ Religion: Buddhism Israel
➢ Demonym: Bhutanese ➢ Capital: Jerusalem
➢ Official Languages: Hebrew, Arabic
Brunei ➢ Currency: Israeli New Shekel (ILS)
➢ Capital: Bandar Seri Begawan ➢ Religion: Judaism
➢ Official Language: Malay ➢ Demonym: Israeli
➢ Currency: Brunei Dollar (BND)
➢ Religion: Islam Japan
➢ Demonym: Bruneian ➢ Capital: Tokyo
➢ Official Language: Japanese
Cambodia ➢ Currency: Japanese Yen (JPY)
➢ Capital: Phnom Penh ➢ Religion: Shinto, Buddhism
➢ Official Language: Khmer ➢ Demonym: Japanese
➢ Currency: Cambodian Riel (KHR)
➢ Religion: Buddhism Jordan
➢ Demonym: Cambodian ➢ Capital: Amman
➢ Official Language: Arabic
China ➢ Currency: Jordanian Dinar (JOD)
➢ Capital: Beijing ➢ Religion: Islam
➢ Official Language: Mandarin ➢ Demonym: Jordanian
➢ Currency: Renminbi (CNY)
➢ Religion: Buddhism, Taoism, Confucianism Kazakhstan
(various) ➢ Capital: Nur-Sultan
➢ Demonym: Chinese ➢ Official Languages: Kazakh, Russian
➢ Currency: Kazakhstani Tenge (KZT)
Cyprus ➢ Religion: Islam
➢ Capital: Nicosia ➢ Demonym: Kazakhstani
➢ Official Languages: Greek, Turkish
Kuwait ➢ Religion: Atheism, Buddhism
➢ Capital: Kuwait City ➢ Demonym: North Korean
➢ Official Language: Arabic
➢ Currency: Kuwaiti Dinar (KWD) Oman
➢ Religion: Islam ➢ Capital: Muscat
➢ Demonym: Kuwaiti ➢ Official Language: Arabic
➢ Currency: Omani Rial (OMR)
Kyrgyzstan ➢ Religion: Islam
➢ Capital: Bishkek ➢ Demonym: Omani
➢ Official Languages: Kyrgyz, Russian
➢ Currency: Kyrgyzstani Som (KGS) Pakistan
➢ Religion: Islam ➢ Capital: Islamabad
➢ Demonym: Kyrgyzstani ➢ Official Language: Urdu, English
➢ Currency: Pakistani Rupee (PKR)
Laos ➢ Religion: Islam
➢ Capital: Vientiane ➢ Demonym: Pakistani
➢ Official Language: Lao
➢ Currency: Lao Kip (LAK) Palestine
➢ Religion: Buddhism ➢ Capital: East Jerusalem
➢ Demonym: Laotian ➢ Official Languages: Arabic
➢ Currency: Israeli New Shekel (ILS) and
Lebanon Palestinian Pound (historically)
➢ Capital: Beirut ➢ Religion: Islam (predominantly),
➢ Official Language: Arabic Christianity, and other religions
➢ Currency: Lebanese Pound (LBP) ➢ Demonym: Palestinian
➢ Religion: Islam, Christianity
➢ Demonym: Lebanese (The) Philippines
➢ Capital: Manila
Malaysia ➢ Official Languages: Filipino, English
➢ Capital: Kuala Lumpur ➢ Currency: Philippine Peso (PHP)
➢ Official Language: Malay ➢ Religion: Christianity (Catholicism)
➢ Currency: Malaysian Ringgit (MYR) ➢ Demonym: Filipino
➢ Religion: Islam
➢ Demonym: Malaysian Qatar
➢ Capital: Doha
Maldives ➢ Official Language: Arabic
➢ Capital: Malé ➢ Currency: Qatari Rial (QAR)
➢ Official Language: Dhivehi ➢ Religion: Islam
➢ Currency: Maldivian Rufiyaa (MVR) ➢ Demonym: Qatari
➢ Religion: Islam
➢ Demonym: Maldivian Saudi Arabia
➢ Capital: Riyadh
Mongolia ➢ Official Language: Arabic
➢ Capital: Ulaanbaatar ➢ Currency: Saudi Riyal (SAR)
➢ Official Language: Mongolian ➢ Religion: Islam
➢ Currency: Mongolian Tögrög (MNT) ➢ Demonym: Saudi
➢ Religion: Buddhism
➢ Demonym: Mongolian Singapore
➢ Capital: Singapore
Myanmar ➢ Official Languages: Malay, Mandarin,
➢ Capital: Naypyidaw Tamil, English
➢ Official Language: Burmese ➢ Currency: Singapore Dollar (SGD)
➢ Currency: Myanmar Kyat (MMK) ➢ Religion: Buddhism, Christianity, Islam
➢ Religion: Buddhism ➢ Demonym: Singaporean
➢ Demonym: Myanmar
South Korea
Nepal ➢ Capital: Seoul
➢ Capital: Kathmandu ➢ Official Language: Korean
➢ Official Language: Nepali ➢ Currency: South Korean Won (KRW)
➢ Currency: Nepalese Rupee (NPR) ➢ Religion: Christianity, Buddhism
➢ Religion: Hinduism, Buddhism ➢ Demonym: South Korean
➢ Demonym: Nepali
Sri Lanka
North Korea ➢ Capital: Sri Jayawardenepura Kotte
➢ Capital: Pyongyang ➢ Official Languages: Sinhala, Tamil
➢ Official Language: Korean ➢ Currency: Sri Lankan Rupee (LKR)
➢ Currency: North Korean Won (KPW) ➢ Religion: Buddhism
 ➢ Demonym: Sri Lankan Yemen
➢ Capital: Sana'a
Syria ➢ Official Language: Arabic
➢ Capital: Damascus ➢ Currency: Yemeni Rial (YER)
➢ Official Language: Arabic ➢ Religion: Islam (predominantly Sunni and
➢ Currency: Syrian Pound (SYP) Shia)
➢ Religion: Islam ➢ Demonym: Yemeni
➢ Demonym: Syrian

Tajikistan
➢ Capital: Dushanbe
➢ Official Language: Tajik
➢ Currency: Tajik Somoni (TJS)
➢ Religion: Islam
➢ Demonym: Tajik

Thailand
➢ Capital: Bangkok
➢ Official Language: Thai
➢ Currency: Thai Baht (THB)
➢ Religion: Buddhism
➢ Demonym: Thai

Timor-Leste
➢ Capital: Dili
➢ Official Languages: Tetum, Portuguese
➢ Currency: United States Dollar (USD)
➢ Religion: Christianity (Catholicism)
➢ Demonym: Timorese

Turkey
➢ Capital: Ankara
➢ Official Language: Turkish
➢ Currency: Turkish Lira (TRY)
➢ Religion: Islam
➢ Demonym: Turkish

Turkmenistan
➢ Capital: Ashgabat
➢ Official Language: Turkmen
➢ Currency: Turkmenistani Manat (TMT)
➢ Religion: Islam
➢ Demonym: Turkmen

United Arab Emirates

➢ Capital: Abu Dhabi
➢ Official Language: Arabic
➢ Currency: United Arab Emirates Dirham
(AED)
➢ Religion: Islam
➢ Demonym: Emirati

Uzbekistan
➢ Capital: Tashkent
➢ Official Language: Uzbek
➢ Currency: Uzbek Som (UZS)
➢ Religion: Islam
➢ Demonym: Uzbek

Vietnam
➢ Capital: Hanoi
➢ Official Language: Vietnamese
➢ Currency: Vietnamese Dong (VND)
➢ Religion: Buddhism, Folk religions
➢ Demonym: Vietnamese