J

STATISTICS

DEFINITION- it is a science of collecting, summarizing, analyzing, presenting and interpreting data; to

estimate the association between variables for their sizes and strengths.

- Sir Ronald Fisher is known as father of statistics.

Medical statistics -when the statistical methods are applied to the field of medical science it is called
medical statistics.

Importance of medical statistics

Number of observations ~ade under controlled condition by the investigator is 'experiment'•

For setting any experiment, knowledge of statistics is essential.

Experimentation on human subjects regarding medical treatment is 'clinical trial'. For analysis
and evaluations to produce the outcome statistics is important.

For assessment of need of population, statistics becomes inevitable.

Benefits over the risks can be better understood and judged by statistical tools.

Population-

- -All required items necessary for statistical enquiry falling within the purview of enquiry are
known as population.

- -When the population can be counted, it is said to be 'finite'.

- -When the number is not countable, the population is infinite.

2 methods for collecting information on population-

1) Census method:

Every individual of unit is included in the investigation.

Eg-total number of arthritis patients in certain areas of city; all families and all members of all families
fall under investigation.

Population census of india is carried at the interval of every 10 years.

Merits of census method-

-every item is investigated under this enquiry.

The outcome is more reliable and precise in nature

 •
r •

-collected data when analysed gives more accurate results and can be used for various surveys for 0ther
\
kinds of research works.

-the projects prove to be more Intense and stand rellablllty tests.

Demerits of census method-

-in case of infinite population it is not possible.

-it needs huge number of investigators, with a big budget

--it is time consuming method

2) Sample method

-some individuals are selected on certain criteria amongst the target population so as to preserve the
accuracy and reliability of the sample.

Saves the cost, time, manpower and energy

Sample

• A sample is a group of units selected from a larger group (the population). By studying the
sample it is hoped to draw valid conclusions about the larger group.

• A sample is generally selected for study because the population is too large to study in its
entirety. The sample should be representative of the general population.

- Sample size denotes the number of units in a sample.

Sampling is inevitable in following events-

- When the results are expected in short span of time.

- When population is infinite and it is practically not possible to enumerate every individual.

- When a wide area of survey needs to be covered.

- In case of low budget and manpower.

Methods of sampllng from a population

• There are several different sampling techniques available, and they can be subdivided into two
groups~ probability sampling and non probability sampling.

• In probability (random) sampling the researcher chooses samples from a larger population using
a method based on the theory of probability. All eligible individuals have a chance of being
chosen for the sample.
 • Probability sampling methods tend to be more time consuming and expensive than non -
probability (non random) sampling.

• Non - probability sampling methods tend to be cheaper and more convenient.

Probability sampling methods

1) Simple random sampling - in this case each individual Is chosen entirely by chance and each
member of the population has an equ_al chance, or probability, of being selected.

• One way of obtaining a random sample is to give each individual in a population a number, and
then use a table of random numbers to decide which individuals to include.

• Advantage of simple random sampling - it reduces selection bias.

• Disadvantage of simple random sampling -you may not select enough individuals with your
characteristics of interest, especially if that characteristic is uncommon.

2) Systematic sampling - individuals are selected at regular intervals from the sampling frame.

The individuals are chosen to ensure an adequate sample size. If you need a sample size n from
a population of size x, you should select every x/nth individual for the sample. For example, if
th
you wanted a sample size of 100 from a population of 1000, select every 1000/100=10
member of sampling frame.

• Systematic sampling may also lead to bias.

3) Stratified sampling-
the population is first divided into subgroups (or strata) who all share a similar
characteristics.
For example, in a study of the health outcomes of nursing staff in a county, if there are
three hospitals each with different numbers of nursing staff (hospital A has 500 nurses,
hospital B has 1000 and hospital C has 2000), then it would be appropriate to choose the
sample numbers from each hospital proportionally (eg. 10 from hospital A, 20 from hospital
Band 40 from hospital C).
Stratified sampling improves the accuracy and representativeness of the results by
reducing sampling bias.
4) Oustered sampling -
in a clustered sample, subgroups of the population are used as the sampling unit, rather
than individuals. The population is divided into subgroups, known as clusters, which are
randomly selected to be included in the study.
For example individual GP practices or towns could be identified as clusters. In single stage
cluster sampling, all members of the chosen clusters are then included in the study. In two
stage cluster sampling, a selection of Individuals from each cluster is then randomly selected
for inclusion.
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Cluster sampling Is more efficient where a study takes place over a wide ge
region.

Non probability sampling

. b.ective judgement
. Sampling technique in which the researcher selects samples based on the su J
of the researcher rather than random selection.
• e conveniently
h
Convenience sampling- samples are selected from the population only because t ey ar
available to the researcher.
d cts research over a
Consealtive sampling- researcher picks a single person or a group of sampIe, con u
period, analyzes the results and then moves on to another subject.

Variable

• A variable is an attribute that describes a person, place, thing, or idea.

• The value of the variable can "vary" from one ~ntity to another.

- All the aspects included in the research work of an item are variables.

Eg- if the item is human being -the aspects under observation are age, sex, weight, height,
blood pressure etc are called variables.

Data

-A set of values recorded on one or more observational units. Or

-Data can be defined as a collection of facts or information from which conclusions may be drawn. ✓

• Data are measurements or observations that are collected as a source of information. There are
a variety of different types of data, and different ways to represent data.

Types of Data -

1) Qualitative & Quantitative data

2) Primary & secondary data

3) Discrete & continues data

4) Grouped & ungrouped data

l) Qualitative & Quantitative data

One can identify the type 0 f d t •

. a a prior to collection, based on whether the variable is numeric or
categorical.
 I
Qualitatlve data - the data which collected about a categorical variabl
e data will always be qualitative.
/ Qualitative data is non - numeric In nature.

Qualitative data are often termed categorical data.

Ex- (Poor, Fair, Good, Better, Best), colors (Ignoring any physical
causes), and types of material (straw,
sticks, bricks) are examples of qualitative data.

Quantitative data - the data collected about a numeric variable will

always be quantitative.
Quantitative data is numeric in nature.

Ex - if data are collected on annual income (1 lakh, 2 lakh, 3 lakh

etc), number of members in family (3,
4, 5, 6 etc.) are examples of quantitative data.

2} Primary & Secondary Data

According to the source of collection, the data can be classified as

primary or secondary data.
• Primary data - the data which is collected by investigator for first
time for doing statistical
analysis by him is known as "primary data". Some examples of primar
y data are: voters list, data
collected in census, data collected from questionnaire etc.

• Secondary data - the data which is obta_ined from sources like journa
ls, Government hospital
records etc. It is not directly collected by the analyst.

3) Discrete & continuous data

• According to the nature of that specific numerical data, it is classifi

ed into Discrete or
-
continuous data. In other words we can say that it is a subdivision
of quantitative data as it
contail)S only numerical data.

Discrete data-discrete data is a numeric data that have a

finite number (countable) of possible values.
• Data contains whole numbers and always quantitative.

• Ex - a class example of discrete data is a finite subset of the countin

g numbers, (1, 2, 3, 4 and S)
or number of patients dying due to cancer.

Continuous data - continuous data have infinite possibilities. The

real numbers are continuous with no
gaps or interruptions.

• Ex - physically measurable quantities of length, volume, time, mass

etc are generally considered
continuous data.
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•) Grouped and ungrouped data
grouped data,
According to presentation of data It can be divided as Grouped data or un

• Grouped data - the data which Is presented in groups named as grouped data.
. ts 13 gm% - 2 patients,
• Ex - The Hb % of 10 patients can be represented as 13.2 gm% - 3 pat,en '
13.4 gm % - Spatients etc.

•~ ; t l ' , • I' I.! I I \ I I I ' • j I .' l: I I\ •

13 2

Ungrouped data - the data which is presented individually (without groups) named as 'ungrouped data'•

• Ex - the Hb% of 10 patients can be represented as 13.2 gm %, 13 gm %, 13.2 gm%, 13.4 gm%,
13.4 gm%, 13 gm%, 13.4 gm%, 13.4 gm%, 13.2 gm% an~ 13.4 gm%.

Presentation of data

1) Tabular-

• • data •m
-After classification the data is grouped in the form of table • This process of summanzmg
table form is called tabulation.

-data is arranged in columns and rows systematically.

Uses -1) to simplify the complicated, complex data

2)For better understanding of the data collection

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3)To easily locate Items of data collection

4)To Minimize the space of presentation of data

S) To avoid repetition and explanations about data

6)To make graphs, diagrams etc

7)To compare various items at a glance

Ideal table should be presented in following way

1) Table should be with title and number- clear, unmistakable

2) Columns should be ~ith headings or captions-may have headings and sub headings. Words
should be self expl_anatory, relatively smaller.

3) Rows should be properly designated-self explanatory.

4) It should present body, footnote and sources of information

Example-

... -
No. of patients
..
,'"t-;......"T-.
l,,,J_ ~
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~ 5 0 0 1 2.5
.,,. . ; , ,. -. . , .
..-r-: ·•1: ... \ ~ '
2 10 20,! C 6
'

13 65 6 30 19 47.5

9 12

1 5 1 2 5

Table no.-4 Distribution of patients according to Age group

2) Graphical

A graph is more attractive than the table and presents the statistical data in visual form.
I'

1) Very easy to understand the message of graph

2) Comparisons of two or more Items can be vlsuallzed at a glance.

3) Correla'tion between two or more Items are obvious

Important kinds of graph are

1) Histogram

2) Frequency polygon

3) Frequency curve

4) Oglve

S) Lorenz curve

Histogram

-also called as staircase or block diagram

-this kind of graph is constituted by series of columns of rectangles having various heights.

-it is a bar chart or graph

Chart Title
30

25

20

15

10 -

0
[1, 5) (5, 9) (9, 13] (13, 111 (17, 21] (21, 25]

3) Diagrammatical

Data is displayed in a visual form of diagram, which is easily understood and well appreciated.

-saves time and energy

-high lightens the data with the fundamental facts and relationships
Diagrammatical representation is of following types

1) One dimensional diagram

2) Two dimensional diagram

3} Three dimensional diagram

4) Pictograms and cartograms

One dimensional diagram

1) line diagram

When many items with no much difference in their

values are to be displayed, line diagram is
used.

6
Chart Title

0 -----·------
Category 1 Category 2 Category 3
.....series 1 ..... series 2 ..... series 3 Category 4

2) Simple bar diagram

Used in business and in economics

Bars are horizontal or vertical

3) Multiple bar diagram

Two or more sets of statistical data can be compared

with this diagram.
 70

60 +----------
50 4-----------------
■ Group A
40 4 - - - - - - - - - - - ■ Group B

30 -+----------
20 - - - - - - - -
10 - - - - - - -
0
16-25 26-35 36-45 46-55 56-65

Two dimensional diagram

Also called as area diagrams or surface diagram since two dimensions are used here

1) rectangles

2) squares

3) Pie-diagram

Rectangles-

-used to represent two or more values

-rectangles are placed side by side so that the comparison becomes easy

-numerical figures can be taken as they are given or can be converted into percentage, this makes the
comparison with percentage easy at a glance.

sueotVIDEO PERCENTAGE

1:
DFOOc:J DClcitt~ l:IHOI ... Rent aFuee end l..6ghtlng a ~ -
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Squares
s vary widefY, square root of the val ues are taken and suitable scale is
If the magnitude of valsues of item
chosen to dra w square
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Sq ua re ro ot Si de
Co un try Yi eld
80 4
U. S. A
Au str nli a
64 00
16 00
40
so
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U. K. . 25 00
60
Ca na da 36 00
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In dia 49 00

4 cm

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u I 2.S cm

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p;e diagram

-also called circular diagram

h the total can be represented in this diagram.
The component parts along wit

and not on absolute basis.

It is based on percentage basis

1st step-data is prepared

imate size
2nd step-draw a circle of approx
ding sectors,
circle and represent correspon
3rd step- to measure points on

Pi e Di ag ra m

AU S
Ind ia
Ja pm
Three dimensional diagram

-also called volume diagram

-consist of cubes, spheres, cylinders etc.

~ratns and cartograms

-it is a stylized symbolic drawing

-they are effective for communication of Individuals with different cultures and languages.

Eg-road signs, pictu~ of a lady and man on ladies and gents washrooms are common

Utility-

Replace lengthy instructions

For people of different languages

Illiterate or low literate people

Advantages-

-more accurate to interpret

-highly appreciated and quickly understood

-more catchy and inform dangers with highlight

-Visualized from far, text is difficult to read from far

Disadvantages-

Possibility of not interpreting correctly by people of different cultures and religions ·

If not read correctly may add to safety hazards

Cartograms-

Or statistical maps are used to give quantitative information as a geographical basis. The quantities on
the map can be differentiated by using different colours or shades or dot etc.

Measures of central tendency

- In research method, the researcher faces a large number of numerical observations.

If the data is arranged properly in appropriate groups, every group may offer some numerical,
which could give idea of entire group tendency.
 _ The number representing the central value is called 'meas
ure of central tendency' or measure of
location.

Mean/arithmetic mean

oeflnltion• sum of all observations divided by the number

of observations.

- lt is denoted by~ in statistics

tatculation -No. of observations are x1,x2,x3 ...... xn

Total no. of observations are 'n'

Then mean is X = xl+x2+x3......xn

MEDIAN

All the values in data are written in ascending or descending

numerical order and identify the
value that appears in the middle of the list.

- If the total number of values in list is odd, middle value

of ascending or descending numbers is
median

- If the total number of values in the list is even then two

middle numbers are added and average
is median.

- Median divides the group of value int~ two equal parts, one
part comprising of values greater
than median and another part comprising of values less than
median.
- MEDIAN= Md= {ll±ll. th item
2
Mode-

It is that number which occurs most often in the data set.

It helps to identify the most common or frequent occurrence

of a characteristic.
It is possible to have two modes (bimodal), three modes (trimo
dal) or more modes within larger
sets of numbers.

_Useful for marketing studies for the managing person.