:

BIBLIOTHECA INDICA
A COLLECTION OF ORIENTAL WORKS

/ —
THE NATYASASTRA
ASCRIBED TO

B H A RA TA-M U N 1

TRANSLATED INTO ENGLISH BY

MANOMOHAN GHOSH, M. A , Ph. D-

WORK ISSUE
NUMBER NUMBER
272
1559

[MDCCXLVI-MDCCXC1V

CALCUTTA
ASIATIC SOCIETY 0J BENGAL

1, Park Street.

, 1951
 B1BLIOTHE0A INDICA
Work No. 272

THE NATYASASTRA
A TREATISE ON HINDU DRAMATURGY AND HISTRIONICS
 )

THE NATYASASTRA
A Treatise on Hindu Dramaturgy and Histrionics

Ascribed to

B H A R A T A - M f X I

Vol. I. ( Chapters I-XXVII

Completely translated jor the jirst time from the original Sanskrit

with m Introduction and Various Notes

M .U'OMOH A N (iHOS H M.A., Pn. I). <OAt,)

H'M 195y

CALCUTTA
THE RoyiL ASIATIC SOCIETY OF BENGAL
si,** \*>a^
 Dedicated

to

the memory of
thom great scholars of India. and the West

mho by their indefatigable study and. ingenious interpretation

of her Religion, Philosophy, Literature and Arts, have demon-

strated the high ealiie of India- s culture to the World at large and

ham helped her towa.nls a reawakening and political alteration.,

and

who by their discovery of the Universal aspect of this culture

have made patent India's spiritual kinship with the other ancient

nations of the World and ham paved the way for an ultimate

triumph of Internationalism.
 PREFACE
The preparation 'of an annotated English translation of the
Natya&stra entrusted to me as early as 1944, by the Royal Asiatic
Society, has been delayed for various reasons which need not
be recounted here in detail. But mention must be made of one
important factor of this delay, viz., the inherent difficulty of this
very old text which is not yet available in a complete critical edition.
From my first serious acquaintance with it in 1925 in connection
with the editing of the Abhinayadarpana (Calcutta, 1934) this work
has always engaged my attention in the intervals of other duties.
But it was only a few years ago, that I came to believe that the
'entirework could be translated into English. It was, however, only
after making some actual progress in translation that I realised the
difficulty ef the task and understood to some extent at least why
no complete translation of this veiy important text had so far not
been mada.

However, I considered it a duty to make strenuous efforts

and proceeded patiently with the work and finished at last translat-
ing the major portion of the Natyasastra. I am now genuinely
happy to place it before the scholarly public, not because it could

be done in an ideal fashion, but because it could be finished at all.

In handling a difficult old text like this it it natural that one

has to offer conclusions and interpretations, here and there, which
due to the absence of better materials cannot be placed on surer
grounds. But whatever tentative assertions I have made, have
been made after the most careful consideration with the expectation
that they may prove helpful to others working in this field, and it
may be hoped that their number has not been too many, and in a
few cases where I myself had any doubt about the interpretation
offered, the same has been expressly mentioned in the footnote.

The chapters on music covering a more than one fourth

little
of the Natyasastra still These when completed
remain to be done.
will be published in the second volume. As the work on it, is
progressing very slowly and it cannot be said definitely when it will
be finished, it was thought advisable to publish the portion of
the translation already prepared. Though the musical terms occur-
ring in the present volume remain undefined, the
absence of chap-
ters on music where they have been discussed, will not, it is hoped,
seriously interfere with the understanding of the dramaturgy and
histrionics treated here.

For information regarding the plan and scope of the present

work, the reader is referred
to the Introduction, section I.

For the purpose of this volume, works of various scholars

have been helpful to the translator and they have been mentioned
 VIII

in proper places. But among them all, the American Sanskritist

Dr. G. C. 0. Haas deserves to be specially mentioned ; for his
plan of the translation of the Dasarupa, has been adopted in a
slightly modified manner in the present work. ,

I am indebted to Dr. 8. K. De, due to whose kindness I

could utilise the unpublished portion of the AbinavabhSratl It is
also a great pleasure to acknowledge uniform courtesy of
the
different officers of the Society from 1947-1950, especially Dr. K.N.
Bagchi, and Dr. Niharanjan Ray, the General Secretaries and
Mr. S. K. Saraswati, the Librarian and Mr. Rakhahari Chatterji.
the Superintendent of the office, whose patience I had to tax on
different occasions in course of the publication.

I am grateful to my father-in-law Sri Kali Charan Mitra

who read the original draft of the
fourteen chapters of the
first
present work and made suggestions regarding the language, and to
my esteemed friend Dr. S. N. Ray, M.A.,Ph.D. (London) formerly
Head of the Department of English in the University of Dacca,
for reading the proof of the first twelve formes and also
for going
through in Mss. the Introduction and for making welcome
suggestions.

I wish to mention
here vciy gratefully the debt I owe to
Dr. Kalidas Nag
connexion with the preparation and the publi-
in
cation of this work. But for his suggestion to undertake this work
it might not have reached at all the
stage of publication.

Last but not the least it becomes my most cheerful duty to

express my gratitude to Prof. Suniti Kumar Chatterji, who has
also helped me otherwise in
connexion with this work. This
help and his constant encouragement
have rendered this work less
arduous than it might otherwise have been.

d hei e *'* '

t^
*P° lo t0 refers for the many mis-
™„ Iwf
ta that
prints have crept into the g«f
volume. They
are requested to make
kindly, the necessary corrections
pointed out in the corrigenda.

»tk November, I960

Th TnMgahr
 ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS
... The first hemistich of a verse.
ft.

Abhi. ... Bhasa's Abhisekanataka.

AD- ... Nandikesvara's Abhinayadarpana.

A.dy. ... Arthadyotanika, Raghavabhatta's commentary

on the sakuntala.

Ag.j Abhinava
... Abhinavagupta or his commentary of the
Natyasastra.

AMg. ... Ardhamagadhi.

Avi- ... Bhasa's Avimaraka.
4' ... Kautilya's Arthasastra (ed. Jolly).

A3, notes. ... Kautilya's Arthasastra (ed. Jolly). Vol. II.

B. ... Baroda ed. of the Natyasastra.

b. ... The second hemistich of a verse.

Bala. ... Bhasa's Balacarita.

Bhamaha. ... Bhamaha's Kavyalamkara.
BhNC. ... Bhasa-nataka-cakra ed. by C. R. Devadhar
BhP. ... Saradatanaya's Bhavaprakasana.

C. ... Chowkhamaba (Benares) edition of the

Natyasastra.

c. ... The third hemistich in a stanza.

Caru. ... Bhasa's Carudatta.

CSS. ... Chandah-sara-samgraba.

Dandin. ... Dandin's KavyadarSa.

'

det ... Definition or definitions.

De's Ms. ... The Ms. of the Abhinavagupta's commentary

(Abhinavabharati) belonging to Dr. S. K. De.

DR. ... Dhananjaya's Dasarttpa.

Dutagha. ... Bhasa's Dutaghatotkaca.

Dutava. ... Bhasa's Dutavakya.

Ex. ... Example or examples.
Foundation. ... Nobel's Foundation of Indian Poetry.
G. ... J. Grosset's edition of the Natyasastra.

GOS. ... Gaikwar's Oriental Series.

Haas. ... Haas's translation of the DaSarupa.

LAnt. ... Indian Antiquary.
1HQ. ... Indian Historical Quarterly.
ID.,Ind.Dr. ... Sten Konow's Indische Drama.
Itihasa. ... Haldar's Vyakarana-darsaner Itihasa.
JDL. ... Journal of the Dept. of Letters,
Calcutta University.
JK. . ,.. Vidyalamkara's JivanikoSa.

B
 ,. Kavyamala ecL of the Natyasastra.
K.
.. Hemaeandra's Kavyanusasana.
KA.
Bhasa's Karnabhara.
Karna. commentary to
.. Ramakrishna Kavi or his
Kavi.
thech-XVILofthaNS.
.. Vatsyayana's KamasBtra.
K8.
Kalidasa's Kumarasambhava.
Samara. ...

... Damodaragupta's Kuttanimata.

Kutta.
Sylavain LeVi's Le Thfttre
indien.
...
Levi,
Madhyama. ,.. Bhasa's Madhyamavyayoga.

Malati. ... BhavabhSti's Malatlmadhava.

Malavi. ... Kalidasa's Mai vikagnimitra. .

MG. ... Coomaraswamy's Mirror of Gestures-

Mrcch. ... i&draka's Mrcchakatika.. .

Mudra. ... Vi&khadatta's Mudrarak§asa.

Natakalaksana. \
'
... Sagaranandin's Natakalaksanaratnakofo.
NL., /
ND. ... Ramacandra and Gunaeandra's Natyadarpana.
NIA. ... New Indo-Aryan.

Nitti-Dolci. ... Nitti-Dolci's Le Grammairiens Prakrit.

NS. ... Natyasastra.

P. ... Purana.
Paiic ... Pafcaratra
Pan. ... Panini.

Pingala. ... Pangala's CltandalistUra.

Pischcl. ... Pischel's Grammatik der Prakrit-spraehen.

Pr.P. ... Praki'ta-Paingala.

Pr. ... Pratisakhya.

Prak. ... Prakarana.

Pratima. ... Bhasa's Pratima-nataka.
Pratijfla. ... Bhasa's Pratijna-yaugandharayana.
?i ... Paniniya-Siksa.

PSM. ... Paia-sadda-mahannavo.

B., Bam. ... Ramayana.
Ratna. ... Harsa's Ratnavali.
BS. ... Kalidasa's Rtusamhara.
Sak. ... Kalidasa's Abhijflanasakuntala.
8D. ... Sahityadarpana.
SB. ... Sarngadeva's Samgitaratnakara.
SV Pr. ... Bhoja's Srngaraprakafo.
Svapna. ... Bhasa'B Svapavasavadatta.
tr., trans. ... translation or translated.
Uttara. ... Uttararamacarita of BhavabhQti.
 XI

... Bhasa's Urubhariga.

jjrU ,

Vikram. ... Kalidasa's Vikramorva&ya.

Winternitz. ... Winternitz's History of Indian Literature.

NJS. (a) Numerals preceding the paragraphs of the translation relate

to the serial number of couplets in the original. When the same number

is repeated in two consecutive paragraphs, in the first place it will indicate

the first hemistich and in the second the second hemistich. Roman figures

relate to the chapter of the NS.

* dramas, see under the Bhasa-

(b) For the "manner of referring to

nataka-cakra in the'Bibliography (Original Texts).

:
(c) In the footnotes to the Introduction long vowels, cerebral

sounds andjthe labial sibilant have been indicated by italics.

 .

BIBL10GBAPHY

1, General Works

Calcutta 1943.
M. .- Inscriptions of Asoka, Vol. II,
Barua, B.
Development of the Bengal,
Chatterji,S. K. -Origin and

Language, Calcutta, 1926-

The Mirror of Gestures, New York, 1936.
Coomaraswamy, A, K. ...

- Sanskrit Poetics Vol. I and II,

De, S. K. :

London, 1903, 1926.

Chandahsarasamgraha (CSS Calcutta.
Ghosh, Chandramohan ... ),

Vyakarana-darsaner Itihasa (Itihasa). (An his-

Haldar, Gurupada ...

torical account of the grammatical speculation # of the Hindus

in Bengali), Calcutta. 1350 B.E.

Jolly, J. ... Hindu Law and Customs, Calcutta, 1929.

Keith, A. B. ... Sanskrit Drama, Oxford, 1924.

Konow, Sten. ... Das Indische Drama. Berlin, 1920.

Levi, Sylvain ... Lo Theatre indien, Paris, 1890.

Mankad, D. R. ... Typos of Sanskrit Drama, Karachi, 1936.

Nitti-Dolci, L. ... Les Grammairiens Prakrit, Paris, 1938.

J. Nobel. ... Foundation of Indian Poetry, Calcutta, 1925.
PischeliR. ... Grammatik der Prakrit-sprachen,

Strassburg, 1900.

Pusalker ... Bhasa, Lahore, 1940.

Raghavaa, V. ... Sfngara-Prakasa, Bombay, 1940.
Seth, H. D. ... Paiasaddamahannavo, Calcutta, 1928.
Sircar, D.C. ... Select Inscriptions bearing on Indian History

and Civilization, Calcutta, 1942.

Vidyalamkar, S. B. ... Jivanikosa (A dictionary of the Puranic mytho-

logy in Bengali), Calcutta.

2. Original Texts

Abhinavabharati (Ag.) ...On chapters I-XX ed. Ramakrishna Kavi in B.

On chapters XXI-XXVII and XXIX-XXXH the Ms. of

Dr. S. K. De. Reference to the Ms. are to its pages. Printed

portion of the commentary when referred to, relates to the
relevant text in B.

Abhinayadarpana of Nandikesvara ( AD. ). Ed. Manomohan Ghosh

Calcutta, 1934.

Abhisekauataka (Abhi.). Ed. Devadhar in BhNC.

Arthadyotanika. Nirnayasagara ed.
Avimaraka. Ed. Devadhar in BhNC.
Arthasastra of Kautilya (AS.). Ed. J. Jolly, Vols I and II, Lahore, 1923-24.
 VUararamacarita ofBhavabhati (Uttara.). Ed. Ratnam Aiyar, Bombay 1930.
Vrubhanga (tJru.> Ed. Devadhar in BhNC.
£tusamhara of.'Kalidasa. Ed. Jivananda Vidyasagar, Calcutta,
1893.,
Karnabhara (Karna ). Ed. Devadhar in BhNC.
Kavyadarsa ofiDandin. Ed. N. Sastri, Lahore, 1990,
Samvat.
Kavyalannkara of Bhamaha. Ed. B. N. Sarma and B.
Upadhyaya Chow-
khamba. Benares, 1928.

Kavyalainkara^fjVaniana, Ed. K.P. Parab & W. Pansikar, Bombay, 1926.

K'ytilata of Vidyapati, Ed. Haraprasad Shastri.
Kuttanimata, Ed. in Bibliotheca Indica, Calcutta.
Carudatta of Bhasa (Caru). Ed. Devadhar in BliNC.
Dasarilpa (DB). Ed. K. P. Purab, Bombay, 1897. Oar
references are to
thjs edition. The ed. of. G.C.O. Haas with an English tran-
slation has also been referred to. P. Hall's ed. {.Bibliotheca
Indica) has also been used-

Dutaghatotkaca of Bhasa (Dutagha.) Ed. Devadhar in BhNC.

Dntavakya'of Bhasa (Dutava.). Ed. Devadhar in BhNC
Madhayamavyayoga of Bhasa (Madhyama-). Ed. Devadhar in BhNC.
Malavikagnimitra of Kalidasa (Malavi.). Ed. S. P. Pandit.
( Bombay Sanskrit Series ), Bombay, 1889.

Mrcchakatika (Mrech). Ed. K. P. Parab and W. L. S. Pansikar,

Bombay, 1926-
Mudraraksasa of Visakhadatta (Mudra). Ed. Kasinath Trimbak Telang
{Bombay Sit. Series), Bombay, 1928
Meghaduta of Kalidasa (Megha). Ed. S. Vidyaratna, Calcutta, 1821, Saka.
Natakalaksana-ratnakosa of Sagaranandin (Natakalaksana, NL). M.
Dillon, London, 1939. References are by lines unless
otherwise mentioned.

Natyadarpana of Ratnacandra and Gunacandra (ND.), Ed. in GOS.

Natyasastra of Bharata (N^). Chapters I-XIV. Ed. J.
Grosset, Paris,
Lyons, 1898 ; Chapters I-XX. ed. R. Kavi, Baroda,
1926^
1936. Numbering of couplets in this work is often wrong.
Iu case of chapters I-III this has been corrected, but
in
case of other chapters wrong numbers have been retained
and in some cases where confusion may occur, pages have
also been referred to. The edition of Sivadatta
and Parab
(Bombay, 1894), and the Chowkhamba edition (Benares, 1©26)
have also been used.
Paflcaratra of Bhasa (Paflea). Ed. Devadhar in BhNC.
Paflcatantra of Visnusaraman, Chowkamba, Benares, 1930.
Paninlya-siksa (P8.) ( Ed. Manomohan Ghosh, Calcutta, 1938.
PratijaYia-yaugandharayana of, Bhasa (Pratijril.), Ed. Devadhar.in BhNC.
 XIV

Pratimanataka of Bhasa (Pratima.) Ed. Devadhar in BhNC.

Balacarita of Bhasa (Bala.), Ed. Devadhar in BhNC.
Bhavaprakasana of Saradatanaya (BhP.) Ed, in GOS.
Bhasa-nataka-cakra (Plays ascribed to Bhasa), critically edited by C. R.
Devadhar, Poona, 1937. References are to acts, verse passages
and lines after them, e.g. Svapna, 1. 12, 23 indicates the twenty-
third line afrer the twelfth verse in act I of Svapnavasavadatta
Vikramorvasiya of Kalidasa (Vikram.). Ed- 8. P. Pandit. {Bombay Sans-
krit Series), Bombay, 1898.
Venisamhara of Bhattanarayana (Vei.il.). Ed- K. 8. Parab and W. L. 'A.

Pansikar, Bombay, 1930.

Raghuvamsa of Kalidasa (Raghu.). Ed. K.P. Parab and W.L.S. Pansikar,
Bombay, 1932.

Ratnavall of Sriharasa (Ratna.), Ed. M. K. Jogelkar, Bomba'y 1925.

Sakuntala of Kalidasa^ (Sak.) Ed. Isvara chandra Vidyasagar, Calcutta.
Sarogitaratnakara of Sarngadeva (8R.). Snandasrama edition.
Sahityadarpana of ViSvanatha Kaviraja (8D.) Ed. Jivananda'Vidyasagar.
Svapnavasavadatta of Bhasa (Svapna.), Ed. Devadhar in BhNC.
Harsacarita of Banabhatta, Ed. P. V. Kane, Bombay, 1912.
 CONTENTS

PREFACE ... ... Vll

LIST OP ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS ... IX
BIBLIOGRAPHY ... ... XII
INTRODUCTION ... ... XXXVII

I. The Present Work, p. XXXVII 1. General History of the

;

Study, p. XXXVII j 2- Basic Text, p. XL; 8. Translation, p. XLI;

4. Notes to the Translation, p. XLI.

•

The Ancient Indian Theory of Drama, p. XLH 1. The

II. ;

Meaning of Natya, p. XLII 2. The Dramatic Conventions/ p. XLIV ;

;

3. The Time and Place of Drama, p. XLV 4. The Unity of Imperession,

;

p. XLV ; 5. Criticism of Drama, p. XLV 6. The Pour Aspecta of

;

Drama, p. XLVIII.

III. Literary Structure of the Ancient Indian Drama, p.

XLIX The Ten ; Types of Play. The Nataka, p. XLIX j (a) Subject-

matter and the division into Acts, p. XLIX ; (b) Explanatory Devices,
p. LI ; (i) Introductory Scene, p. LI ; (ii) The Intimating Speech, p.

LI ;
(iii) The Supporting Scene, p. LI ; (iv) The Transitional Scene, p.
LI ; (v) The p. LI ; (c)
Anticipatory Scene, The Plot and its Develop-
ment, p. LI ; The Prakarana, LII The Samavakara, ; p. LH ; The
Ihamrga, p. LIII The Dima, p. LIII
; The Vyayoga, ; p. LIII ; The
Utsrstikanka, p. LHI ; The Prahasana, p. LHI The Bhana, p. LTV; ;

The Vithi, p. LIV. 2. Diction of Play, p. L1V (a) The Use of Metre,
;

p. LIV ;
(b) Euphony, p. LIV ; (c) Suggestive or Significant Names,

p. LV ; (d) Variety of Languages Dialects, p. LV.

IV. The Ancient Indian Drama in Practice, p. LV ; 1. Occa-

sions for Dramatic Performance, p. LV ; 2. The Time for Performance,
p. LVI ; 3. The Playhouse, p. LVII ; 4. The Representation, p. LVHI.
(a) The Physical Representation, p. LVHI ; The Vocal Representation,
(b)

p. LXI j
(c) The Costumes and Make-up, p. LXI (d) The Temperament,
;

p. LX1II.

V. Literature on the Ancient Indian Drama, p. LXIV ; l>The

Early Writers : SUalin and Krsasva, p.LXIV ; 2. The Socalled Sons of
Bharata (a) Eohala, (b) Dattila, (c) Satakarni (jSitakarna, fialikarna), (d)
Asmakutta and Nakhakutta, (e> Badarayana (Badari), p. LXIV ; 3, Sam-
 ,

XVI

grahakara, p. LXV ; 4. The Present Text of the Natya&stra, p. LXV j

5.

Medieval Writers on Drama, (a) Nandi (NandikesVara), Tumburu, Visa-

khila and Carayana, (b) Sadaftva, Padmabha, Drauhini, Vyasa, and Inja-

neya, (c) Katyayana, Rabula and Garga, (d) Sakaligarbha and Ghantaka,

(e) Yartika-kara-Har§a, (f) Matrgupta, (g) Subandhu, (h) Compilers

of the Agnipurana and the Visnudharmottara, pp. LXV-LXVII ; (6) Late

Literature on Drama, (a) Dasarupa, (b) NStekalaksanaratnakosa, (c)

Natyadarpana, (d) Rayyaka's Natakamimamsa, (e) Bhavaprakasana, (f)

Sahityadarpana and Natakaparibhasa, pp. LXVII-LXX.

VI. The Natyasastra : The Text and iis Commentaries, p.

LXXI i
1. Its Author, p. LXXI ; 2. The two Recensions, p. LXXI ;

3. Unity of the Natyasastra, p. LXXII ; 4. Its Scope and Importance,

P.LXXIV; 5. Its Style and Method of Treatment, p. LXXIV ; 6. The

Early Commentators : Scarya Kirtidhara, and Bhasyakara Nanyadeva
(b) Bhatta Udbhata, (e) Bhatta Lollata, (d) Sri Bankuka, (e) Bhatta
Nayaka, (f) Bhatta Yantra, p. LXXV; 7. Bhatta Abhinavagupta,
p.LXXVI.

VII. Data of India's Cultural History in the Natyasastra,

p. LXXVIII -1. Language, p. LXVIII 2. Literature, p. LXXVIII
; ;

3. Art, p. LXXVIII; 4. Metrics, p. LXXIX; 5. Poetics, p. LXXIX ;

6. Costumes and Ornaments, p. LXXIX ; 7. Mythology, p. LXXIX ;

8. Geography, LXXX;
p. 9. Ethnological Data, p. LXXX ; 10.

Ars Amatoria, p. LXXX 11. ; Arthagastra, p. LXXX ; 12. Psychology,

p. LXXXI.
VIII. The Date of the Natyasastra, p. LXXXI I ; 1. The Geo-
graphical Data, p. LXXXII ; 2. The Natyasastra earlier than Kalidasa,
p. LXXXII ; 3. The Mythological Data, p. LXXXIII ; 4. The Ethno-
logical Data, p. LXXXIII; 5. The Epigraphical Data, p. LXXXIII;
6. The Natyasastra earlier than Bhasa, p. LXXXIV.

THE NITYA&STRA (Translation)

 xvn
Chapter One
THE ORIGIN OP DRAMA, Pages 1-17

1. Salutation, p. 1 ;
2-5.' Sages question, p. 1 6-23. Bharata
;

answers, pp. 2-5 ; 24-25. The Nafcyaveda and Bharata's one hundred sons,

pp. 5-6 ; 26-40. Names of Bharata's one hundred sons, pp. 6-7 ; 41 • Per-
formance begins with three Styles, p. 7 ; 42-45. Need of the Kaisik! Style,

p. 7-8 ; 46-47. Creation of Apsarasas for practising the Kaisik! Style,

p. 8 ;
47-50. Names of Apsarasas, p. 8 ; 50-53. Svati and Narada engaged
to help Brahman, pp. 8-9 ; 53-58. The Banner Festival of Indra and the

first production of a play, p. 9 ; 58-63. The pleased gods reward Bharata's

party, pp. 9-10 ; 64-66. Vighnas attack the actors, pp. 10-11 ; 67-68.

Indra comes to iheir protection, p. 11 ; 69-75. The Origin of the Jarjara,

p. 11 ; 75-81. The Origin of the first playhouse, pp. 11-12 ; 82-97. Differ-

ent gods asked to protect different parts of the playhouse as well as the
actors, pp. 12-13 ; 98-105. Brahman pacifies the Vighnas, pp. 13-14 ;
106-

121. Characteristics of a drama, pp. 14-16 ; 122-129. Offering Piija to

the gods of the stage, pp. 16-17.

Chapter Two
DESCRIPTION OP THE PLAYHOUSE, Pages 18-32

1-3. Introduction, p. 18 ; 4-8. Three types of playhouse, pp. 18-19 j

8-11. Three sizes of the playhouse, pp. 19 ; 12-16- The table of measure-
ment, p. 20 ; 17. The playhouse for mortals, p. 20 ; 18-23. Disadvan-
tage of a too big playhouse, pp. 20-21 ;
24-26. Selection of a suitable
site, p. 21 ; 27-28. Measurement of a site, pp. 21-22 ; 28-33. Taking up
the string for measurement, p. 22 j 33-35. The ground plan of tho play-
house, p. 22 ; 35-43. The ceremony of laying the foundation, pp. 23-24 ;

43-63. Raising pillars of the playhouse, pp. 24-26 ; 63-67. The Matta-
varanl, pp. 26-27 ; 68-74. The stage, pp. 27-28 ; 75-85. Decorative work
in tho stage, pp. 28-30 j 86-100. Description of a square playhouse,
pp. 30-32 ; 101-104. Description of a triangular playhouse, p. 32.

Chapter Three
PuJA" TO THE GODS OP THE STAGE, Pages 33-44

1-10. Consecration of the playhouse, pp. 33-34 ; 11-16. Offering

Pftja to tho Jarjara, pp. 34-35 j 17-20. Installation of gods, p. 35 ;
20-32.

The Mandala for installing the gods, pp. 35-36 j 33-39. Offering Puja to
tho gods, p. 37 ; 40-73. Consecration of the Mattavarani, pp. 37-40 ;

73-81. Consecration of tho Jarjara, p. 41 ; 81-87. Homa or pouring ghSe

into sacrificial fire, pp. 41-42 j 87-89. Breaking the jar, p. 42 ;
89-93.

Illumination of tho stage, pp. 42-43 ; 93-97. Good results of consecrating

C
 ;

xvm
the
Evils following non-consecration of
stage.,
the stage, p. 43 ; 98-101.

pp. 43-44.

Chapter Four
THE CLASS DANCE, Pages 45-75

1-14. Brahman writes the first play and gets it performed, pp. 45-46 ;

kinds of Preliminaries, pp. 46-47 16-27. The Angaharas,

14-16. Two ;

28-29. Uses of Aiigahlras, p. 47 ;

29-61. The Karanas, pp. 47-49;
p. 47 ;

170-245- Definition of
62-169. Definition of 108 the Karanas, pp. 49-60 ;

246-252. The Recakas, pp. 65-66 253-264.

the Angaharas, pp. 60-65 ;
;

The Pindibandhas, pp. 66-68 ;

The Sages speak on the use of
265-272-

dance, pp. 68-69 ;

273-274. The Vardhamanaka, p. 69 27,5. The Ssarita, ;

69; 276. The Upohana, p. 69 ; 277-294. Entry of female dancers and

p.
295-308. The Cnandakas, pp. 72-73
the four kinds of Pindis, pp. 69-72 ; ;

309-310. The gentle dance, p. 73 j 311-314. Occasions suited to dance,

315-320. Occasions when dances are prohibited p. 74 321-

pp. 73-74 ;
; ;

324 Playing of drums, pp. 74-7b; 325-328. When drums are not to bn

played, p. 75

Chapter Five
THE PRELIMINARIES OP A PLAY, Pages 76-99

1-4. The sages question, 76 ; p. 5-6. Bharata answers, p. 76 ; 7. Preli-

minaries defined, p. 76 ;
8-16. Parts of the Preliminaries, pp. 76-77. 17,

Pratyahara, and Avatarana, pp. 78 ; 18. Srambha, and Asravana, pp. 78 ;

19. Vaktrapani, Parighattana, p. 78 ; 20. Samghotanii, Margasarita, p. 79.

21. Asiirita and the Application of Songs, p. 79 ; 22-23. Utthapana, p 79 ;

23-24. The Walking-round, p. 79 ;

24-25. The Benediction, 79 ; 25-26.

^uskavakjsta Dhruva, pp. 80 j 26-27. Rangadvara, p. 80 ; 27-28. The Cari

and the Mahacari, p. 80 ; 28-29. Three Men's Talk, p. 80; 29-30. The
Laudation, p. 80 ; 30-32. Origin of Bahirgita and its justification, pp.

80-81 ; 33-36. Daityas and Raksasas provoked to jealousy, p. 81 ;

37-38.
The {tods approach Niirada to stop the Nirglta, p. 81 ; 38-44. Narada
pacifies the gods, p. 82 ; 44-59. The gods are pleased with the Nirglta
(Bahirgita), pp. 82-83; 60-64. Songs in puro Preliminaries, p. 84;
65-66. The first Walking-round, p. 84 ; 67-76. The second Walking-round,
pp. 84-86 ;
77-84. The third Walking-round, pp. 86-87 ;
84-89. The
fourth Walking-round, p. 87 89-101. The Parivartani Dhruva,
;
pp. 87-89
101-104. The Fourth Man enters, p. 89 ; 104-107. Singing of the Avakrsfci
Dhruva, pp. 89-90 ;
107-113.Examples of the Benediction, pp. 90-91 j 113-
116. An example of SuskavakRta Dhruva, p. 91 116-119. Rangadvara, ;

p. 91 119-127- Carl, pp. 92-93 127-137.

; ; Mahacari, pp. 93-94 ;
137-
141, The Throj Men's Talk, p. 94 14U142. The Laudation,
;
pp. 94-95 ;
 XIX

143-154. The Tryasra Preliminaries, pp. 95-96 ; 155-166. The Mixed

preliminaries, pp. 96-97 ; 167-179. Introduction of a play, pp. 97-99.

Chapter Six
THE SENTIMENTS, pages 100-117

1-3. The sages question, p. 100 ; 4-8. Bharata answers, pp. 100-101 ;

8-14. Digest, Memorial Verse and Etymology denned, pp. 101 15-16. The ;

eight Sentiments, p. 102 17-21. The Dominant States, p. 102

; 22. The ;

eight Temperamontal States, pp. 102-103 ; 23. The four kinds of Histrio-

nic Representation, p. 103 ; 24. The two Practices and the four Styles, p.

103 ;
25-26. The four Local Usages, and the Success, p.- 104 ; 27-29. The
notes, and the f«ur kinds of musical instrument, p. 104 ; 29-31. The five

kinds of Dhruva, pp. 104-105 ; 31-33. The Sentiments explained, pp. 105-

136 ;
33-38. Thi» relation between the Sentiment and the States, p. 106-107 ;

38-43. The eight Sentiments from the four original ones, p. 107-108 ; 44-45.

The presiding deities of the Sentiments, p. 108 45-48. The Erotic Senti- ;

ment, pp. 108-110 ; 48-55. The Comic Sentiment, pp. 110-111 56-57. ;

Of persons of the middling type, p. Ill ; 58-61. Of persons of the inferior

type, pp. 111-112The Pathetic Sentiment, p. 112
; 61-63. 63-66. The ;

Furious Sentiment, pp. 112-113 66-68. The Heroic Sentiment, p. 114; ;

68-72. The Terrible Sentiment, pp. 114-115 72-74. The Odious Sentiment, ;

pp. 115 74-76. The Marvellous Sentiment, p. 116

; 77. The three kinds ;

of the Erotic, the Comic and the Terrible Sentiments, p. 116 ; 78. The
three kinds of the Pathetic Sentiment, p. 116 j 79. The three kinds of the
Heroic Sentiment, pp. 116-117, 80. The three kinds of the Terrible Senti-
ment, 117. 81. The three kinds of the Odious Sentiment, p. 117 ;
82-83.

The three kinds of the Marvellous Sentiment, p. 117.

Chapter Seven
THE EMOTIONAL AND OTHER STATES, Pages 118-147.

1-3. Bkavas (States) explained, p. 118 ; 3-4. Vibhavas (Determi-

nants) explained, pp. 118119 ;
4-6 Annbhavas (Consequents) explained,
p. 119 ;
6-7. The three kinds of State ; Dominant, Transitory and Tem-
peramantal, pp. 119-120 j 7-8. Difference between the Dominant and the
other States pp. 120-121 ; 8-9. Love, p. 121 ; 9-10. Laughter, p. 121 ;
10-

14. Sorrow, p. 122 ; 14-20. Anger, pp. 122-123 j 20-21. Energy, pp. 123-
124 ; 21-25. Pear, p. 124 ;
25-26. Disgust, p. 125 ;
26-27. Astonishment
p. 125 j 27-29. The Transitory States, pp. 125-126 ;
27-30. Discourage-
ment, p. 126 ; 30-32. Weakness, pp. 126-127 ;
32-35. Apprehension,
PP. 127 ; 35-37. Envy, pp. 127-128 ; 37-46. Intoxication, pp. 128-129 ;

48-47. Weariness, p. 129 47-48. Indolence, pp. 129-130; 48-49. Depression,

;

P. 130 ; 49-51. Anxiety, p. 130 51-53/ Distraction, pp. 130-131 ; 53-55.

j
XX
Recollection, p. 181 ; 55-57. Contentment, pp. 131-132 ;
57-59. Sbame,
p. 132 ; 59-60. Inconstancy, p. 132-133 ; 60-62. Joy, p. 133 ;
82-65. Agita-

tion, pp. 133-134 ; 65-66. Stupor, p. 134135 ; 66-67. Arrogance, p. 185 ;

67-69. Despair, p. 135-136 ; 69-70. Impatience, p. 136 ;

70-72. Sleeping,

p. 136 ; 72-74. Epilepsy, p. 137 ; 74-76. Dreaming, pp. 137-138 ;

76-77.

Awakening, p. 138 ;
77-79. Indignation, p. 138 ; 79-80. Dissimulation,

pp. 138-139 ; 80-81. Cruelty, p. 189 ; 81-82, Assurance, p. 139 ;

82-83. Sick-

ness, pp. 139-140 j 83-85. Insanity, pp. 140-141 ;

85-90. Death, pp. 141-

142 ; 90-91. Fright, p. 142 ; 91-93. Deliberation, pp. 142-143 ; 93.

Temperamental States, p. 143 ; 95. Perspiration, p. 144 ; 96. Parafysis

and Trembling, p. 144 ; 97. Weeping, p. 144 ; 98. Change of Colour

and Horripilation, p. 144 ; 99. Change of Voice and Pointing, p. 144 ;

100-106. Representation of the Temperamental States, pp. 144-145 ;

107-

124. Application of the States to the different Sentiments, p|>. 145-147.

Chapter Eight
THE GESTURES OP MINOR LIMBS, Pages 148-167

1-3. Sages question, p. 148 ;

4-6 Bliarata answers, pp. 148-149 ; 7.

The meaning of abhinaya, p. 149 ;

8-9. The four kinds of abhinaya, p.

149 ; 11-16. The Gesture : its three varieties, pp. 149-150 ; 17-37. Gestures

of the head and their uses, pp. 150-152; 38-42. The thirtysix Glances,

pp 152-153 43-51. The Glances to express the Sentiments, pp. 153-154

; ;

52-60. The Glances to express the Dominant States, pp. 154-155 61-84. ;

The Glances to express the Transitory States, pp. 155-158 ; 85-95. Uses of
Glances to express the Transitory States, pp. 158-159 j 95-98. The eye-

balls, pp. 159-160 ; 99-102. Uses of the eyeballs, p. 160 ;

103-107. The
additional Glances, pp. 160-161 ; 108-111. The eyelids, p. 161 ;
112-115.

Uses of the eyelids, The eyebrows, pp. 162-163. 121-125.

p. 162 ; 116-120.

Uses of the eyebrows, p. 163 126-128. The nose, pp. 163-164 129-132. ; ;

Uses of the nose, p. 164 132-134. The cheeks p. 164 135-137, Uses of
; ; ;

the cheeks, pp. 164-165 137-139. The lower lip, p. 165 140-142. Uses of
; ;

the lower lip, p. 165 143-146. The chin, p. 166 146-149. Uses of the
; ;

chin, p. 166 ; 149-157. The mouth, pp. 166-167 ; 157-158. The colour of
the face, p. 167 ;
159-165. Uses of the colour of the face, pp. 167-168 ;

166-167. The nock, p. 168 ; 167-173. Description and usos of the neck
gestures, pp, 168-169.

Chapter Nine
THE GESTURES OP HANDS, Pages 170-190

1-3. Bharata speaks, p. 170 ; 4-17. Sixtyseven gestures of the hand,

pp. 170-171 ;
17-126. Gestures of single hands, pp. 171-181 126-155.
j

Gestures of combined hands, pp. 182-185 j 156-159. General rules regard-

ing the use of hand gestures, p. 185 ;. 160-165. Different movements of

 XXI
hand gestures, p. 185 j
166-167. Spheres of hand gestures,
p. 186 ; 168-177.
The quantity of gestures, pp. 186-187 ; 178-204. The Dance-hands, pp. 187-
189 205-211. The four Karanas of the hands, pp. 189-190 212-214.
;
; The
movements of arms. p. 190,

Chapter Ten
THE GESTURES OP OTHER LIMBS, Pages 191-196.

1-9. The breast, pp. 191 ; 10-15. The sides, p. 192 j 16-17. Uses of the
sides, p. 192 J 18. The belly, p. 192 ; ; 9-20. Uses of the belly, pp. 192-193 ;

21-^4. The waist, p. 193 j

25-26. Uses of the waist, pp. 193-194:27-31.
The thifch, p. 194 ; 32-33 Uses of the thigh, p. 194 ; 34-37. The
shank, pp. 194*195 ; 28-40. Uses of the shank, p. 165 ; 41-51. The feet and
their uses, pp. 195-196 ; 52-54. The Carls, p. 196.

'Chapter Eleven
THE CIRI MOVEMENTS, Pages 197-206
1-3. Definitions, p. 197 ;
4-6. Uses of the Carls, p. 197 ; 7-12. The
thirtytwo Cans, pp. 197-198 ; 13-2a The earthly Carls, pp. 198-199 ;

29-49. The aerial Carls, pp. 199-201 ; 50-71. The SthSnas, pp. 201-203 ;

71-88. The four Nyiiyas in using weapons, pp. 203-205 ; 88-91. The
Sausthava, p. 205 ; 91-92. The Caturasra, p. 205 ;
92-94. The four acts

relating to the bow, p. 205 ;

94-96. The method of exercise, pp. 205-206 ;

96-100 Health and nourishment of persons taking exercise ; p. 206.

Chapter Twelve
THE MANDALA MOVEMENTS, Pages 207-212

1-5.Tho Mandalas, p. 207 ;

6-41. The aerial Mandalas, pp. 207-210 ;

42-68. The earthly Mandalas, pp. 210-212.

Chapter Thirteen
THE DIFFERENT GAITS, Pages 213-237
1. Gaits for different characters, p. 213 ; 2-3. Entrance of dramatis
personae, p. 213 ;
4-7. Posture for superior and middling characters at the
entrance, p. 213 ; 8-10. The interval of their feet, pp. 213-214 j 10-11. The
time for their steps, p. 214 ;
12-14. The tempo of their Gait, p. 214 ;
15-24.

The natural Gait, pp 214-215 ;

25-29 Gait of kings, p, 216 ; 30-34.

Gait under special conditions, p. 216 ; 35-40. Tempo of Gaits under

special conditions, pp. 217 ;
41-48. Gait in the Erotic Sentiment, pp.
217-218 ; 48-54. Gait in the Terrible Sentiment, p. 218 ;
54-56. Gait iu
the Odious Sentiment, p. 218
. ; 57-58. Gait in the Heroic Sentiment, pp-

218-219 j 59-60. Gait in the Marvellous and the Comic Sentiments, p.

219 ; 61-69. Gait in the Pathotic Sentiment, pp. 219-220 ; 70-75. Gait
(of inferior characters) in the Terrible Sentiment, p. 220 ; 76-78. Gait of
 xxn
merchants and ministers, p. 220 ; 79-86. Gait of ascetics and sectarians,
pp. 220-321 j 87. Gait of a person in darkness, p. 221 ; 88-92. Gait
of one riding a chariot, pp. 221-222;. 92-95. Gait while moving in
the sky, p. 222 ; 96-100. Gait in ascending a lofty palace, p. 222 ;

101-104. Gait in getting down into a lower place, pp. 222-228 ; 105-107.
Gait in travelling by boat, p. 223 ; 108. Gait in riding a horse, p. 223 ;

109. Gait of serpents, p. 223 ; 110. Gait of a Parasite, p. 224 j 112-

114. Gait of the Kaficukiya, p. 224 ; 115-117. Gait of emaciated, sick
and fatigued persons, p. 225 ; 118. Gait of a person walking a long
distance, p. 225 j 119-120. Gait of a corpulent person p. 225; 121-122.
Gait of intoxicated persons, p. 225 ; 123-130. Gait of a lunatic, p. 225 ;

131-136. Gait of lame men, cripples and dwarfs, p. 226 ;. 137-1 46. Gait
of the Jester, pp. 226-227; 146-148. Gait of manials, p^227 148-149. ;

Gait of Sakara, p. 228 ; 150. Gait of lowly persons, .p. 228; 151. Gait
of the Mleccha tribes, p. 228 ; 152. Gait of birds ; 153-158. Gait of lions,
bears and monkeys, pp. 228-229 159-171. Walking postures
; of women,
pp. 230-229; 171-177. Gait of women, p. 230 ; 177-179. Gait of young
women, p. 231 ; 179-181. Gait of aged women, p. 231 ; 181-183. Gait
of handmaids, p. 231 ; 183-186. Gait of half-women, p. 231 186-187. Gait
;

of children, p. 242 ;
187-181. Gait of hermaphrodite, p. 232 188-189.
;

Gait in the change of a role, p. 232 ;

189-191. Gait of persons in disguise,
p. 232 ; 192-193. Gait of the tribal women, P. 232 ; 193-195. Gait of
women ascetics ; PP. 232-233 ; 195-199. Sitting postures for men and
women, P. 233 ;
196-197. Sitting at case, P. 233 ; 197-198. Sitting in a
thinking mood, p. 233 ; 198-199. Sitting in sorrow, p. 233 ; 199-200. Sitting
in fainting and intoxication, p. 200-201. Sitting in shame and sleep, 233 ;

p. 234 ; 201-202. Sitting on ceremonial occasions, p. 234 ; 202-203.

Sitting
in pacifying a beloved woman, p. 234 ; 203-206. Sitting in worshipping a
diety, p. 234 ; 206-207. Seats for different characters, p. 234 ; 208-210.
Scats for male characters, p. 235 210-214. Seats for female characters, p. ;

235 ; 215-216. Seats for ascetics and sectarians, p. 235 ; 217-220. General
rules about seats, p. 236 ; 221-228. Lying-down postures, 236-237. pp.

Chapter Fourteen
THE ZONES AND THE LOCAL USAGES, Pages 238-247

1. The Zones, p. 238 ; 2- The arrangement of drums, p. 238 ; 3. The

ijonal division, p. 238 j 4-7. Utility of the Zonal division, p. 238 ; 8-10.
Indicating relative location on the stage, p. 239 11. The east on
; the
stage, p. 239 ;
12-15. The rule of exit, p. 232 ; 16. Indication of rank in
group walking, p. 239 ; 17. Indicating distance great, small and medium,
p. 240 ;
18-20. Movements of gods and demigods p. 240 j 21. Movement
}f men in Bharatavarsa, p. 240 ; 22. Departure for a distant place,
 ;

TOM
p. 240 j 28-82. Time allowed for the events of an Act, pp. 240-241 ;

32-35. Movements of gods, p. 241; 36. The four Local Usages, pp.
241-242; 37-39. The Daksinatya Local Usages, pp. 242-243; 40-42.
The Svanti Local Usage, p. 243; 43-46. The Odra-Magadhi Local
Usage, 243 ; 47-49. The Pattcala-Madhyama Local Usage, p. 244 ; 50-55.
The two-fold entrance in observing Local Usage, p. 244 ; 50. The two
General types of plays, p. 245. 57-60. The violent type, p. 245 ; 61. The
delicate type, p. 245 ; 62. The two Practices, p. 245 63-64. The realistic ;

Practice, pp. 245-246 65-78. The conventional Practice,

;
pp. 246-247.

Chapter Fifteen
^
RULES OP PROSODY, Pages 248-261

1. The actor's speech, p. 248 ; 2-4. Importance of speech in drama,

p. 248 ; 5. The ^wo kinds of recitation, p. 248 ; 6-7. Different aspects of
Recitation, p. 249 ; 8. The speech-sounds, p. 249 ; 9-19. Consonants ; their
articulation, pp. 249-251 ;
20. Vowels ; their quantity, p. 251 ; 21-22. The
four kinds of word, p. 252; 23-25. The noun, pp. 252-253; 26-27. The
verb, p. 253 ; 28. The particle, p. 254 , 29. The affixes, p. 254 ; 30. The
nominal affix, p. 254 ; 31. The
case-ending, p. 255 ; 32-33. The euphonic
combination, p. 255 ; 34-35. The compound words, pp. 255-256 36. The ;

two kinds of word, p. 256 37. Words in prose, p. 256 38. Words in
; ;

verso, p. 256; 39. Syllabic metres, p. 256; 40-42. Rhythm-types,

pp. 256-257 ; 43-49. Twenty-six Rhythm-types, p. 257 ; 49-79. Possible
metrical patterns, pp. 257-258 ; 79-89. Another method of defining metres,

pp. 258-259 ; 89-90. The regular couplet, p. 259 ; 90-91. The stop and
the foot, pp. 259-260 ; 93. Quality of syllables, colours of metres, p. 260
94-95. Pitoh of vowels, p. 260 ; 95-97, Three kinds of syllabic metres,

p. 260 ; 98-102. Classes of metres, p. 261.

Chapter Sixteen
METRICAL PATTERNS, Pages 262-292

1-2. Tanumadhya, p. 262 ; 3-4 Makaraka-sn-sa, p. 262 ; 5-6. Malati,

p. 263 ; 7-8. Malini, p. 263 ; 9-10. Uddhata, pp. 263-264 ; 11-12. Bhrama-
ramalika, p. 264 ; 13-14. Simhalekha, p. 264 ; 15-16. Mattacesjita, pp. 264-

265 ; 17-18. Vidyullekha, p. 265 ; 19-20. Cittavilasita, pp. 265-266 ; 21-22.

Madhukari, p. 266 ; 23-24. Kuvalayamala, p. 266 ; 25-26. Mayurasarini,

pp. 266-267 , 27-28. Dodhaka, p. 267 ; 29-30. Motaka, pp. 267-268 ; 31-32.

Indravajra, p. 268 ; 33-34. Upendravajra, pp. 268-269 ; 35-36. Rathod-

dhata, p. 269 ; 37-38. Svagata, pp. 269 ; 39-40. Salini, p. 270 ; 41-42.

Totaka, p. 270 ; 43-44 KumudanibhS, pp. 270-271 ; 45-46. Candralekha,

p. 271; 47-48. Pramitaksara, pp. 371-272; 49-50. Vamsastha, p. 272,
51-52. Harinapluta, pp. 272-273; 53-54. Kamadatta, p. 273; 55-56.

Aprameya, p. 273-274; 57-58. Padmim, p. 275; 59-60. Patuvrtta,

 ;;

JXHf •

pp. 274-275 ; 61-62. Prabhavat! ; p. 275 ; 63-64. Praharsini, pp. 275-276;

65-66. MattamayBra, p. 276 ; 67-68. Vasantatilaka, pp. 276-277 ; 69-70.
Asambadha, p. 277 ; 71-72. £arabhS, pp. 277-278 ; 73-74. Nandimukhi,
p. 278 ; 75-74. Gajavilasite pp. 278-279 ; 77-78. Pravaralalita, p. 279 ;

79-80. &kharini, pp. 279-280 ; 81-82. Vr?abhaeestita, p. 280 ; 83-84.

^ridhara, pp. 280-281 ; 85-86. Vainiapatrapatita, p. 281 ; 87-88. Vilam-
bitagati, pp. 281-282 ; 89-90. Citralekha, p. 282 ; 91-93. &rdalavikridita,
p. 283 ; 94-96. Suvadana, pp. 283-284 ; 97-99. Sragdhara, p. 284 ; 100-102.
Madraka, pp. 284-285 ; 103-105. Asvalalita, p. 286 ; 106-108. Meghamala,
p. 286 ; 109-111. Krauiicapadi, pp. 286-287 ; 112-114. Bhujaiiga-viirm-
bhita, pp. 287-288 ; 115-118. The uneven and the semi-even metres ; p. 288 ,

119-120. Even metres, p. 288 ; 121-122. Pathya, p. 288 ; 123-124- Uneven

Pathya, p. 289; 125-126. Inverted Pathya, p. 290; 127-128. Capala.
p. 290 ; 129-136. Vipula, pp. 290-292 ; 137-138. Vanavasika. p. 292
139-140. Ketumati, p.292 1 141-142. Apar.ivaktra, p. 93 ; 143-144. Pu^pi-
tagra, 293 •'
145-146. Udgata, pp. 293-294 ; 147-151. Lalita, pp. 294-295 j

152-159. Srya metres, pp. 295-296 ; 160. Pathya Arya and Vipula Arya,
p. 296 ; 161. Pathya Ary5, p. 296 ; 162. Vipula SryS, p. 296 ; 163-164
Capala Arya, pp. 296-297 ; 165. Mukha-capala and Jaghana-capala Arya,
p. 297 ; 166. Mukha-capala Arya, p. 297 ; 167-170. Jaghana-capala
Irya, p. 298.

Chapter Seventeen
DICTION OP A PLAY, Pages 299-322.

1-5. Thirtysix marks of a good play, pp. 299-300 ; 6. Ornateness,

p. 30 ; 7. Compactness, p. 300 ; 8. Brilliance, p. 301 ; 9. Parallelism, p.

301; 10. Causation, p. 391; 11. Hesitation, p. 301; 12. Favourable

Precedent, p. 301 ; 13. Discovefy, p. 302 ; 14. Fancy, p. 302 ; .15.

Unfavourable Precedent, p. 302 ; 16. Convincing Explanation, p. 302 ; 17.

Persuation, p. 303 ; 18. Distinction, p. 303 ; 19. Accusation of Virtues,

p. 303 ; 20. Ewnll >nci, p. 393 ; 21. Inference from Similitude, pp. 303-

304 ; 22. Multiplex Predication, p. 304 ; 23. Description, p. 304 ; 24.

Pointed Utterance, p. 304 ; 25. Deliberation, p 304 ; 26. Inversion,

p. 305 , 27. Slip of Tongue, p. 305 ; 28. Mediation, p. 305 ; 29. Series

of Offers, P. 305 ; 30. Clever Manners, p, 306 ; 31. Censure, p. 306 ;

32. Presumption, p. 306 ; 33. Celebrity, p- 306 ; 34. Interrogation

35. Identity, p. 307 ; 36. Indirect Etpre«ion of Desire, p. 307 ; 37.

Wit. p. 307 ; 38. Concealment, p. 307 j 39. Enumeration of Merits,

p. 308 ; 40. Serai-utterod Expression, p. 308 ; 41-42. Compliment,
p. -308; 33. Four figures of Spoech, p. 308; 44. Simile, p. 309; 45-49.
Number of objects compared, p. 309 ; 50. Five kinds of simile, p. 309 j

51. Simile of praise, p, 309 ; 52. Simils of censure, p. 399 j 53. Simile
of conceit, p. 309 ; 24. Simile of uniqueness) p. 310 ; 55-56. Simile of
 ;;

XXV
Partial likeness, p. 310; 57-58. Condensed Expression, p. 310 ; 59-60.
Metaphor, PP. 310; 61. Yamaka, p. 311; 62-64. Ten kinds of
Yamaka, p. 311 ; 65-66. Padant a Yamaka, p. 31 1 ; 67-68. Kanei Yamaka,
pp. 311-312 Samudga Yamaka, p. 312 ; 71-72. Vikranta Yamaka!
; 69-70.

p. 312; Cakravala Yamaka, p 313; 75-76. Sandasta Yamaka,

73-74.

p. 313; 77-78. Padadi Yamaka, pp. 313-314; 79-83. Imred'ita Yamaka,

p. 314 ; 81-82. Caturvyavasita Yamaka, p. 314 ; 83-87. Mala Yamaka,
pp. 314-315; 88. Ten faults, pp. 315-316; 89. Circuloeution and super-
fluous Expression, P. 316 ; 90-91. Want of Significance and Defective
Significance, p. 316 ; 92. Tautology and Want of Synthesis, pp. 316-317
93. Logical Defect and Metrical Defect, p. 317 ; 94. Hiatus and Slang,
p. 317; 95. Gunas, p. 317 ; 96. Ten Gunas, pp. 317-318; 97. Synthesis,

p. 318 ; 98. Perspicuity, p. 318 ; 99. Smoothness, p. 318 ; 100. Concentra-

tion, p. 318 ; li>l. Sweetness, p. 319 ; 102. Grandeur, p. 319 ; 103 Agree-
ableness, p. 319 ; 104. Directness of Expression, p. 319 ; 105-106. Exalted-

ness, pp. 319-320 ; 107. Alamkaras and Gunas, p. 320 ; 108-110. Sounds
and figure? of spsech according to Sentiments, Metres according to Senti-
ments, In the Erotic Sentiment, p. 323 ; 111-112. Metres in the Heroic
Sentiment, and in the Pathetic Sentiment, p. 321 ; 113. In the Heroic and
the Furious Sentiments, p. 321; 114-115. Vowel length in different

Sentiments and States, p. 321 ; 116-122. Uses of prolated vowels and

euphony, pp. 331-322.

Chapter Eighteen
RULES ON THE USE OP LANGUAGES, Pages 323-334

1-2. The Prakritic Recitation, p. 323 , 3-5. Three kinds of Prakritic

Recitation, p. 323 ; 6-17. Vowels and simple consonants, pp. 324-325
18-25. Conjunct Consonants, pp. 325-326 ; 26. Pour types of language,
p. 226 ; 27. The Superhuman and the Noble languages, p. 327 ; 30. The
two kinds of Recitation, p. 327 ; 31. Occasion for Skt. Recitation, p. 328
32-35. Occasion for Pkt Recitation, pp. 328-329 ; 36-46. Exception to

the rule for Pkt. recitation, pp. 329-331 ; 47 48. Seven major dialects,

p. 331; 49-51. Uses of major dialects, pp. 331-332; 52-55. Uses of minor

dialects, pp. 332-333; 56-61. Distinguishing features of various local

dialects, pp. 333-334.

Chapter Nineteen
MODES OP ADDRESS AND INTONATION, Pages 335-354

1-2. Different modes of address, p- 335 ; 3. Modes of addressing

men,
males, p. 335 Addressing gods, sectarian teachers and learned
; 4.
an old man,
p. 335 ; 5. Addressing Brahmins, the king, the teacher and
336 7. Brahmins address-
p. 336 ; 6. Brahmins addressing the king, p. ;

inferiors
ing ministers, p. 336 ; 8. Addressing the' equals, Proviledged

D
 ;

XXVI

addressing superiors, pp. 336-337; 9. Addressing employees, artisans

and artists, p. 337 ; 10. Addressing persons, of respect, 'addressing per-

sons of equal status p. 337; 11. The charioteer addressing the chariot-rider,
Addressing an ascetic or a person with beatitude, pp. 337-338; 12.

Addressing princes, Addressing inferior persons, p. 338 j 13. Addressing

persons by their occupation or birth, p. 339 ; 14. Addressing a son or a
disciple p. 339 ; 15. Addressing Buddhist and Juin monks, Addressing
persons of other sects, p. 339 ; 16. People addressing the king, pp. 339-
340 ; 17-18. Sages addressing the king, The Jester addressing the king, The
Jester addressing the queen, her maids, and the king addressing the Jesjfer,

p. 340 ; 19. Women addressing their husband, p. 341 ; 20. Addressing the

older and the younger brothers, p 341 ; 21. Modes of addressing women and
female ascetics and goddesses, p. 341 ; 22. Addressing wives of senior
persons, and elderly ladies, Addressing an accessible woman and an old

lady, pp. 341-342 ; 23-24. Addressing king's wives, p. 342 ; 25. Address-
ing unmarried princesses and a sister, pp 342-343 j 26. Addressing a
Brahmin lady, a nun or a female ascetic, addressing one's wife, p. 343 ; 27.

Women addressing their equals, addressing a hand-mand, p. 343 ; 28.

Addressing a courtezan, p. 343 ; 29. Addressing the wife in love-making,

p. 344 ; 30. Giving names to different characters in a play, p. 344; 31.

Names of Brahmins and Ksatriyas, p. 344 ; 32. Naming merchants and

warriors, p. 344 ; 33. Naming king's wives and courtezans, p. 345 ; 34.

Naming handmaids and menials, p. 345 ; 45. Naming superiors, p. 345 ;

37-37a. Naming other persons, p. 345 ; 37-38. Qualities of Recitation,

p. 346 ; 38-40. Seven notes to suit different Sentiments, p. 346 ; 40-43.

Uses of the three voice registers, p. 346 ; 43. Uses of the four accents;
p. 347 ; 43-44. Two ways of intonation, p- 347 ; 45. The Sis Alam-
karas, p. 348 ; 45 57. Uses of the sis Alamkaras, pp. 348-350 ; 58-59.

Intonation in different Sentiments, Six limbs of enunciation, pp. 350-351

59-60. Pause defined, pp. 351-352 ; 60-61. Uses of Pause, p. 352 ; 62-67.

Hands in connexion with Alamkaras and Pause, p. 352 ; 68-78. Drawn-

out syllables ahd their use, pp. 353-354.

Chapter Twenty
TEN KINDS OP PLAY, Pages 355-379

1-9. Tenfold division of plays and their structure, p. 3 55 ; 10-12-

The Nataka, p. 356 ; 13-18. The Act, pp. 356-357 ; 19-26. Incidents not
directly presentable in an Act, pp. 358-359 ; 27-35. The Introductory Scene,
pp. 359-360 j 36-38. The Supporting Scone, pp. 360-361; 39-40. Number

of dramatis personae.y. 361; 41-42. Introducing chariots and palaces

on the stage, pf. 361-362; 43-47. Introducing an army on the stage
p. 362 ; 48-50. The Prakarana, pp. 262-364 ; 59-63. The Natika, pp.
364-365; 64-66. The Samavakara, pp. 365 :366; 67. The first act of the
 xxvii

Samavakara, p. 366 j 68-69. The second aed the third acts of the Sama-

vakara, pp. 366-367 j

70. The three kinds of Excitement, p. 367 ; 71.

Three kinds of Deception, p. 367 ; 72. Three kinds of Love, p. 367 ; 73.

Love together with duty, pp. 367 ; 74. Love together with materia] gain,
p.368 ; 75. Love due to passion, p. 368 ; 76-77. Metres not allowed in
the Samavakara, p. 368 J 78-83. The thamrga, pp. 368-369 ; 84-89. The
Uima, p. 370 ; 90-93. The Vyayoga, p. 370 ; 94-96. The Utersti-

kanka, p. 371 ; 97-101. Scenes with celestial Heroes, pp-372. 371 ; 102.

The Prahasana, p, 372 ; 103-104. The pure Prahasana, p. 372 ; 105-107. The
mix*ed Prahasana, pp. 372-373 107-111. The Bhana, p. 373 112-113. ; ;

The Vithi, pp. 373-374 114-116. Thirteen types of the Vlthi, p. 374 j ;

117. Accidental Interpretation, p. 374 ; 118. Transference, p. 374 ; 119.

Ominous Significance, p. 374 ; 120-121. Incoherent Chatter, p. 375 ; 122.

Compliment, p.*375 ; 123. Enigma and Rapartee, p. 375 ; 124. Outvy-

ing, p. 375 ; 125. Deception, 375 ; 126. Declaration, p. 376 ; 127.

Crushing, p. 376; 128. Three Men's Talk, p. 376; 129-131. Undue

Combination of Words, p. 376 ; 132-133. The Lasya, p. 377 ; 134-135. The
twelve types of the Lasya, p. 377 ; 136-137. Geyapada, p. 377 ; 188,

Sthitapathya p, 378; 139. AYina, p. 378 ; 140. Puspagandika, p. 378 ;

141. Pracchedaka, p. 378 ; 142 Triniudhaka, p. 378 ; 143. Saindhavaka,

p. 378 ; 144. Dviinttdhaka, p. 379 ; 145. Uttamottaka, p. 379 ; 146.

Vicitrapada, p. 379 ; 147. Uktapratyukta, p. 379, 148-150. Bhavita, p. 379.

Chapter Twenty one

THE LIMBS OP THE JUNCTURES, Pages 380-400

1. The five Junctures of the Plot, p. 380 ; 2. The two kinds of

Plot ; 308 ; 3-5. Their definition, p. 380 ; 6-8. The five stages of the

action pp. 380-381 ; 9. Beginning, p. 381 ; 10. Effort, p. 381 ;

11.
;

Possibility of Attainment, p, 381 ; 12. Certainty of Attainment, p. 381 ;

13-15. Attainment of Results, pp. 381-382 ; 16-17. Play to begin with

the Principal Plot, p. 382 ;

18-19. Rules about the omission of Junctures,
p. 382 The five elements of the Plot, p. 382 22. The Germ,
; 20-21. ;

p. 383 23. The Prominent Point, p. 383

;
24. The Episode, p. 383 ; ;

25. The Episodical Incident, p. 383 26-27. The Denouement, p. 383 ; ;

28. Secondary Junctures in the Episode, p. 384 ; 29. Limit of the Epi-

sode, p. 384 The Episode Indication, p. 384 31. The First Episode
; 30. ;

Indication, p. 384 32. The Second Episode Indication, p. 384 33. The
;
;

Third Episode Indication, p, 384 34-35. The Fourth Episode Indication, ;

p. 385 36-37. The five Junctures, p. 385 38. The Opening, p. 385
; ;
;

The 40. The Development, p. 385 41. The

39. Progression, p. 385 ; ;

386 44-47. Junctures

Pause, pp. 385-386 ; 42-43. The Conclusion, p. ;

Subjuncturo, 387
vary in different types of Drama, p. 386; 48-50. p. ;

51 . Alternative Junctures, p. 387- ; 52-53. The sirfold needs of the Limbs

 ;;;

xxvm
of the Junctures, p. 387 j 64-57. Uses of the Limbs of the Junctures,
pp. 387-388 ; 58-68. The sixtyfour limbs of the Junctures, pp. 388-389

69. Limbs of the Opening, Suggestion, p. 389 ; 70. Enlargement, Establish-

ment, p. 389 ; 7.1. Allurement, Decision, pp. 389-390 ; 72. Accession,

Settling, p. 390 ; 73. Conflict of Peelings, Surprise, p. 390 ; 74. Dis-

closure, Activity, p- 390 ; 75. Incitement, Limbs of the Progression,

p. 39D ; 76. Amorousness, Pursuit, p. 391 ; 77. Refusal, Pessimism, p. 391

78. Joke, Plash of Joke, p. 391 ; 79. Moving Forward, Hindrance, p. 391 ;

80. Pacification, Sweet Words, pp. 391-392 j 81. Thunderbolt, Reference,

p. 892 j
82- Meeting of Castes, Limbs of the Development, p. 392
83. Mis-statement, Indication, p, 392; 84. Supposition, Exaggeration
p. 392 ; 85. Progress, Propitiation, p. 393 ; 86. Deduction, Supplication,
p. 393 ; 87. Revelation, Quarrel, p. 393 ;
88. Outwitting, 6ismay, p. 393 ;

89. Panicky Commotion, Limbs of the Pause, p. 393 j 90. Censure, Angry
Words, p. 394 ; 91. Insolence, Placation. p. 394 ; 92. Assertion, Rever
ence, p. 394 ; 93. Rebuke, Lassitude p. 394 ; 94. Opposition, Alter-

cation, p. 394 ; 95. Summing Up, Humiliation, p. 39 ; 965. Foresight,

Limbs in the Conclusion, p. 395 ; 97. Junction. Awakening, p. 395 ; 98,

Assembling, Ascertainment, p. 395 ; 99. Accusation, Confirmation, pp.

395-396 } 100. Gratification, Joy, p. 396 ; 101. Dclivercnce, Surprise,

p. 396 ; 102. Clever Speech, Retrospect, p. 396 ; 103-105. Termination,

Benediction, pp. 396-397 ; 106. Five Explanatory Devices, p. 397 ; 107-
108. The Supporting Scene, p. 397 ; 109. The Intimating Speech, p.
397 j 110-111. The Introductory Scene, p. 398 j 112. The Transitional
Scene, p. 398; 113. The Anticipatory Scene, p. 398; 114-130. An ideal

Nataka, pp. 398400.

Chapter Twentytwo
THE STYLES, Pages 401-409

1-5. The origin of the Styles, p. 401 ; 6-11. The origin of the

Verbal 8tyle, pp. 401-402.; 12. The origin of the Grand Style, p. 402 ;

13. The origin of the Graceful Style, p. 402 ; 14-16. The origin of the
Energetic Style, p. 402 ; 17-25. The origin of the Nyaya, pp. 403-404 ;

86. The four varieties of the Verbal Style, p 404 ; 27. The Laudation, p.

404 ;
28-29. The Introduction, p. 404 ; 30-31. The five varieties of the
Introduction, p. 404 ; 32. Opening of the Story, p. 404 ; 33. Particular

Presentation, p. 405 ; 34-37. Personal Business, p. 405 ; 38-40. The

Grand Style, pp. 405-406 ; 41. The four varieties of the Grand Style, pp.

406 ; 42. The Challenge, p. 406 ; 43 Change of Action, p- 406 ; 44 The

Harsh Discourse, p. 306 ; 45-46. Breach of Alliance, p. 406 ; 47. The
Graceful Style, p. 407 j 48. The four varieties of the Graceful Style, p.

407(49-50. The three kinds of Pleasantry, p. 407 ; 51. Beginning of

Pleasantry, p. 407 ; 52. Unfoldment of Pleasantry, p. 407 j 5H4, Covert

 ;
;

XXIX

Pleasure, p. 408 ;
55-56. The Energetic Style, p. 408 j 57. The four
varieties of the Energetic Style, p. 498 ;
58. Compression, pp. 408409 ;

49. Commotion, p. 409 ; 60. Raising the Theme, p. 409 61-62. Conflict
;

p. 409 i
63-65. Styles according to Sentiments, p. 409
;

Chapter Twentythree
THE COSTUMES AND MAKE-UP, Pages 410-439
1-3. Necessity of the Costumes and Make-up, 410 ; 4. Four kinds
of Costumes and Make-up, p. 410. 5-8 The four kinds of model-work,

pp.«410-411 ; 9. Decoration, p. 411 ; 10. Garlands, p. 411 ; 11. Four

kinds of ornament, p. 411 ; 12. Piercing ornaments, Tied-up ornaments,

p. 411 ; 13. Worn ornaments. Put-round ornaments, p. 412 ; 14. Ornaments

according habita'tion and tribal origin, p. 412 ; 15. Ornaments for males :

Head ornamente, Ear ornaments, p 412 16. Neck ornaments, Finger ;

ornaments, pp- 412-413 17. Ornaments of the forearm, Wrist ornaments,

;

p. 413 j 18. Ornaments above the elbow, Breast ornaments, p 143 I

19. Ornaments for the entire body, Waist ornaments, p. 413 ; 23-23.
Ornaments for females : Head ornaments, p. 419 ; 23-25. Ear ornaments,
pp. 414-415 j
26-27. Neck ornaments, p. 415 ; 28. Breast ornaments,
p. 415 ; 29. Arm ornaments p. 416 ; 30. Finger ornaments, p. 416 ; 31-33.

Hip ornaments, pp. 416-417 ;

34-36. Ornaments of the ankles, p. 417 ; 37-44.

Other rules about ornaments, pp. 417-418 ; 45-51. Costume of celestial

women p. 418-419 ; 52. Siddha women .p. 419 ; 53. Gandharva women
p. 419 ; 54. Raksasa women, p. 419 ; 55. Goddesses, p. 419 ; 56-57. Monkey
females, pp. 419-420 ; 58. Human females according to their countries, p.

420 ; Women of Avanti and Gauda, p. 420 60 Abhira women, p-

59. ; 420 ;

61. Women of the North-east, p. 420 62-63. Women of the South, p. ; 420 ;

64. Ornaments to be worn in the right place, pp. 420- 421; 65-67. Dresses
to suit the condition of females, p. 420 ; 68. Painting the limbs, p. 421
69. The four original colours, p. 421 ; 70. The derivative colours, p. 421

71-74. The primary derivative colours, pp. 421-422 ;

75-80. The secon-

dary derivative colours, p. 422 ; 81. Living beings, p. 422 ; 82. Lifeless

objects, p. 422 ; 83. Lifeless objects in human form, p. 422 ; 84. Painting

the limbs, p. 422 ; 85-87. Colour for gods, p. 423 ; 88-89. Colours for
demigods, 90-92. Colours for human beings in different regions, p. 424 ;
93.

Colours for Bhutas and Dwarfs, p. 424 ; 94-98. Colours of different

peoples of Bharatvarsa, p. 424 ; 99-101. Colours of different tribes, p. 425 ;

102. Colours of different castes, p. 426 ; 103-109. Rules for the beard, p.

426427 ; 310-127. Rules for different costumes, pp. 427-429 ; 128. Use of
masks, p. 429; 129-139. Three kinds of crown, pp. 430-431*; 139-145. Rules
of different hairs, p. 431 ; 146-148. The Sa jiva, p. 432 ;
148-155. The use
of weapons, pp. 432-433 ; 156-1 58. Use of other objects, p. 433 ; 159.

lndra's Banner-staff, p. 433 J 160-167. The Jarjara, pp. 438-484 j .167-170.

 ,;

XXX

TheDandakastoVP- 434; 170*180. The making of masks, pp. 485-436 ;

180-187. Other accessories, p. 436 ; 187-198. The realistic and conven-

tional objects, p. 437 j 198-208. Making of ornaments, pp. 438-489}

208-211. Use of weapons on the stage, p. 439.

Chapter Twenty four

THE BASIC REPRESENTATION, Pages 440-482

1-2. Importance of Temperament p. 440 ; 8. The definition of

Temperament, p. 440 j 4-5. Feminine graces in the drama, pp. 440-441

6. Physical graces of women, p. 441 ; 7. The origin of these graced p.

441 ; 8. Peeling, p. 441 ; 9-10. Emotion, p. 441 ; 11. Passion, p. 441

12-13. Natural Graces of women, p. 442 ; 14. Sportive Mimicry, p. 442 ;

15. Amorous Gestures, p. 442 ; 16. Dishabille, p. 442 ; 17. Confusion,

p. 442 ; 18. Hysterical Mood, p. 443 ; 19. Manifestation «f Affection, p.
443 j 20. Pretended Anger, p. 443 ; 21, Affected Coldness, p. 443 ; 22.
Lolling, p. 443. 23. Want of Respouse, p. 443 ; 24. Involuntary Graces
of women, p. 444 ; 25. Beauty, p. 444 ; 26 Charm, Rndiance, p. 444 ; 27.
Delicacy p. 444 ; 28. Self-control, p. 444 ; 29-30 Courage, Dignity, p.
444-445 ; 31. Eight aspects of the male Temperament, p. 445 ; 32. Brilli-

ant Character, p. 445 ; 33. Graceful Bearing, p. 445 ; 34.. Self-posse-

ssion, p. 445 ; 35. Tenacity, pp. 445-446 ; 36. Gravity, p. 446 ; 37. Spor-
tivenoss, p. 446 ; 38. Nobility, p. 446 ; 39. Spirit, p. 446 ; 40-41. Hist-
rionic Representation through the body, p. 446 42. Word, p. 447 43.
; j

SQca, p. 447 ; 44. Aiikura, p. 447 ; 45. Sakhfi, p. 447 ; 46-47. Natyayita,
p. 447 ; 48. NtvWty.ifik.ira, \i, 1 18 ; 4*K> I. Twelve forms of the verbal
Rerpesentation, p 448 ; 52- Accosting, Prattling, p. 448 ; 53. Lament,
Repeated Speaking, p. 448 ; 54. Dialogue, Change of Words, pp. 448-449
;

55. Message, Agreement, p. 449 56. Command, Pretext, p. 449 57.'

; ;

Instruction, Statement, p. 449 58-71. Another classification

;
of the Verbal
Representation, pp. 449-451 72-73. The basic Representation,
;
p. 451}
74-75. Regular Historionic Representation, p. 451
j 76-77. Irregular
Historionic Representation, p. 451
; 78. Laksa,pa defined, p. 452 ; 79.
Practice preferred to '.he Sastra, p. 452; 80. Representation of the
sensual perception, p. 452 81. Sound, p. 452
;
82. Touch, p. 452 ; •

83. Form, p. 452 ;

84-85. Tasto and Smell, pp. 452-453 •
86. Importance
of the mind, p. 453; 87. The three aspecto of the of the mind p.
*»S 88-89. The favourable mind, p. 353
! ; 90. The unfavourable
mind, p. 453; 91-92. The indifferent mind, p. 453 ; 93. The meaning
of personal and the moaning of "external", pp.
m
,
453-454 , 94-95
95 - 96 Love
S™
89-100. v
Vanous
''

types of
'
-

women,
P- 4S4
p.
'

454
W.98.

;
Erotic
101-102-
Affair, 454
The woman of
p.

divme type, pp. 454-455 , 103-104. The woman of Asura type, p. 455
105-106. The woman of Gandharva type, ,..465
,

, 107-108. The woman o

 ;;
;

XXXI

Raksasa type, p. 465 ; 109-110. The woman of Naga type. p. 465 ; 111-
118. The woman of bird type, p. 456 ; 113-114. The woman of Pisaca
type, p. 456; 115-116. The woman of Yaksa type, p. 456 117. The ,

woman of tiger type, p. 456; 118-119. The human female, pp. 456457
;

120-121. The woman of monkey typo, p. 459 ; 122-123. The woman of

elephant type, p. 457 ; 124-125. The woman of deer type, p. 457 ; 126.

The woman of fish type, p. 457 ; 127-128. The woman of camel type, p.

457 ; 129. The woman of Makara type, p. 458 ; 130-131. The woman of
ass type, p. 458 ; 132-133. The woman of swine type, p. 488; 134-135.
Thcwoman of horse tvpp, p. 458 ; 136-137. The woman of buffalo type,

p. 458 ; 138-139. The woman of goat type, p. 458-459 ; 140-141. The

woman of horse type, p. 459 ; 142-143. The woman cow type, p. 459 ; 144-
147. Etiquette towards women, pp. 459 ; 147-149. Two elassess of Eti-

quette, p. 460, 149-150. King'g Etiquette towards women, p. 460 ; 150-155.

The three classes of women j pp. 460-461 ; 156-159. The beginning of love,

p. 461 ; 160-162. Signs of love, p. 462 ; 163-165. Signs of a courte-

zan's love, p. 462 ; 166-167. Signs of love in a highborn lady, p. 462 ;

168. Signs of a maiden' s love, p. 462 ; 169-171 . Various stages of her love,

!
172-173. Longing, pp. 462-463. 174-175. Anxiety, p. 463 ; 176-177. Re-

t
collection, p. 463 ; 178-179. Enumeration of Merits, pp. 463-464 ; 180-

181. Distress, p. 464 ; 182-183. Lamentation, p. 464 ; 184-185. Insanity,

p. 464; 186-187. Sickness, pp. 464-465 ; 188-189. Stupor, p. 465; 190-

191. Death, p. 465 ; 192. Manifestation of men's love, p. 465 ; 193.

Characteristics of love, p. 465; 194-196. Women separated from

the beloved one, pp. 465-466 ; 197. Relief in lovesickness, p. 466
198-200. The female Messenger, p. 466 ; 201-207. The king's Etiquette
to women, pp. 466-467 ; 208-209. Reasons for Conjugal Union, p. 467
210-211. Eight kinds of Heroine, p. 267; 212- The Heroine dressed
up for Union, p. 268 ; 214. The Heroine having her husband in subjec-
tion, p. 268 ; 215. The Heroine seperated by quarrel, p. 268 ; 216.

The enraged Heroine, p. 268; 217. The deceived Heroine, p. 268;

218. The Heroine with a sojourning husband, pp. 268-269; 219.

The Heroine moving to her lover, p. 269 ; 220. Representation of the

different Heroines, p. 469; 221-223. Enraged, deceived and quarreling
Heroines, p. 469 ; 223. The Heroine with a sojourning husband, p. 469
224. The Heroine having a husband in subjection, p. 469 ; 225. Different
classes of Heroine moving to their lover, p. 469 ; 226. The courtezan, p.

470 ; 227. The woman of high family, p. 470 ; 228. The hand-maid. p. 470 ;

229-232. How to meet a sleeping lover, p, 470 ; 233-235. The Conjugal

Union, p. 470 ; 236. Bohaviour at the Conjugal Union, p. 470 ; 237-239.

Preparation for the Conjugal Union, pi 471 ; 240-244. Acts prohibited on

the stage, p. 472 ; 245-252. The Heroine in expectancy, p. 472 J
253-2^7.
 ' ;

YXTTT

Personal omens, pp. 473-474; 258.

HeroWs reception of the beloved,
Receiving the guilty lover, pp. 474-475 ; 264. Causes
p. 474 ; 259-264.
265-266. Depression, p. 475 267-268. Mired Peeling,
of jealousy, p. 475 ; ;

269-270. Disgust, pp. 475-476 ; 271-272. Anger, p 476 ; 273-292.

p. 475 ;

a lover at fault, pp. 476-478 293-298. Acts forbidden on the

On treating ;

stage, pp. 478-479 ; 299-300. Endearing terms for the beloved p. 479

301. Angry terms of address for tho beloved, p. 479 ; 302-309. Endearing
terms of address explained, pp.479; 310-319. Angry terms of address
explained, pp. 480-481 ; 320-328. Goddesses in human roles, pp. 481-482.

Chapter Twenty five *

DEALINGS WITH COURTEZANS, Pages 483-492.

•

1-2. The definition of a Gallant, p. 483 ; 3-8. Qualities of a Gallant,

pp. 483-484 ;
9-10. The female Messenger, p. 484 ;
11-12« Qualities of a
Messenger, p. 484 ; 13-18. Functions of the female Messenger, p. 485 ; 19.

The woman overcome with love, p. 485 ; 20-23. The attached woman, pp.
485-486 ;
24-27. The hostile woman, p. 486 ; 28-29. Winning back of
women's heart, p. 486 ; 30-31. Causes of hostility, p. 486 ; 32-35. Acts
winning women's heart, pp. 486-487 ; 36. The three types of woman, p.
487 j 37-39. The superior woman, p. 487 ; 40-41. The middling woman,
p. 487 ; 42. The inferior woman, p. 487 ; 43. The four stages of
woman's youth, p. 488 ; 44. The primary youth, p. 488 J 45. The
secondary youth, p. 488 ; 46. The tertiary youth, p. 488 ; 47-48.
The quaternary youth, p. 488 ; 49. Behaviour in the primary youth,
p. 488 ; 50. Behaviour in the secondary youth, pp. 488-489 ; 51.
Behaviour in the tertiary youth, p. 429 ; 52. Behaviour in the quartcrnary
youth, 489 53-54. Five types of man, p. 489 The
ft ; ; 55. excellent man,
p"489; 56-37. The superior man, p. 489; 68-59. The middling man,
p. 490 ;
60-61. The inferior man, p. 490 ; 62-63. The too old man, p. 490 ;

64-66. Psychological approach to women, pp.490-491 ; 67. Conciliation,

p. 491 68. Gift. p. 491 69. Diasention, Chastisement, p. 491
; ; ; -70-72.
Application of Conciliation, Gift etc. 491; 73.
p. Reading a woman's
heart from her behaviour, p. 491 ; 74-80. A courtezan's mercenary
treatment of men, p, 492.

Chapter Twekttsix
SPECIAL REPRESENTATION, Pages 493-510

Oh J"
Objecteonthe
^^ Reprr»cntation, p. 493
ground, p. 493
; 2-4. Day, night, season ote. 5.

; 6. Moonlight, happinc* and air etc, p.

du 8 8m6kc " tc - 8 Midday 9U n, 494; 9. Pleasant
obL'J'n^T Q f'
-
p.

494 I N w t
p.494,l^
J

klaceandflowcrsetc,p.494 ^T bieCte ' P 494i11

-
- *» ^ "alto! feeling,

i 18. The idea of entirety,

 ;

XXXIII

p. 494 i
14. Audible or visible objects, p. 494 , 15. Lighting, shooting star.
etc. p. 495 ; 16. Repugnant objects, p. 495 ; 17. Hot wind and heat etc
p. 495 ; 18. Lions, bears etc p. 494 Worshipping superiors, p 495
; 19.
;

20-22. Numerals, p. 495 J 23. Umbrellas, Banners etc,

p. 496 ; 24. Memory
and meditation etc, p. 496 ; 25. Height, p. 496 ; 26. Past and Cessation
etc, p. 496; 27. The autumn, p. 496 ; 28-30. The early winter, pp 496-
497 ; 31. The winter, p. 477 ; 32. The spring, p. 497 ; 33. The summer
p. 497 ; 34. The rains, p. 497 ; 35. The rainy night, p. 497 .
36.37
Seasons in general, pp, 497-498 ; 38. The States, p. 498 ;
39-40. The
Determinants, p. 498 j
41-44. The consequents, pp. 498-499 45-46. General
;

directions for representation, p. 499 ; 47. Men's and women's efforts, p

499 ; 48. Women's mevements of limbs, p. 499 ; 49. Meaning of words'
p. 499 ;
50-51. Joy, p. 499-500 ; 52. Anger, p. 500 ; 53-54. Jealous Anger
of
women, p. 500 ;
#
55. Men's sorrow, p. 500 ; 56-57. Women's sorrow, p.
500 ; 58. Men's fear, p. 500 ; 59-60. Women's fear, pp. 500-501 ; 61-64
Women's intoxicated condition, pp. 501 ; 65. Parrorts and Sarikiis, p. 501.
66. Big birds, p. 501 ;
67.
68-70. Bhiitas and
J Asses and Camels, p. 501
Pisacas, p. 502;
70-71. Greeting an invisible person, p. 502
71-73. ;

Greeting gods superiors, p. 502 ; 73-74. Great crowd, and

friends etc]
p. 502 ; 74-75. Mountains and tall trees, p. 5U2 ; 75-78 Wide expanse
of water, pp. 502-503 ; 78-79. A house and darkness ete, p. 503 ; 79-80.
Lovesick, cursed and possessed persons, p. 503 ; 80-83. A swing, p 503 ;
83-85. Speaking to the sky, pp. 503-504 ; 85-86. Speaking aside, Concealed
speaking, p. 504 ; 87-88. Private Personal address. Thinking within
ouoself, p. 504 ; 90-91. Mentioning -incidents that occured already, pp.
504-505 ; 91-92. Representing Concealed speakihg, p. 505 ; 92-94. Repeti-
tion of words, p. 505 94-95. Suspension of Representation, p. 505
;

95-97. Observing proper States, p. 505-506 ; 97-98. No movement in

the state of sleeping, p. 506; 98-99. Declamation of a person in
sleep, p. 506 ; 99-100. Dsclamation of old people, Children's words,
p. 506,' 100-102. Dying declamation, p. 506; 102-103. Representation of
death, p. 507 ; 103-104. Death from disease, p. 507 ; 104-105. Death from
drinking poison, p. 507 ; 105-107. The eight stages in death from poison,
p. 507; 107-108. Weakness, p. 507 ; 108-109. Tremor, p. 507 ; 109-110.
Burning sensation, p. 508; 110-111. Hiccough, p. 508; 111-1 2.

Froth in the mouth, p. 508 ; 112-113. Breaking of the neck, Paralysis,

P- 508 ; 113 115. Death, pp. 508 509 ;
115-118. General directions, p. 509 ;

118-122. The triple basis of drama, p. 509 ; 123-129. People supplying

norm to the drama, pp. 509-510.

Chapter Twentyseven
SUCCESS IN DRAMATIC PRODUCTION, Pages 511-526

1. The Success in dramatic production, p. 511 ; 2. The two kinds

E
 ;;

xxxrv

of Success, p. 511 ; 8. The human Success, p. 511 ; 4. The vocal Success,

p. 511; 5-15. The physical Success, p. 511-513; 16-17. The divine
Success, p. 513 ; 18-19. Three kinds of Blemishes, pp. 513-514 ; 20.
Blemishes from gods, p. 514 ; 21-23. Blemishes from an enemy, p. 514 5

23-27. Selfmade Blemishes, pp. 514-515 ; 28. Blemishes without remedy,

p. 515 1 29-36. Palpable sources of Blemishes, pp. 516-517 } 37-39.
Three grades of Blemishes, p. 617 ; 40. Wrong Benediction, p. 517
41-43. Interpolation is a Blemish, pp. 517-518 ; 44-47. Limitation of
human efforts in a play, pp. 518-519 ; 48-57. Spectators of a performance,

pp. 519-520; 50. Various Classes of spectators, p. .520 ; 59-62. Dis-

position of different spectators, p. 520 ; 62-70. Assessors in a perfor-

mance, pp. 520-521 ; 71. Controversy about a performance, p- 522 J

72. Procedure in deciding controversies, p. 522 ; 73. Recording of Ble-

mishes, p. 522 ; 74-75. Ideal position of Assessors in a performance p.

522 j 76. Blemishes to be ignored, pp. 522-523 ; 77-82. Procedure of

awarding the Banner, pp 523-524 ; 83-84. Co-ordination, p. 554 ; 85-87.

Charm of limbs, p. 524 ; 88-97. Suitable times for performance, p. 525

98-99, Emergency performances are independent of time, p. 526 ; 100-101.
Qualities of an Actor, p. 526 ; 102 An ideal performance, p. 526
103. Brilliance of Pageant, p. 526 ; 104-105. The best performance,
p. 526.

Chapter Thuitfopr
TYPE OP CHARACTERS, Pages 527-537

1. Three types of character in a drama, p. 527 ; 2-3. A superior

male character, p. 527 ;

3-4. A middling male character, p. 527 ;
5-7.

An inferior male character, p. 527 ; 8-10. A superior female character,

pp. 527-528 ; 11. A middling female character, p. 528; 12. An inferior

female character, p. 528 ; 13-14. A mited character, p. 528 ; 16-20. The

four types of the Hero, pp. 528-529 ; 20-23. The four types of Heroines,

p. 529 ; 24-25. The two classes of employment for characters, pp. 529-530 ;

26-29. Female inmates of the harem, p. 530 ; 30-32.Tho chief queen, p. 530
33-34 The other queens, p. 530 ; 35-36. High-born wives, p. 531 ; 37-39.

Ordinary wives, p. 531 ; 40. Concubines, p 531 ; 41-42. Women artistes,

p. 531 j 4344. Actresses, pp. 531-532 ; 44-48. Dancers, p. 532 ; 48-49. Maids
in constant attendance, p. 532 ; 49-51. Maids of special work, p. 532 ;

51-53. Maids in constant move, pp. 532-533 ; 53-54. Errand girls, p.

533 i 54-55. Mahattarls, p. 538 ; 55-56. Pratiharics, f>. 533 ; 56-57.

Maidens, p. 533 ; 57-58. Old dames, p. 533 ; 58-60. lyuktikas, pp. 533-
534 ; 61-64. Qualities of women to be employed by the kin«, p. 534 ;

64-70. Other inmates of the harem, p. 534; 71. The Vanjadharas. p.

635 ; 72. The Nirmundas, p. 535 ; 73-74. The Kaiicukins, p. 685 j 76-77,
 XXXV

External persosn, pp. 535-636 ;

78-82 The king, p. 536 j 82-83. The
leader of the army, p. 586 j 84-85. Councillors, pp. 536-537 ; 85-87.

Judges, p. 537 j
87-90. Courtiers', p. 537.

Chapter Thirtyfive
DISTRIBUTION OP ROLES, Pages 538-552

1. Distribution of Roles, p. 538 ; 2-4. General principles of dist-

ribution, p. 538 ;
5-6. The role of gods, p. 538 ; 7-8. The role of Rak$a-
sas, fiie Danavas ete, pp. 538-539 ; 9-11, The role of kings, p,' 539 ; 12-13.

The role of army leaders and councillors, p, 539 ; 14, The role of the

Kaiicukin and the Srotriya, p, 539 ; 15-17, The role of minor characters,
p. 539-540; 19, 'The role of fatigued persons, The role of persons

without disease* pp, 440 ; 19-21. Special cases of assigning roles,

p, 540 ;
22-23. The roles of characters with extra or special limbs, pp.
540-541 ; 24. The first entry of a character, p. 541 ; 25-26. The result of

proper impersonation, p, 541 ; 27. The psychological preparation for

impersonation, p. 541 ; 28. The three kinds of impersonation, p. 541 j 29.

The natural impersonation, p- 541 j 30, The unnatural impersonation, p.

541 ; 31-33. Imitative representation, p. 542 ; 33-36. Suitability of women

in some roles, 542 j 37. Training for women in different roles, p. 524 ;

38. Result of proper assignment of roles, pp 542-543 ; 89-41. Result of

employing women for acting, p. 543 j 42. The two types of dramatic

production, p. 543 ; 43-47. Tho delicate type of production, pp. 543-544 ;

48-53. The violent type of production, pp. 544-545 ; 53-59. The typical

impersonation of a king; p 545 ; 59-62. Impersonation of the attendants

of gods, p. 546 ; 62-68. The characteristics of a Director, pp. 546-547 j

69-71. The natural qualities of a Director, p. 547 ; 71-72. Characteris-

tics of an Assistant to the Director, p. 547 ; 72-73. Characteristics

of an Actor, p. 547 j 73-44. Characteristics of the Parasite, p. 547 ;

75. Characteristics of the iSakara, pp. 547-548 j 76. Characteristics of the

Jester, p. 548 ; 77. Characteristics of the servant, p. 548 ; 78-81. Charac-

teristics of the courtezen, p. 548 ; 81-83, Characteristics of the typical

Heroine, p. 548 ; 83-85. Women disqualified to be Heroines, p. 549 ;

85-89. Members of the typical theatrical party, p. 549 ;

89-91. Charac-

teristics of the Jester, pp. 549-550 ; 91-92. Charactcrista of the master

musician, p. 550 92-93. Meaning of the word Nate, p. 550 ;
93-95.
;

Benediction defined, p. 550 ; 96-97. Characteristics of the playwright, p.

561; 97-98. Characteristics of the Actor, p. 5 51; 98-99. Characteristics
of the actress, p, 551 ; 99-100. The maker of headgears* p> 551 s 100-101.

The maker of ornaments, p. 551 : 101-102. The maker of garlands, the

costumcr, the painter and the dyer, p, 551 103-104. The Craftsmen, the
;

Kusilavas, p, 552 ;
104-135. The other members of the party, p. 552.
XXXVI

Chapter Thirtybix
THE DESCENT OF DRAMA ON THE EARTH, Pages 553-661

1-9. Sages question, pp. 553-554 ; 10. Bharata's reply, pp. 554 ; 11-23.

The Preliminaries and their uses, pp. 554-555 ; 34-26. The ablution of the

Director on the stage, p. 555 ; 27-29. Bharata's sons offended the sages by
caricature, p. 556 ; 80-36- The sage3 curse Bharata's sons, pp, 556-557:
37-38. Gods intercede in favour of Bharata's sons, p. 557 ; 39-40. Bharata's

sons approach their fattier, p. 557 ;

41-45. Bharata pacifies them, pp, 557-

558 ; 46-49. Nahusja invites divine artistes to the earth, p. 558;

50-51. Gods reject the request, p. 558 ; 52-53- Nalnisa approaches Bharata,

p. 559 j 54-57. Urva& and the mundane drama, p. 559 ;

58-61. Bharata

grants the request and sends his sons to the earth, pp. 659-560 j 62-63.

Kohala is the successor of Bharata, p. 560 ;

65-68, Bhaiate's sons come
down to the earth, p. 560 ; 62-70, Kohala and his associates, p. 560 ;

71-73 Value of the Natyas^stra, p. 561 ; 74-77. Value of the dramatic

show, and the final Benediction, p. 561.

ADDITIONS AND CORRECTIONS ... p. 562

 INTRODUCTION
I. The Present Work
1. General History of the Study

Since the West came to know of the Sanskrit literature through

William Jones's translation of the Sakuntala 1 , the nature and origin of
the
ancient Indian theatre have always interested scholars,
especially the
Sanskritists, all over the world. H. H. Wilson who published in
1826 the
first volume of his famous work on the subject 2 deplored that the Natya-
sastra, mentioned and quoted in several commentaries and other works,
3
had been lost for ever . P. Hall who published in 1865 his edition of the
4
DasarOpa a medieval work on the Hindu dramaturgy, did not see any Ms.
,

of the Natyasastra till his work had greatly advanced 5 And for the time .

being he printeS the relevant chapters of the Natya&istra as an appendix to

his DasarSpa. Later on he undertook to critically edit the Ms. of the
Natyasastra he acquired ; but this venture was subsequently given up,

due perhaps to an insufficiency of materials which consisted of one unique

Ms. full of numerous lacunae* But even if the work could not be brought
out by Hall, his very important discovery soon helped others to trace similar
Mss. elsewhere. Aud in 1874 Hcymann, a German scholar, published on
the basis of Mss. discovered up till that date a valuable article 7 on the
contents of the Natyasastra. This seems to have been instrumental
in attracting competent scholars to the study of this very important
teit. The French Sanskritist P. Eegnaud published in 1880 chapter
XVH» and in 1884 chapter XV (in part) and the chapter XVI 9
of the
Natyasastra. This was soon followed by his publication of chapters VI
and Vninl884. u And J. Grosset another French scholar and a pupil
of Eegnand, published later on (in 1888) chapter XXVHI " of the Natya-
sastra which treated of the general theory of Hindu music.

' Saoontaln, or the Fatal Ring. Translated from the original Sanskrit and
Pracrita, Caloutta 1789.

' H. H. Wilson, Select Speoimens of the Theatre of the Hindus (3 yolst,

Calcutta. 1826-1827. ' Wilson, p. 37. Grosset, Introduction, p. iij.

4
The Dasarupa by Dhananjaya (Biblioiheca Mica), Calcutta, 1861-1865.
' Grosset, Introduction, t. iij. ' See note 5 above.
'
TJeber Bharata's Natyasastrun in Naohrichten von der Koeniglisehen

Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften, Goetingen 1874, pp. 86 ff. Ref. Grosset, Introduction

p xj ID. pp 2-3.
"
Le dix-eeptieme ohapitre du Bharatiya-naiyasistra. Annales du' Musie

Guimet ( Tome, 1. 1860, pp. 86 ff.

• La metrique de Bharata, texte Sanscrit de deux chapitres du Natyasastra

publio pour premier fois et sum d'une, interpretation francaise, Annales due Musee
Guimet, Tome, It, 1884, pp. 65 ff.
'
" Rhctorique sanserite, Paris, 1814.
1
' Contribution a l'«t*de de la nuisique hindou, Lyons, 1888.
 xxxvm
But the different chapters of the work and studies on them) which
were published up till 1888; though very helpful fot the understanding of
some aspeots of the ancient Indian dramatic works cannot be said to have
thrown any considerable light on the exact nature of the ancient Hindu
plays, especially the manner of their production on the stage. Sylvain
Levi's Theatre indien (1890) in which he discussed comprehensively
the contribution of his predecessors in the field and added to it greatly

by his own researches, made unfortunately no great progress in this

specific direction. Though he had access to three more or less complete

Mss. of the Natya&astra, L£vi does not seem to have made any serious
attempt to make a close study of the entire work except its chapters
XVH-XX(XVffl-XXII of our text) and XXXIV. Thc.reason for his
relative indifference to the contents of the major portion (nearly nine-tenths)
of the work, seem to be principally the corrupt nature of his Ms. materials,
like his predecessors, Levi paid greater attention to the study of the

literary form of the ancient Hindu plays with the difference that he utilised

for the first time the relevant chapters of the Natyasastra, 1 * to check
the accuracy of the statements of later writers on the subject like

Dhananjaya 1 * and Visvanitha 1 * who professed their dependence on the

Natyasastra. But whatever may be the drawback of Levi's magnificient
work, it did an excellent service to the history of ancient Indian
drama by focussing the attention of scholars on the great importance of
the Natyasastra- Almost simultaneously two Sanskritists in India as
well as one in the West were planning its publication. In 1894 Pandits
Shivadatta and Kashinath Pandurang Parab published from Bombay the
1
original Sanskrit text of the work.
"'

This was followed in 1898 by

1
J. Grosset's * critical edition of its chapters I-X1V based on all the
Mss. available up till that date.

Though nearly half a century has passed after the publication of

Grosset's incomplete edition of the Natyasastra, it still remains one of the
best specimens of modern Western scholarship, and though in the light of

the new materials available, it is possible nowa-dayg to improve upon his

readings in a few places, Grosset's work will surely remain for a long
time a landmark in tiie history of the study of this important text. It is

a pity that this very excellent work remains unfinished. But a fact

equally deplorable is that it failed to attract sufficient attention of scholars

" Chapters XVII-XX ( XVIU-XXU of our text ).

1 '
The author of the Dasarupa. See abore note 4.
14
Ike author of the Sabityadarpana. See below.
11 Sri Bkaratamuai-pranitam, NiWyajntram, Karyamala, 42
( ) Bombay, 1884.
11 Xwate da Bhitrata »ur Texts Sanscrit, Edition critique.
leTboatru. Tome
I. Partie, I. (Annates de i' UnieertUt de Lyons, Fane. 40, 1898)
 '

TTTTT

interested in the subject.. Incomplete though it was, it nevertheless

contained a good portion of the rules regarding the presentation of plays on

the stage, and included valuable data on the origin and nature of the
ancient Indian drama, but no -one seems to have subjected it to the
searching study it deserved. Whoever wrote on Hindu plays after Levi
depended more on his work than on the Natyasastra itself, even when
this was available (at least in a substantial part) in a critical edition. It
may very legitimately be assumed that the reasons which conspired to
render the Natyasastra rather unattractive included among other things,

the difficulty of this text which was not yet illuminated by a commentary.
Discovery in the early years of the present century of a major por-
tion of a commentary of the Natyasastra by the Kashmirian Abhinava-
gupta" seemeij to give, however, a new impetus to the study of the
work. And it appeared for the time being that the Natyasastra would
yield more secrete treasured in the body of its difficult text But the first

volume of the Baroda edition of the work (ch. I-VII) 18 including Abhi-
nava's commentary, disillusioned the expectant scholars. Apart from
the question of the merit of this commentary and its relation to the

available versions of the Natyasastra, it suffered from a very faulty trans-

mission of the text. Not only did it contain numerous lacunae, but quite
a number of its passages were not liable to any definite interpretation due
to their obviously vitiated nature. Of this latter condition the learned

editor of the commentary says, 'the originals are so incorrect that a

scholar friend of mine is probably justified in saying that even if Abhi-

navagupta descended from the Heaven and seen the Mss. he would not
easily restore his original reading. It is in fact an impenetrable jungle

through which a rough path now has been traced'. The textual condition

of Abhinava's commentary on chapters VIII-XVHI (VIII-XX of our

9
text) published in 1934 was not appreciably better.

But whatever may bo the real value of the commentary, the two
volumes of the Natyasastra published from Baroda, which were avowedly
to give the text supposed to have been taken by Abhinava as the basis of
his work, presented also considerable new and valuable materials in the
shape of variant readings collated from numerous Mss. of the text as well

as from the commentary. These sometimes throw new light on the con-
tents of Natyasastra. A study of these togethor with a new and more or

" Di, 8. K, Ds seems to be the fiist in announcing the existence of a more or

less complete Ms. ot Abhinava's commentary, and in recommending its publication.

Poetics, Vol I. pp. 120-121.

ESkt.
«' NaiyasoBtra with the commentary ot AbhinaTagnpta. Edited with a preface,

pendix and Index by Ramakrishna Kari. Vol 1, Baroda 1926.

" Natyasostra with the commentary of Abhinavagupta. Edited with an

reduction and Index by M. Ramakrishna Kari. Vol, II, Baroda, 1934.

 '

XL

less complete (though uncritical) tett of the work published from Benares
s °
in 1929 would, it is hoped, bo considered a desideratum by persons
interested in the ancient Indian drama. The present work has been the
result of such a study, and in it has been given for the first time a com-
plete annotated translation of the major portion of the Natyasastra based
*
on a text reconstructed by the author.

2. The Basic Text

The text of the Natyasastra as we have seen is not available in a

complete critical edition, and Joanny Grosset's test (Paris-Lyons, 1898)
does not go beyond ch. XIV- Hence the translator had to prepare a cri-

tical edition of the remaining chapters before taking up the translation."

For this he depended principally upon Ramakrishna Kavi's incomplete
edition (Baroda, 1926, 1934) running up to ch. XVIII (our XX) and
including Abhinava's commentary, as well as the Nirnayasagar and
Chowkhamba editions (the first, Bombay 1894, and the second, Benares,
1929). As the test of the Natyasastra has been available in two distinct

recensions, selection of readings involved some difficulty. After the most

careful consideration, the translator has thought it prudent to adopt
readings from both the recensions, whenever such was felt necessary from

the context or for the sake of coherence, and these have been mentioned
in the footnotes. But no serious objection may be made against this
rather unorthodox procedure, for A. A. Macdonell in his critical text of
the Brhaddevatit (Cambridge, Mass. 1904) has actually worked in this
manner, and J. Grosset too in his edition 'does not give unqualified pre-
ference to any racension and confesses that due to conditions peculiar to
the Natyasastra his text has 'un caractere largement eclectique' (Introduc-
tion, p. xxv) and he further says 'nous n'avions pas l'arabition chimerique
detendreala rcconstitution du Bharata primitif (loc. «'/.). Condi-
tions do not seem to have chaged much since then.

" .Sn'-Bharltmuni-prattitam Na/ayasastram. {Kashi- Sanskrit StrUi\ Benares,

1929.
'
' This edition will be published later on. The following chapters of the NS. have
been translated into Frooch : ch XIV and XV ( our XV and XVI ) Vogabhinaya by
P. Begnaud in hie Metrique du Bharata ; see note 8 above. eh. XVII (our XVIII)
Ihtsxeidhnna by Luigia Niiti-Dolci in her Les Grammairiens Prakrit, This has been
partially ,( 1-24 ) translated into English by the present writer in his Date of die Bharata-
Na/yasasrra, See JDL, 1930, pp. 73f. Chapter XXVIII by J. Grosset in his Contribution
a l'ttude de la mnsique hindou ; see note 10 above. Besides these, ch, XXVUI by B.
Breoler in his Qrund-elemente der alt-indisohen Musik nach dem Bharatiya-nafya-
iflstra. Bonn. 1922, and ch. IV by K V. N. Naidu, P. 8. NaiduandO.V. B. Pantlu in
the Tawdavalaksanam, Madras, 1936 and chapters Mil translated into Bengali by
the late Pandit Asokenath Bhattacharyya in the Vasomati, 1352 B8.
 :

XLI

3. . Translation

Though the translation has been made literal as far as possible except
that the stock words and phrases introduced to fill up incomplete lines
have been mostly omitted, it has been found necessary to add a number of

of explanatory words [enclosed in rectangular brackets] in order to bring

out properly the exact meaning of the condensed Sanskrit original.
Technical terms have often been repeated (within curved brackets) in

the translation in their basic form, especially where they are explained

or defined. In cases where the technical terms could not be literally ren-
dered into English they were treated in two different ways : (1) they were
given in romanised form with initial capital letters e.g. Bhana and Vithi
(XX. 107-108, '112-113), Nyaya (XXII. 17-18) etc. •
(2) Words given as
translation have "been adopted with a view to indicating as far as possible
the exact significance of the original, e.g. State (ihava) Sentiment (rasa),

VI. 33-34. Discovery (Prapti), Persuasion (siddhi), Parallelism (uddAa-

rana) (XVII. 1), Prominant Point (bindu), Plot (.mufti) (XX.15) etc
Lest these should be taken in their usual English sense they are distin-
guished by initial capital letters. Constantly occuring optative verbal
forms have been mostly ignored. Such verbs as kuryat and bhavet etc,

have frequently been rendered by simple 'is' or a similar indicative form.

And nouns used in singular number for the sake of metre have been silently

rendered by those in plural number and vice versa, when such was con-
sidered necessary from the context.

4. Notes to the Traslation

Notes added to this volumes fall generally into three categories,

(a) Text-critical. As the basic text is not going to be published imme-
diately, it has been considered necessary to record variant readings.
For obvious reasons variants which in the author's opinion are less
important have not been generally recorded, (b) Explanatory. These
include among other things references to different works on allied
subjects and occasional short extracts from the same. Abhinavagupta's
commentary naturally occupies a prominent place among such works, and
it has very often been quoted and referred to. But this does not mean
that the worth of this work should be unduly exaggerated. ' (c) Materials
for Comparative Study. A very old text like the Natyasastra not
illuminated by anything like a complete and lucid commentary, should
naturally lw studied in comparison with works treating similar topics
directly or indirectly. Hence such materials have been carefully collated
as far as the resouroes at
the author's disposal permitted.

! See M, Qhosh, "The NS. and tho Abhinavabhoratt" in IHQ vol. X. 1934,
pp. 161ff.
 zLir

Bat even when supplied with these nates, readers of this translation

may have some difficulty in reconstructing from the work written in

a diifiise manner thepicture of the ancient Indian drama in itt theatrical

aa well aa literary form, as it existed in the hoary antiquity To give
them some help the theory and praotice of the ancient Hindu drama has
been briefly discussed below together with other relevant matters.

II. The Ancient Indian Theory of Drama

1, The Meaning of Natya

The word "Natya" has often been translated as 'drama' and the
plays of ancient India have indeed some points of similarity with those of

the Greeks. But on a closer examination of the technique of their pro-

duction as described in the NatyaSastra, the Hindu dramas represented by
the available specimens, will appear to be considerably different. Unless
this important fact is borne in mind any discussion on the subject is liable
to create a wrong impression. As early as 1890 Sylvain Levi (pp. 423-424)
noticed that Indian Natya differed from the Greek drama from which
the Westerners derived their early conception of the art. Though it is

not possible to agree with Levi on all points about the various aspects
of this difference and the causes which he attributed to them, no one
can possibly have any serious objection against his finding that, "Le
ndtaka par se nature autant que par son nom se rapproaehe de-la dance
scenique ; le drame est Taction mttne" (Joe. cit). Levi however did not
for reasons stated above fully utilize in this connection the Natyasastra

which contains ample materials for clarifying his conclusion.

The essential nature of the (Natya) derived from its etymology
cannot by any means be called fanciful. For in the Harivamsa 1 (c. 200 A.C)
we meet with an expression like nalflkam nanrtuh (they danced a play) and
the KarpQramaBjari 1 (c. 1000 A.C.) has an expression like sattaam
naccidavvam (a Sattaka is to be danced or acted).
The terms like rupaka or rUpa (representation) and preksa (specta-
cle), all denoting dramatic works, also characterise the Hindu dramas
and show their difference from the drama of the Greeks who laid
emphasis on action and not on the spectacle. Of the sir parts of the
tragedy, the most typical of the Greek dramatic productions, Aristotle
puts emphasis on the fable or the plot and considers decoration to be un-
important. On this point the philosopher says :

"Terror and pity may be raised by decoration— the mere spectacle; but
they may also arise from the circumstanco of the action itself, which is far

» Vis»uparrw, Oh. 93. 81. 28, * .Ed. M. Ghosh, p. 80.

 XUEt
aad shows a superior poet, For the
Prferable fable should be so construe-
that wiftout the assistance of the sight its incidents may excite horror
eommissemtion in those who hear them only; # • # #
to produce this effect by meaa3 of the decoration discovers
want of
art in the poet ; who mast also be supplied with an expensive
apparatus"
(JIXIH).»
But in case of the Hindu dramas the decoration (i. c. the costumes
and make-up) mostly plays an important part. Equally with five other

elements such as gestures and postures (ahgikd), words (vacika), the

repftscntation of the Temperament (satlva), it gives the Natya its charac-
teristic form. But in the theatre of the Greeks, it was not the case. In the
performance of the tragedies, for example, they did not care much for the
spectcale, if the declamation was properly made. For Aristotle himself says
that, "the power of tragedy is felt without representation and actors"
(II. IH).'
Another peculiarity of the Hindu dramas was their general dependence
on dance (nrtya), song [gita), and instrumental music (vadya). Though
the chorus of the Greek tragedy introduced in it some sort of dance and
songs, the function of these elements seem to have been considerably differ-
ent in the Hindu drama. The ancient Indian play was produced through ,

words, gestures, postures, costumes, make-up, songs and dances of actors,

and the instrumental music was played during the performance whenever
necessary. But these different elements did not play an equal part in all the

plays or different types of play. According as the emphasis was to be put

on words, music, or dance, a play or its individual part partook of the
nature of what the moderns would call 'drama', 'opera', 'ballet' or 'dramatic
spectacle' 6 . Due to this nature the Hindu dramas which connected them-
selves in many ways with song, dance and instrumental music, had a literary
form which was to some extent different from that of the ancient Greeks.
But it was not so much due to this literary form as to the technique of
their production on the stage that the Hindu dramas received their special
character.

After forming a general idea of this Natya, from the various terms
used to denote it, one should enquire what the ancient Indian theorists
exactly meant by the term (Natya) or what they regarded as being the
essence of the dramatic art as opposed or pain-
to the arts of poetry, fiction
ting. To satisfy, our ouriosity on this point the Natyasastra gives us the
following passage which may pass for a definition of the Natya.
'A mimicry of the exploits of gods, the Asuras, kings as well as of
householders in this world,
is called drama" (1. 120).

' Poetics (Eferymans Library), Ibid. p. 17.

p. 27. '

' HJB. Wilson, On the Dramatic System of the Hindu«, Oaloutta, 1827, pt. 1420.
 xiiEV

This description Beems to fall in a line with Cicero's view that "drama
is a copy of life, a mirror of custom, a reflection of truth". In this state-

ment Cicero evidently takes his cue from Aristotle who considered that the
art in general consisted of imitation (mimesis). But this does not help us
very much to ascertain the nature of drama as an example of 'imitation'.
For the Greek philosopher nowhere defines this very essentially important
term. So when he declares that "epic poetry, tragedy, comedy, dythrambics
as also for the most part the music of the flute and of the lyre all these are
in the most general view of them imitations" 8 one can , at best guess how
drama imitates. There seems to be no such difficulty about understanding
the view of the Hindu theorists. The Natyasastra lays down very elaborate

rules as to how the drama is to make mimicry of the exploits of men and
their divine or semi-divine counterparts. It is due to rules of representa-

tion that the Hindu drama has been called by the later theorists 'a poem to

be seen' (SD. 270-271). By this term epic or narrative poetry and fiction

etc. are at once distinguished from drama which is preminently a spectacle

including a mimicry of activities of mortals, gods or demigods. It may
now be asked what exactly was m-ant by the word mimicry (anukarana)
used by the Indian theorists. Did this mean a perfect reproduction of the
» reality ? For an answer to this question we are to look into the con-

ventions of the Hindu drama.

2. The Dramatic Conventions
That the Hindu theorists turned their attention very early to the
problem of dramatic representation and enquired about the exact placo of
realism or its absence in connection with the production of a play, is to be
seen clearly from their very sensible division of the technical practice into
"realistic" (tokadAarami, lit. popular) and "conventional" (nalyadAami,
lit. theatrical". By the realistic practice, the Na^yasastra (XIV. 62-76 ;

XXIII. 187-188) means the reproduction of the natural behaviour of men

and women on, the stage as well as tho cases of other natural presentation.
But from the very elaborate treatment of the various conventions regarding
the use of dance, songs, gestures and speeches etc. by different characters
it is obvious that tho tradition of the ancient Hindu theatre recognised very
early the simple truth that the real art to deserve the name, is bound to
allow to itself a certain degree of artificiality which receives its recognition
through many conventions. One very patent example of this conventional
practice on the stage; is speeches uttered 'aside' or as soliloquy. The
advocates of extreme realism may find fault with these as unnatural, and
the accusation cannot be denied, but on closer examination of circumstances
connected with the construction of a play as well as its production on the
stage, it will be fouud that if the spectators are to demand realism very

• BMtfc»,p.6-
 30.V

rigidly then no theatrioal performence of any value, may be possible.

Neither the Hindus nor the Greeks ran after this kind of absurdity. Critics

of ancient Indian dramas will do -well to remember this and to take care

to understand the scope and necessity of various conventions relating to

the production, so that they may better appreciate the art of great
play-wrights like Bhasa, Kalidasa, ikdraka and Visakhadatta.
3. Time and place in Drama
Hindu playwrights, unlike the majority of Greek tragedians, did

never make any attempt to restrict the fictional action to a length of time

roighly similar to that taken up by the production of a drama on the stage.

In developing plots they had not much restriction on the length of time,
provided that, individual Acts were to include incidents that could take
place in course of a single day, and nothing could be put in there to interrupt

the routine duties such as saying prayers or taking meals (XX 23), and
the lapse of time between two Acts, which might be a month or a year (but
never more than a year)' was to be indicated by an Introductory Scene
(pravesaka) preceding the last one (XX. 27-28).

Similarly there was almost no restriction about the locality to which

individual Actors, and gods in their human roles were to be assigned,
except that the human characters were always to be placed in India i.e.

Bharatavarsa (XX. 97).

4. The Unity of Impression

In spite of having no rules restricting the time and place relating to
different incidents included in the plot of a drama, the playwright had to be
careful about the unity of impression which it was calculated to produce.
For this purpose the Natyasastra seems to have the following devices :

The Germ (Hj'a) of the play as well as its Prominent Point (iindu)
was always to relate to every Act of the play and the Hero was sometimes
to appear in every Act or to be mentioned there (XX. 15, 30).

An Aet was not to present too many incidents (XX24), and such
subsidiary events as might affect the unity of impression on their being

directly presented, were merely to be reported in an Introductory Scene.

Besides this, short Explanatory Scenes were sometimes put in before an
Act to clarify the events occuring in it (XXI). 106-111. All these, not only
helped the play to produce an unity of impression but also imparted to its

plot a rapidity of movement which is essential for any kind of successful

dramatic presentation.

5. Criticism of Drama
Indians from very early times considered plays to be essentially
spectacle' (Jrekea) or 'things' to be visualised ; hence persons attending

• BhaTabhwti however violates the rule in his Uttara. in letting many years
paw between Acts I and II.
 XLVI

the performance of a play were always referred to (XXVII. 48-57) as

'spectators' or 'observers' (prehataY and never as audience (srotr), although
there was always the speech element in it, which was a tiling to be heard.
This disposes of the question of judging the value of a drama except in
connection with its production on the stage This importance of the
representational aspect of a play has possibly behind it an historical reason.

Though in historical tiuies wo find written dramas produced on the stage,

this was probably not the case in very early times, and the dialogues
which contribute an important part of the drama wore often impro-
vised on the stage by the actors", and this practice seems to have
continued in certain claws of folk-plays till the late medieval times' ".

Hence the drama naturally continued to be looked upon* by Indians as

spectacles oven after great playwright creators like Blusa, Kalidasa,
SOdraka, and Bhavabhuti had writt-n their dramas which in spite of
their traditional form were literary master-pieces.

Now, dramas being essentially things to be visualised, their judgement

should properly rest with the people railed upon to witness
them. This
was not only the ancient Hindu view, even the modern producers, in spite
of th<ir enlisting the service of professional (dramatic) eritics, depend
actually on the opinion of the common people who attend their
performance.
The judgement of the drama which is to depend on spectators
has
been clearly explained in the theory of the Success discussed
in tho Natya-
sastra (XXVII). In this connection one must
remember the medley of
persons who usually assemble to witness a dramatic
performance and what
varying taste and inclinations they might possess.
For, this may give us
some guidance as to what value should be put on
their judgement which
appear to have no chance of unity. In laying
down the characteristics of a
drama the Natyasastra has the following :
"This (the Niitya) teaches duty to
those bent on doing their duty, love to those who "are eager for its
fulfilment, and it chastise* those who are ill-bread or unruly, promotes self-
restraint in those who
are disciplined, gives courage
to coward*, energy
to heroic persons, enlightens men of poor intellect and gives wisdom
to the
learned. Ihis gives diversion
to kings, firmness
[of mind] tcpersons afflicted
with sorrow, and [hints of
acquiring] wealth to those
who arc for earning
it, and it brings
composure to persons agitated
in mind. The drama as I

•• Tho Kr,„akirtana, a collltfo, of MidH, J^T"*

Vo11 » «*>»
in our early boyhood that
«teZ3 ,
*»"«« ol.dnm.. We Mw

theatre whi^ depend ol ZSJl'^ """"*"*» '^^ -*»

 XLvn
havo devised, is a mimicry of actions and conducts of people, which is rich
in various emotions and which depicts different situations. This will relate
to actions of men good, bad and indifferent, and will give courage, amuse-
ment and happiness as well as counsel to
all" (1.108-112). them
It may bo
objected against the foregoing passage that
no one play can
possibly please all the different types of people. take But> this view of
a dramatic performance, is to deny its principal character as a social
amusement. For, the love of spectacle inherent in all normal people and
is

this being so, every one will enjoy a play whatever be its theme, unless
it
is 'to contain anything which is anti-social in character. The remarks of
the author of the Natyasastra quoted above on the varied profits the specta-
tors will reap from witnessing a performance, merely shows in what
diverse
ways different 'types of plays have thoir special appeal to the multitu-
dinous spectators. And his very detailed treatment of this point, is for the
sake of suggesting what various aspects a drama or its performance may

have for the spectators. This manysidedncss of an ideal drama has been
very aptly summed up by Kalidasa who says, "The drama, is to provide
satisfaction in one [place] to people who may differ a great deal as regards
their tastes" (Malavi. 1.4). It is by way of exemplifying the tastes of such

persons of different category that the Natyasastra says :

"Young people are pleased to sec [the presentation of] love, the
learned a reference to some [religious or philosophical] doctrine, the seekers
after money topics of wealth, and the passionless in topics of liberation.
Heroic persons are always pleased in the Odious and the Terrible
Sentiments, personal combats and battles, and th/3 old people in Puranic
legends, and tales of virtue. And common women, children and uncultured
persons are always delighted with the Comic Sentiment and remarkable
Costumes and Make-up" (XXV. 59-61).

These varying tastes of individual spectators were taken into consi-

deration by the author of the Natyasastra when ho formulated his theory of

the Success. The Success in dramatic performance was in his opinion of two
kinds, divine (dat'viki) and human (nianum) (XXVII. 2). Of these two,
the divine Success seems to be related to the deeper aspects of a play and
came from spectators of a superior order i.e. persons possessed of culture
and education (XXVII. 16-17), and the human Success related to its

superficial aspects and came from the average spectators who were ordinary
human beings. It is from these latter, who are liable to give expression to
their enjoyment or disapproval in the clearest and the most energetic
manner, that tumultuous applause and similar other acts proceeded
[(XXVII. 3, 8-18, 13-14), while the spectators of the superior order gave
[their appreciation of the deeper and the more subtle aspects of a play
sXXVII, 5, 6, 12, 16-17). During the medieval times the approval of the

Spectators of the latter kind .came to bo considered appreciation par

XLVUI

excellence and pro-occupied tho experts or learned critics. They analysed

its process in every detail with the greatest possible care in their zealous

adherence of Bharata's theory of Sentiment (rasa) built upon what

may bo called a psychological basis.

But in spite of this later development of this aspect of dramatic cri-

ticism it never became the preserve of specalists or scholars. Critic* never

forgot that the drama was basically a social amusraent and as such depen-
ded a gr eat deal for its success on the average spectator. Even the Natya-
sastra has more than once very clearly said that the ultimate court of appeal
concerning the dramatic practice was the people (XX. 125-126). Hence a
fixed set of rules, be it of the Natyavcda or the Natyasastra was never
considered enough for regulating the criticism of a performance. This
seems to be tho reason why special Assessors appointed to judge the
different kinds of action occurring in a play (XXVI. 6S-69), decided in
co-operation with the select spectators, who among the contestants deserved
to be rewarded.

6. The Four Aspects of Drama.

Though the Hindu plays are usually referred to as 'drama' all the ten
varieties of play (riifia) described in the Natyasastra are not strictly speak-
ing dramas in the modern sense. Due to the peculiar technique of their
construction and production they would partially at least partake of the
nature of pure drama, opera, ballet or merely dramatic spectacle. To under-
stand this technique one must have knowledge of the Styles (vrtti) of dra-
matic production described in the Natyasastra (XXII). These being four
in number are as follows : the Verbal (bharati), the Grand (saltvati), tho
Energetic (arabhali) and the Graceful (iaisiki). The theatrical presenta-
tion which is characterised by a preponderating use of speech (in Skt.) and
in which male characters are excusivcly to be employed, is said to be in the
Verbal Style (XXII. 25ff.). This is applicable mainly in the evocation of the
Pathetic and the Mervellous Sentiments. The presentation which depends
for its effect on various gestures and speeches, display of strength as well as
acts showing tho rise of tho spirits, is considered to be in the Grand Style
(XXII. 38 ff). This is applicable to the Heroic, the Marvellous and the
Furious Sentiments. The Stylo which includes the presentation of a bold
person speaking many words, practising deception, falsehood and bragging
and of down, jumping, crossing over, doing deeds of
falling
magic and
conjuration etc, is called the Energetic one. This
is applicable to tho Terri-
ble, the Odious and the Furious Sentiments
(XXII. 55ff). The presenta-
tion which is specially interesting on account of charming costumes worn
mostly by female characters and in which many
kinds of dancing and sing-
ing are included, and the themes acted ralate
to the practice of love and ite
 XL1X
enjoyment; is said to constitute the Graceful Style (XXII. 47ff). It is pro-
per to the Erotic and the Comic Sentiments.
From a careful examination of the foregoing descriptions one will see
that the Styles, excepting the Graceful, are not mutually quite exclusive in
their application. On analysing the description of different types of play

given in tlio Natyasastra it will be found that the Nataka, the Prakarana.
the Samavakara and the Ihamrga may include all the Styles in their presen-
tation, while the I)iraa, the Vyayoga, the Prahasana, the Utsrstikanka, the
Bhaiia and the Vithi, only some of those (XX. 88, 96). Hence one may call
into question the soundness of the fourfold theoretical division of the Styles

of presentation. But logically defective though this division may appear,

it helps one greatly to understand the prevailing character of the perfor-
mance of a play as it adopts one or more of the Styles, and gives prominence
to one or the o^ier. It is a variation of emphasis on these, which is

responsible for giving a play the character of a drama (including a dramatic

spectacle), an opera or a ballet, Considered from this standpoint, dramas or
dramatic spectacles like the Nataka, the Prakarana, the ?amavakara and
the Ihamrga may, in their individual Acts, betray the characteristics of an
opera or a ballet. The Prahasana, an, one Act drama to be presented with
attractive costumes and dance, may however to some extent, partake of the
nature of a ballet. The Pima, the Vithi, the Bhaiia, ihe Vyayoga and the
Utsrstikanka are simple dramas devoid of dance and colourful costumes.

III. Literary Structure of the Drama :

1. Ten Types of Play

The Nalaka, To understand the literary structure of the Hindu

drama, it will be convenient to take up first of all the Nataka which is the
1
most important of tho ten kinds of play described in the Natyasastra .

(a) Subject-matter and division into Acts.

The Nataka is a play having for its subject-matter a well-known

fetory and for its Hero a celebrated person of exalted nature. It describes

the character of a person descending from a royal seer, the divine protec-
tion for him, and his many superhuman powers and exploits, such as

success in different undertakings and amorous pastimes 5 and this play

should have an appropriate number of Acts (XX. 10-12).

As the exploits of the Hero of the Nataka have been restricted to his

success in different undertakings including love-matters, it is a sort of

Hero's
'comedy', and as such can never permit the representation of the
it

enemy or a treaty with him under compul-

defeat, flight or capture by the

1
NS. ignores the Uparopakas. Fortheae scoSD. NL. andBhP. ete.^

G
 sion. Such a representation would negutive the subject of the play whir],

is the triumph or the prosperity of the Hero. But all these except his (th,.

Hero's) death, could be reported in an Introductory Scene which may

come before an Act. The presentation of the Hero's death was for

obvious reasons impossible in a comedy.

The first thing that attracts the attention of reader on opening a
Nataba, is its Prologue (sthapana or prastuvana). But according to th<-

Natyasastra this was a part of the Preliminaries (/mrvaraitna) and was

outside the scope of the play proper (V. 171). That famous playwright*
like Bhisa, Kalidasa and others wrote it themselves aii'l made it the formal

beginning of their dramas, seems to show that they made in this matter an

innovation which as great creative geniuses they were fully entitled to.

But unlike the Greek plays the Hindu Natakas are divided into

Acts the number of which must not be le.« than live' or more than dn
(XX. 57). These Acts, however, are not a set of clearly divided scenes a»

they usually are in modern western compositions of this category. An

Act of the Hindn drama consists of a series of more or less loosely con-

nected scenes* which due to its peculiar technique could not be separated
from one another. It has three important characteristics ,

-(i) Only the royal Hero, hi* queen, minister, and similar other im-
portant personages are to be mndo prominent in it and not any minor
character (XX. 18). This rule seems to be meant for securing the unity of
impression which has been referred to before.

(ii) It i9 to include only those incidents which could take place in

course of a single day (XX. 23). If it so happens that all the incidents
occurring within a single day cannot be accommodated in an Act these

. surplus events are to be reported in a clearly separated part of it, called

the Introductory Scene (firaveiaka) where minor characters only can
take part (XX. 27, 30). The same should be the method of reporting
events that are to be shown as having occurred in the interval between two
Acts (XX. 31). Evidently these latter should be, of secondary importance
for the action of play. But according to the Natyasastra these; should
not cover more than a year (XX. 28). This al lowance of a rather long
period of time for less important events occurring between
two Acts of a
Nitaka was means by which the Hindu playwrights imparted speed to
the
the action of the play and compressed the entire plot
distributed through
many events over days, months and years within its narrow frame-work
suitable for representation within a few hours.
(iii) An Act should not include the representation of events relating
to feats of etcessive anger, favour and gift, pronouncing a course, running

' Sao note 2 in IV. below.

 LI

away, marriage, a miracle, a battle, loss of kingdom, death and the siege
of a city and the like (XX. 20, 21). The purpose of this prohibition was
probably that, when elaborately presented in an Act, these might divert
much of the spectator's interest from the line of the principal Sentiment
which the play was to evoke and might therefore interfere whith the unity
of impression which it was to make.

(b) Explanatory Devices

(i) The Introductory Scene. It has been shown before how the
Ililtdu playwrights divided the entire action of the Nataka into two sets
of evonts of which the one was more important than the other, and how
they represented in its Acts the important set, whereas the less

important ones 'were reported, whenever necessary, in an Introductory

Scene giving we the idea of the time that intervened between any two
Acts. This Scene is one of the five Explanatory Devices {arthopaksepaka)
which were adopted by the playwright for clarifying the obscurities that
were liable to occur due to his extreme condensation of the subject-matter.
The other Explanatory Devices are as follows : The Intimating

Speech (culika), the Supporting Scene (viskam&haka) the Transitional

Scene (ankdvalara) and the Anticipatory Scene (ahkamukha).
(ii) The Intimating Speech. When some points [in the play] are

explained by a superior, middling or inferior character from behind the

curtain, it is called the Intimating Speech (XXI. 108).

(iii) The Supporting icene. The Supporting Scene relates to the

Opening Juncture only of the Nataka. It is meant for describing some

incident or occurrence that is to come immediately after (XXI. 106-107).

(iv) The Transitional Scene. When a scene which occurs between

two Acts or is a continuation of an Act and is included in it, relates to

the purpose of the Germ of the<play, it is called the Transitional Scene

(XXL 112).

(v) The Anticipatory Scene. When the detached beginning of an

Act is summarised by a male or a female character, it is called the Anti-

cipatory Scene (XXI. 112).

(c) The Plot and its Development

The Plot or the subject-matter (vaslu) of a Nataka may be twofold :

"The principal" (adkikarika) and the "incidental" (prasahgiia). The

meaning of the principal Plot is obvious from its name, and an incidental

Plot is that in whioh the characters acting in their own interest incidentally

furthe^thc purpose of the Hero of the pricipal Plot (XXL 2-5).

The exertion of the Hero for the result to be attained, is to be

represented through the following five stages (XXI. 8) : Beginning

(ambha), Effort (prayatna), Possibility of Attainment (pmpti-sqmihavd),

 ^
LII

Certainty of Attainment (niyal&pti) and Attainment of the Result

(fhalaprapti). These five stages of the Plot liave five corresponding

Elements of the Plot (XXI. 20-21) such as, the Germ (bija), the Prominent

Point Hindu) the Episode {pataka), tho Episodical Incident (firaian) and
the Denouement (karya). Besides these aspects of the action and the

Plot of the Nataka, the elaboration of the latter has been viewed a<

depending on its division into the following live Junctions which are a-

follows*: the Opening {mukhi), the Progression ipratimukha). the Develop-

ment (gariha), the Pause (vimaria) and the Conclusion («;'< vahaiia)-

Aud these have been further subdivided and described to give

detailed hints as to how the playwright was to produce a manageable play

including events supposed to occur during a long period of time.

Kalidasa's Sakuntalii and Bhiisa's Svapna-vasavadattii are well-
'
known examples of the Nataka
The Prakarana. The second species of Hindu play, is the Praka-

rana which resembles the Nataka in all respect- e«ept that ''it takes a

rather less elevated range". \^ Plot is to be original and drawn from

real life and the most appropriate theme is love The Hero may ben
Brahmin, merchant, minister, priest, an officer of the king or a leader of
the army (XX. 49-51). The female characters include a o-mrtezan or a
depraved woman of good family (XX. 33) '. But the court<vun should
not meet the Hero when he is in the company of a lady or gentleman of
high family, and if the courtezans aud respectable ladies must meet on any
account they are to keep their language aud manners undistorted (XX. 55-

56). From these and other features, the Prakarana has been called a
bourgeois comedy or comedy of manners of a rank below royalty.

Siidraka's Mrcchakatika and Bhavabhiiti's Malatimadhava are well-

known examples of the Prakarana.
The Samavakhra. The Saniavakara is the dramatic representation
of some mythological story which relates to gods and some well-known
Asura, who must be its Hero. It should consist of
three Acfr which are
to take for their performance eighteen Nadikas (seven hours and twelve
minutes).' Of these the first Act is to take twelve and
the »econd four
and the third two Nadikas only. The subject-matter
of the Samnvakara
should present deception, excitement or love,
and the number of characters
allowed in it arc twelve. And besides this, metres used in it should be
of the compter kind (XX. 63-76).

u.atetheobj^lofdramat.c utriga,, a
prohibition which could sadly hare
cooled tho

nSTSSu
tta * ll *lM«
«"<» Ooagrero -Select *pc*im.a. of Hindu

• See" H.H. Witaw, Oo tho Dramatic

Sysfe. f tb, Hindus, Occulta, 1887, p. 16.
 LIU

No old specimen of this type of drama has reached us. Prom the
description given in the NatyaSastra it seems that the Samavakara was
not a fully developed drama, but.only a dramatic spectacle on the sasis of
a mythological story. It naturally became extinct with the development
and production of fulfledged literary dramas such as those of Bhasa and
Kalidasa.
Ihamrga. The Ihamrga is a play of four Acts in which divine
males are implicated in a fight over divine females. It should be a play
with well-ordered construction in which the Plot of love is to be based on
causing discord among females, carrying them off and oppressing [the
enemies], and when persons intent on killing are on the point of starting a
fight, the imperilling battle should be avoided by some artifice (XX. 78-82).

No old specimen of this type of play has been found. Prom the
description givAi in the Natyasastra it seems that the Ihamrga was a play
of intrigue, in which gods and goodesses only took part.
The Dima- The l)ima is a play with a well-constructed Plot and its

Hero should be well-known and of the exalted type. It is to contain all the

Sentiments except the Comic and the Erotic, and should consist of four

Acts only. Incidents depicted in it arc mostly earthquake, fall of meteors,

eclipses, battle, personal combat, challenge and angry conflict. It should
abound in deceit, jugglery and energetic activity of many kinds. The
sixteen characters which it must contain are to include different types

such as gods, Nagas, Raksasas Yaksas and Pisacas (XX 84-88).

No old or new example of this type of play has reached us. It seems

that like the Samavakara this was a dramatic epectacle rather than a

fulfledged drama. With the advent of literary plays of a more developed

kind, it lias naturally become extinct.

Vyayoga. The Vyayoga is a play with a wcll-kuown Hero and a

small number of female characters. The events related in it are to be of

one day's duratiou. It is to have one Act only and to include battle, per-

sonal combat, challenge and angry conflict (XX. 90-92).

Bhasa's Madhyama-vyayoga is a solitary old specimen of this type

of play.
Utsrgtikaiika, The Utsr§tikanka or Aiika is an one-act play with
a well-known plot, and it includes only human characters. It should

abound in the Pathetic Sentiment and is to treat of women's lamentations

and despondent utterances when battle and violent fighting have ceased, and
its Plot should relate to the downfall of one of the contending characters
(XX. 94-100).
Bhasa's Urubhanga seems to be its solitary specimen. This type

of play may be regarded as a kiud of one-act tragedy.

The Prahasana. The.Prahasaua is a farce or a play in which the

Comic Sentiment predominates* dud it too is to consist of one 'Act only.

HV
The object of laughter is furnished in this, mainly by the improper couducl

of various sectarian teachers as well as courtezans and rogues (XX 102-106).

The Mattavilasa and the Bhagavadajjukiya arc fairly old specimens

of this type of play.

The Bhana. The Bhana is au one Act play with it single character

who speaks after repeating answers to his questions supposed to be given

by a person who remains invisible, throughout This play in monologue
relates to one's own or mother's adventure. It should always include many
movements which are to be acted by a rogue or a Parasite (XX. 108-1 10!.

The Bhanas includod in the collection published under the title Cufur-
bhani seem to be old specimens of this typo of play.
The VUlii. The Vithi should be acted by one or two persons- It

may contain any of the three kinds of characters superior, middling and
inferior (XX. 112-113). It seems to be a kind of a ve*y short one Act
play. But one cannot be sure about this ; for no specimen of this type

of play has come down to us.

2. Did ion of a Play

(a) The Use of Metre. One of the first things to receive the atten-

tion of the Hindu writers on dramaturgy was the importance of verse in the

dramatic dialogue. They discouraged long and frequent prose passages

on the ground that these might prove tiresome to spectators (XX- 34).
After giving a purmawul place to verse iu drama the Hindu theorist*
utilized their detailed knowledge of the structure of metres which varied
in ctesuru as well as the number and sequence of syllables or moras in
a pkda (XV. 3bff„ XIV. 1-86), for heightening the effect of the words

used, by putting them in a appropriate metro. In this respect they framed

definite nW a> to the suitability of particular metres to different Senti-

ment*. For example, the description of auy uct of boldness in connexion

with the Heroic and the Furious Sentiments is to be given in the Arya
metre, and compositions meant to express the Erotic Sentiment should be

in gentl'' metre- such as Milini and Mandakrauta, and the metres of the
iSakkariand the Atidhrti types were considered suitable for the Pathetic
Sentiment (XVII. 110-112). In this regard the Hindu theorists, and for
that matter, the Hindu playwrights anticipated the great Shakespeare
who in his immortal plays made "all sorts of experiments in metre".
(b) Euphony, After considering the use of metres the author of the
Nityasastra pays attention to euphony and says, "The uneven and even
metres which have been described before should be used in composition
with agreeable and soft sounds according to the meaning
intended.
The playwright should make efforts to use in his
composition sweet
and agreeable words which can be recited by women.
A Way abounding in agreeable sound and sense, and containing no
 LV
obscure or difficult words, intelligible to the country people, having a
good
construction, fit to be interpreted with dances, developing Sentiments
becomes fitlor representation to spectators" (XVII.
119-122).
(c) Suggestive or Significant names. Another important aspect
of
the diction was the suggestive or significant
names for different characters
in a play. It has been said of Gustave Flaubert that
he took quite a long
time to find a name for the prospective hero and
heroine of his novels,
and this may appear to be fastidious enough. But on discovering that the
Hindu dramatic theorists centuries ago laid down rules about naming the
created characters (XIX. 30-36), we come to appreciate and admire the
genius of the great French writer.
(d) Varisty of languages or dialects. The use
of Sanskrit along
with different dialects of Prakrit (XVIII. 36-61) must
be ascribed to
circumstances m
the midst of which the Hindu drama grew up. The
dramas reflect the linguistic condition of the society in which the early
writers of plays lived. As the speech is one of the essential features of a
person's character and socialstandiug.it may profitably be retained unal-
tered from the normal. Even in a modern drama dialacts are very often
used though with a very limited purpose.

IV. The Ancient Indian Drama in Practice

1. Occasions for Dramatic Performance

The Hindu drama like similar other forms of ancient art and poetry
aeems to have been of religions origin, and it developed probably out of
jdances and songs in honour of a deity like &va who in later time3 came to
styled the great dancer-actor (natarafa). As time passed, the dance
rith songs gradually assumed the form of regular dramatic spectacles, and
ae range of subjects treated was extended beyond the legends connected
ith the exploits of a particular deity. It is just possible that this
Jevelopment of the religious aspect came in course of time to be partially
rrested, and plays began to be composed more with a purely secular
baracter. And this change considerably loosened its original connexion
|ith the popular deities. Possibly due to this the Hindu drama in the
Btoric period of its career, is found to be acted sometimes for moral edifi-
ion as in the case of the Buddhist plays, sometimes for the aesthetic
ftjoyment of the elite as in the case of KalidSsa's works, and sometimes
|hononr of a deity as in case of one of Bhavabhttti's plays. In spite of
various uses, the Hindu drama unlike its modern counterparts did
ftsibly never become an ordinary amusement of everyday life. It was
{ttly on special occasions like a religious festival, a marriage ceremony,
ing's coronation, a friend's visit that dramatic performances were held

39 ; AD. 12-14). But among all these ocoasions religious festivals

 vn
were the most common for the performancee of drama. It was natural
that on such occasions the drama was a popular entertainment as well, the
public being then in a holiday mood.
Another fact about the dramatic performances of the Hindus was
that these were sometimes held in the form of contests (XXVII. 21-22,

71, 77-79). Different groups of actors vied with one another for the
popular appreciation, and reward for their skill in the particular art. This
drama, however does not seem to have been a regular feature of the Hindu,
as was the case with that of tho Greeks, and theatrioal troups gave, how-

ever, performance usually for money without any spirit of rivalry towards
others, and were paid by the rich people or the different guilds.

2. The Time of Performance

Except in the midnight or at noon or at the time of the Sandhya

prayers, the Hindu dramas could be performed almost at any part of the
day or of the night. But this does not mean "that any play could be pro-

duced at any allowable time during the twentyfour hours. Though at the

command of the patron the Director of a theatrical party could overlook

strict rules in this regard, the time of performance was to be regulated

according to the nature of the subject-matter of the individual play. For

example, a play based on a tale of virtue was to be performed in the fore-
noon ; a performance which was rich in instrumental music, and told a
story of strength and energy, was to be held in the afternoon, and a play
which related to the Graceful Style, the Erotic Sentiment, and required .

vocal and instrumental music for its production, was to be performed in

the evening ; but in case of plays which related to the magnanimity of
the Hero and contained mostly the Pathetic Sentiment, performance was
to be held in the morning (XXVII. 88-99).
Though in the modern times dramatic performance is mostly held in
the evening, the ancient Indian rules regarding the assignment of a play of

a particular type to a particular part of the day or of tho night need not
be considered queer ki any way. On the other hand, they appear very
much to have been based on a proper understanding of the ever-changeable
nature of human personalities. Even if a play based on a tale of virtue
. or of woe, when properly presented on the stage, could be appreciated at
anytime, it had better chance of impressing the spectator in the forenoon
, or in the morning, when after the night's sleep and rest, he could be the
Vmost receptive in regard to these Sentiments That a play including a
story of energy and strength can better be assigned to the after-noon is to

. be explained on the assumption that on taking rest after meals at the com-
pletion the morning's activities, one becomes psychologically more competent
to appreciate stories of strength and energy presented on the stage. In a
similar manner, a play with love as its principal theme CUt« Jrith
 LVJI

the Erotic Sentimont) may be mora effectively pro3eatcd on the stage in the
evening, when after the day's work, one is naturally inclined to enjoy the
company of his dear woman, be she his wife or the hetaera.

3. The Playhouse or the Theatre

The Natyasastra describes various types of playhouse, and their
different parts have been mentioned to some extent in detail. But in the
absence of evidence the like of which has been copiously available in case
of the Greek theatre, it cannot be said how far the ancient Indian plays
were peformed in specially constructed theatres. It may be possible that
only the kings and very wealthy people owned playhouses constructed accor-
ding to the Nityyasastra, while dramatic spectacles meant for the common
people were heid in the open halls called the Nat-mandir (Natya-mandira)
in front of the {Samples, or in a temporarily devised theatre under the cover
a canopy, as in *he case of the modern Bengali Yatras which seem
to have
some resemblance and connexion with the ancient Indian Natya described
in the Sastra. One remarkable feature of the playhouses described in the
Natya-sastra is that they are of a very moderate size, the largest among
them (meant for mortals) being only thirtytwo yards long and sixteen
yards board, capable of accommodating about four hundred (400) spectators.
This is in sharp contrast with the Athenian theatre which sometimes held
as many as fifteen thousand (15,000) people.
" The comparative smallness ancient Indian theatre
of the was a nece-
ssary consequence of the pecular technique of the dramatic production.
For in a larger playhouse the spectators could not all have heard delicate
points onwhich depended in no-small measure the success of a performance.
The inordinately largo Athenian theatre was not much handicapped in
this respect, for the Greek drama depended on a considerably different

technique.

The Natyasiistra describes three main types of playhouse : oblong

(vikrsfa), square (caturasra) and triangular {tryasra). These again might
be the large, medium or small, with their length respectively as one hundred
and eight, sixtyfoui, and thirtytwo cubits. This gives altogether nine
different varities of theatres, viz. (i) the large oblong, (ii) the large-
square, (iii) the large triangular, (iv) the medium oblong, (v) the
medium square (vi) the medium triangular, (vii) the small oblong,
(viii) the small square and (ix) the small triangular. These nine types
can also be measured in terms of damjas instead of that of cubits. This
will give us eighteen different diamensions oE playhouse. But the Natya-
sastra is silent about the use of the playhouse measured in terms of danQas,
and the playhouse of the largest typo measuring 108 cubits in length have
been prohibited by the Sastra for tho mortals. And it has been mentioned
before that a playhouse more in area than thirtytwo yards long and sixteen

H
 yards broad has been prescribed for them. This should bo divided into
three parts : (i) the tiring room (nepathya) (ii) the stage (rahgapitha
or rahgasirsa) and (iii) the auditorium (rahgamanfala). Of these the
tiringroom would be at one end of the theatre and would measure sixteen
yards by four yards. On the two sides of the stage there should be two
Mattavaranis each occupying an area of four yards by four yards and
having four pillars. Thus the area to be occupied by the seats of specta-
tors would be twentyfour yards by sixteen yards.
The tiring room (nepathya) was the place in which the actors and
the actresses put on the costumes suited to the different roles, and from fhis
place, the tumults, divine voices {daiva-mni) and similar other acts
proceeded. This part of the theatre was separated from the stage by
two screens over its two doors, Between these two doors the members
of the orchestra {kulapa) were to sit and the direction facing them
was to be considered conventionally the east.

4. The Representation
To understand the technique of representation of the Hindu drama
one must remember that it avoided stark realism and gave utmost
scope to imagination and fancy. The one unmistakable evidence of
this is the total absence of any painted scenery from the stage. This
is but a- negative side of it. If the Hindus avoided bringing in any
kind of artificial scenery, they made positive efforts in communicating
the meaning of the drama and calling forth the Sentiment (rasa) in

the spectators through suggestive use of colour in the costume and

make up of the actors and rhythmic movements of many kinds which
have been summed up in their theory of four representations (abhinaya)
such as angika, vaeika, aharya, and sattvika (VI.23).

(a) The Physical Representation

Among these, the ahgika should be discussed first. This consists

of the use of various* gestures and postures of which the Natyasastra
gives elaborate descriptions. Different limbs have been named and their
manifold gestures and movements described, with various significance

attached to each one of them (VIII.-XII). For example, the head has
thirteen different gestures which are as follows :

Akampita : Moving the head slowly up and down.

Kampita: when the movements in the Akampita head are quick
and copious. (Uses) : The Akampita head is to be applied in giving
a hint, teaching questioning, addressing in an ordinary way (lit naturally),
and giving an order.
The Kampita head is applicable (lit. desired) in anger argument
understanding, asserting, threatening, sickness and intolercnce.
Dhnta and Vidhuta : A slow movement of the head is called the
 1.1X

Dhuta and when this movement is quick it is called Vidhuta. (Uses) :

The Dhuta head is applicable in unwillingness, sadness, astonishment

confidence, looking side ways, emptiness and forbidding.

The Vidhuta head is applied in an attack of cold, terror, panic,

fever and the first stage of drinking (i. e. intoxication).

Parivahita and Udvahita : when the head is alternately turned

to two sides it is called the Parivahita, and when it is once turned

upwards it is known as the Udvahita. (Uses) : The Parivahita head

is applicable in demonstration, surprise, joy, remembering, intolerence,

cogitation, concealment and [amorous] sporting.

The Udvahita head is to be applied in pride, showing height,

looking high up, self-esteem and die like.

Avadhuta ! When the heaPIs once turned down it is called the

Avadhuta. (Usts) : it is to be applied in [communicating] a message

involking a deity, conversation and beckoning [one to come near].

Aflcita When the neck is slightly bent on one side the Aflcita
:

head is tha result. (Uses) : It is applicable in sickness, swoon, intoxication

anxiety and sorrow.

Nihaficita : when two shoulder** are raised up with the neck bent

on one side the Nihaficita head is produced. (Uses) : It is to be used

Light-heartedness (laltla).
by women in pride, Amorousness (vilasa),

Affected Indifffirence {bibboka), Hysterical Mood (kilakinciia). Silent

Expression of Affection (mottayifa), Pretented Anger (kuttamitaY ;

Paralysis {stambha) and Jealous Anger (matia).

Paravrtta : when the face is turned round, the Paravrtta head is

the result. (Uses) : It is to be used in turning away the face, and

looking back and the like.

Utk§ipta •.
when the face is raised up the Utks.ipta head is the
lofty objects, and application
result. (Uses) : It is used indicating
of divine weapons.
face looking downwards is called
Adhogata : The head with the
and
the Adhogata. (Uses) : It is used in shame, bowing [in salutation]
sorrow.
moving on all sides, it is called
Parilolita : when the head is

Parilolita. (Uses) : It is used in fanting, sickness, power of intoxi-

ation, possession by an evil spirit, drowsiness and the like.

The eyes are similarly to haw different kinds of glances according

express. The
to the States {bhava) and Sentiments {rasa) they are to
impressions of
eyeballs too are liable to similar changes to creat
different feelings and emotions, and so have the eyebrows, tho nose,

ones see NK
these terms together with the preceding
1
For the definition of all

XXIV. 15,18-82.
 LX

the cheeks, the chin, and the neck. The hands, however, are the most
important limbs in the making of gestures. Gestures and movements of
hands fall into three classes, viz. single {asamyula), combined (samyuta)
and dance hands (nrtta-hasta). Single-hand gestures and movements
relate to one hand only, while combined hands to both the hands, The
following are examples of the three kinds of hand gestures r— Pataka
(single hand) : The fingers extended and close to one another and the
thumb bent. A»jali (combined hand) Putting together of the two Pataka
hands is called the Afijali. Caturasra (dance-hand) : The Katakamuk.ha
hands held forward eight Aiigulis apart [from each other] on one's breast,
the two shoulders and elbows on the same level- Besides these gestures,
the hands have varied movements which are characterised by the following
acts : drawing upwards, dragging, drawing out, accepting, killing, beckon-
ing, urging, bringing together, separating, protecting, releasing, throwing,
shaking, giving away, threatening, cutting, piercing, squeezing and
beatingdX. 161-163).
Prom the foregoing discussion about the gestures it is apparent that
their uses fall into two different categories, viz. realistic and conven-
tional. Of these two types, the gestures used conventionally far outnumber
those of the other kind. But this should not appear strange. For the
ancient Indian dramatists and theatrical producers were fully conscious
of the limited scope of realism in arts of various kinds, and hence they
conceived action as comething very closely allied to dance. This demanded
that while moving on the stage with or without uttering any word, the
actors should gesticulate rhythmically, to impart grace and decorative

effect to their figure. For this very purpose another set of gestures called

Dance-hands (nrtlahasta) are also to be used. As their name implies

these hands were exclusively to be used in dance, but for reasons men-
tioned above -they were sometimes utilized at the time of declamation
or recitation. Tjjte lower parts of the body down to the Jfeet are also

to be similarly used. Among these, the feet are the most important On
them depend the different movements of the entire body as well as the
various standing postures. The movements of the feet are of three kinds,

viz. ordinary gait, Cari and Mandala, Of these, the Can is a simple

movement of the feet (XI.) while Mandala, is a series of such movements

considered together (XII.) During the stage fighting the two combatants
are to move with Carls and Mandalas in accompaniment with suitable

music And the gait is very valuable for the representation of different

roles- In this matter too convention plays a very considerable part. The
Natya&istra lays down elaborate rules about the width of footsteps and the

tempo of the gait for different characters according to their social position,

age, sex v health and feeling as well as the peculiar environments in which
they might be placed (XEU. 1-157).
 (b) The Vocal Representation
The second means of theatrical representation consists of the use of

It relates to the proper musical notes (svara) voice registers

speeoh.
(varrta), intonation (kukri), speech-tempo (laya)
(sthatu), pitch of vowels
a passage for the purpose of evoking
to be used in reciting or declaiming
different Sentimente (rasa) in the spectators. For example to call forth

theComic and The Erotic Sentiments a passage should be recited with tho

Madhyama and the Paiicama notes, and for the Heroic and the Marvellous

Sentiments the Sadja and the Rsabha would be the suitable notes.
To call a person staying at a distance the voice should proceed from
the head register (iiras) and when he is at a short distance it should be
from the chest {.uras), and for calling a man at one's
side the voice from

the throat register (kantka) would bo proper

(XIX. 43).
For any speech with the Comic and the Erotic Sentiments the prevail-
ing pitch would be Udatta (acute) and Svarita (circumflex) while in the
Heroic, tho Furious and the Mervellous Sentiments it should be Udatta

and Kampita.
In the Comic and the Erotic Sentiments the speech-tempo should be
medium, in the Pathetic slow, and in the other Sentiments a quick tempo
is appropriate (XIX. 59).

Besides the above aspects of speech, close attention was to be given

in observing rhythm and cadence. And the metrical character of any

passage in verse was to be fully expressed in its recitation or declamation.

For this propose the Natyasastra devotes nearly two full chapters (XV,
XVI) which discuss prosody and allied topics.

(c) The Costumes and Make-up

One important element in theatrical representation now-a-days is the

various stage appliances such as, painted scenery, costumes and make-up

However able the actors aud actresses might be in delivering the

speeches assigned to their roles, without being placed against properly

painted scenery and without having proper costumes and make-up, by their

acting and delivery alone they cannot create that kind of stage-illusion

which is necessary for the success of a dramatic production. But in the

ancient Indian stage thero was no painted scenery. Hence the actors had to

depend a great deal upon costumes and make-up. By the term ShSryabhi-

naya the Hindu theorists understood these two items (XXIII)..

Though painted scenery is considered indispensable iu tho modern,
theatre, tho aucient Indians having a considerably different conceptiou of
the drama, did not require its aid for the production of a play. The wall

that separated the tiring room (nepathya) and the stage (raitgapiiha)

together with the screens covering the two doors connecting the stage aud
the tiring room, served as tho back-ground to show off to advantage tho
IiXII

figures of the performers. And these, the wall and the screens, possibly

did not contain anything other than the usual decorative designs. This
simplicity in the character of the scenic apparatus was a nacesscry con-
comitant of the peculiar technique of the Hindu drama, and its cause
may be looked for in ite early history. The introduction of magnificent
scenery appears to be a later development in the history of drama.
Similarly the back scene of the Shakaspearean stage consisted of a bare
walli and anything in the way of spectacular effect was created by the
movements and grouping of actors

The production of an impression by means of painted scenery would

have been alien to the taste of the ancient Hindus who were more or less

conscious of the limitation of realism in their various arts. In order to make

the spectators visualise the place and time of the dramatic story in hand,
the Hindus had a different device. Numerous descriptions of place and

time composed in rhythmic prose and verse, which are scattered over the
classical Hindu plays, served very efficiently indeed the purpose of painted

scenery. When properly read or sung, these passages very easily created
an illusion of the place or the time described. The elaborate description

of Vasantasena's magnificent reisdence in the Mrcchakatika was calcu-

lated to call up vividly its picture before the mind's eye. The same
thing may be said of the grand description of the Dandaka forest in

the Uttararamacarita. This device of making a scene lively, has been

utilized by Shakespeare also. In appreciation of his very beautiful des-

cription of place and time, one critic says "The plays are full of such des-
criptive passages as can nullify the achievements of decorators and
mechanics." It has already been mentioned that in the Shakespercan
stage too painted scenery was unknown.
There being no scenery of any kind in the Hindu theatre which made
no effort at realism, the spectators were required to use their imagination
to the utmost. The demand on tho spectator's imagination made by the
ancient Indian producers of plays was further testified by their rules of
conventional Zonal division (kaksa-vibhaga) of the stage (XIV. 1-15).
Some of these are as follows :

A Zone might change with the actor walking a few steps over the

stage.'' Any ancient Hindu play will furnish numerous examples of this
convention. For etample in the first Act of the Sakuntala tho king appears
for the first time at a distance from Kanva's hermitage, but shortly after-

wards he enters it by simply taking a few steps over the stage, looking

around and saying. "This is the entrance of hermitage and let me enter it".

By the same kind of convention the inside and outside of a house was

> Dae to this kind of convention, scenes of the Hindu plays ware not clearly
separated as thay aro in a modern drama. This puzzled J?. Hall who says :
 :

vara
8
simultaneously presented. The rule relating to this was as follows
According to the Zonal division, those who entered the stage earlier should

be taken as being inside [a house] while those entering it later are known
to be as remaining outside it. He who enters the stage with the intention

of seeing them (ie. those entering earlier) should report himself after

turning to the right. To indicate going to a distant locality one is to walk

a good few steps over the stage and to indicate going to a place near by, a

short walk only is needed, while a walk of medium duration will indicate
going to a place of medium distance, But in case a person leaves one
country and goes to a distant land, this is to bo indicated by closing

the Act in which such an event occurs, and mentioning again the same
fact in an Explanatory Scene at the beginning of the next Act.

An example* of some of these conventional rules occurs in the ninth

Act of the Mrftchakatika where Sodhanaka appears first as being at the

gate of the court of justice and enters it by making a pantomimic move-

ment ; then again he goes out to receive the judge and re-enters, the court-

room after him by simply walking over the same stage. And when the
judge has started work, Sodhanaka again goes out to call for the complain-
ants. This going out also consists of actually walking a few steps over
the stage.

Though painted scenery was not in use in the Hindu theatre objects
like hills, carriages, aerial cars, elephants etc, were represented on the
stage by suggestive models {putta) of these. According to the Natyasastra
the model works were of three kinds, viz. sandhima which was made up
of mat, cloths or skins, wrapping cloth, or other materials wrapped round
something, and vyajt'ma which was a mechanical contrivance of some kind
From Dhanika, the commentator of the Dasarupa (II. 67-58), we learn
about a model-work of an elephant for the production of the Udayana-
carita, and the Mrcchakatika owes its name to the toy cart which plays an
indispensable role in the story-

(d) The Temperament

The fourth or the most important means of representation is the
Temperament (sattva) or the entire psychological resources of a man
(XXIV), The actor or the actress must for the time being feel the
States that he or she is to represent, and only then will the Sentiments
[related to them follow. This kind of reprsentation was indispensable for
giving expression to various delicate aspects of men's and women's
emotional nature.

So far as is known, Hindu dramas have always been parted into acts ; but never
ave they had scenes. wondered that the Hindus, wi h their
It is somewhat to be at,

'ordinate love tor left those univented. (Introduction to

subdivision, should have
)asantpa, pp. 28-29. » Secnote 2 above.
 V. Literature on the Ancient Indian Drama
1. The Early Writers
Silalin and Krmva. Panini (circa 500 B;0.) refers (IV. 3.110-111)
to the Natastttras of Silalin and Krsasva.As the works of these two
authors hare perished beyond recovery we are not in a position to have
any exact idea about their contents. But LeVi and Hillebrandt have taken
them to be manuals for actors (nata) though Weber and Konow have con-
sidered those to have been sets of rules for dancers and pantomimists, and
Keith has accepted their view. Konow further thinks that the treatises of
Silalin and Krsasva were absorbed in the body of the Natyasastra (ID. p. 1)

2. The so-called sons of Bharata

After Silalin and Krsasva come the writers whose, names have been
included in the list of the one hundred sons of Bharata, given in the extant
version of the Natyasatra. (I. 26-22). Among these Kohala, Dattila
(Dhurtila), Salikarna (Satakarna), Badarayana (Badari), Nakhakutta and
Asmakutta have been referred to and quoted by later writers as authorities
on dramaturgy and histrionics. Beside3 these, Vatsya and Sandilya have
beon named as authorities on drama by some writers. Such references and
quotations are our only source of knowledge of them and their work.
(a) Kohala Among the writers on drama who wrote after Silalin
and Krsasva, Kohala seems to be the most important. In the extant
version of the Natyasastra (XXXVI. 63), it is given in the form of a
prophecy that Kohala will discuss in a supplementary treatise all those

topics on drama that have not beon touched by Bharata. Prom quotations
of his works made by Abhinava 1 and another commentator, 2 as well as
from their references to his opinion, it appears that Kohala wrote on dance
and dramaturgy as well as historionics and music.
(b) Dattila, Hamjilya, and Vatsya, Dattila seems to be identcal
with Dantila or Dhurtila mentioned in the Natyasastra (I. 26). Abhinava
too quotes from one Dattilitcarya 3 and it is likely that he is not other
than this Dattila. From these quotations .it appears that he wrote
on histrionics and music. Sandilya and Vatsya montioned in the
Natyasastra (XXXVI. 63) along with Dattila (Dhurtila) are to us nothing
but mere names. It is possible that they were writers on somo aspects
of drama and theatre.

» Ag I. pp. 173, m, 183-184; II p. 26, 55, 130, 133, 142, 116, 148. 151,155,
407,416-417,421,434,438-439,413,452,459; De* Ms. p. 413, 436, 496 521 680
• BhP. pp. 204. 210, 236' 245, 251.
' Ag. I. p. 205, Besides this
Ag. quotes and refer* t ) Dattila in less than
14 times
while eomenting on chapter on ibmc. See Do's Ms.
pp. 544, 573, 576, 580 583, 588 590
621, 6^628, 68, 631, 640, 642, 644, 650, 655. See also Ku«» »1 123
 4 2

rav
(c) Satakaryi (fatakatwh &Mkarna). Satakariii as a proper name
is found in inscriptions from the first lecntury B. C. to 149 A. C. Hence
it is possible (though not quite certain) that fcktakarni the writer on drama
flourished about the first century A. C* Like kings in later times who were
sometimes found to take interest among other subjects in drama and poetics
and to write treatises on them, this Satakarni might well have been a king
or a person of royal descent From the quotations made by later writers 3
from him it appears he wrote on dramaturgy.
(d) Asmakutta and Nakhakutta. These two writers from their
nanws appear to have been contemporaries, probably belonged to the same
locality. Sagaranandin 9 and Visvanatha' quote from Nakhakutta, and
Sagara only is, known to have quoted from A^makutta 8 , Prom these
quotations it appears that AiSmakutta and Nakhakutta wrote on
dramaturgy. ,

(e) Ebdarayana [Badari). Sagara quotes from Badarayana twice 9

and possibly names him once as Badari, and from the extracts quoted it

seems that this early writer discussed dramaturgy.

3. Samgraliakara

Abhinavagupta once mentioned the Samgraha and once the Sam-

10
graliakara. In the Natyasastra (VI. 3, 10) itself also one Samgraha
has been mentioned. It seems that the reference is to the identical work.
From those facts it appears that the work might have been a compendium
treating of dramaturgy as well as liistrionics.

4. The Present Text of the Natyasastra (circa 200 A.C.). 11

5. Medieval Writers on Drama

(a) Nandi (Nandikesvara) Tumburu Visakhila and Camyana.
Besides the writers mentioned above Abhinava and Saradatanaya refer to
Nandi or Nandike&vara 1 and the former also names Tumburu" and
Visakhila 1 4 with occasional reference to their views or actually quotations
from them, and Carsiyana has once been quoted by Sagaranandin. 15
(b) Sadimva, Padmablm,- Drauhini, Vy'usa and Ahjaneya.

4
Select Inscriptions, pp. 191-207.
• NL. 1101-1102, Rucipati's Comm. on AR. p. 7.
« NL. 2768-2769, 2904-2905.
' SD. 294, Nakhakutta has also bean mentioned by Bahmwpa in his Comm. on
Dasampa (Indian and Iranian Studies presented to I). Ross, Bombay, p. 201), p. 201 f,n.

• 83,437.27663707, 2774-2775. ' NL. 1092-1094, 2770-2771.

10 ,l
Ag. II. pp. 430, 2770-2771. Sec below sections VI. and VIH.
** Ag. I. p, 171, Do's Ms. p. 559. This Nandikesvara may bo identical with
the author of the AD. l '
Ag. I. pp. 165.
1
Ag. I. p. 199 also De's Ms. pp. 547, 561, 5C3, Soo also Kutfa, si. 123.
" NL. 862-363.
UCVI

Abhinava and iWadatenaya once refer to Sadasiva

1
" while some writors

on drama, such as Padmabhn,

1
' Drauhini,
18
VyaW and Injaneya*
1'

have boon named by Saradatanaya only. But we are not sure whether they

were really old authors or these names have been attached to some late
treatises to give them an air of antiquty.
(c) Katyayatta, Rahula and Getrga. These three writors, quoted
by Abhinava and Sagara may be counted among tJjo medieval writers on
on drama. Prom the available extracts from his work Katyayana 81 seems
to have been a writer on dramaturgy. Rahula has been twice quoted in
78
Abhinava's commentary, and Sagara" has once referred to his view.

Prom these it appears that Rahula was a writer on dramaturgy as well as

histrionics. Garga as an authority on drama has been mentioned by Siigara-
nandin.' 4 In the absence of any quotation from him we cannot say what
exactly he wrote about-

(d) Sakaligarbha and Gkaqtaka. Abhinava mentions among others

the names of SSakaligarbha* 6 and Ghantaka. 78 Of these two, Ghaiuaka
seems to bo a contemporary of Sanknka, and as for, Sakaligarbha, we
have no definite idea about his time. Prom the references to their views

it appears that they wrote on dramaturgy.

(e) Variika-kara Harm. Abhinava once quotes from the Varti-
kakrt 17 and once from the Vartika 18 and neifc time from tho Harsa-
vartika,10 and besides this he once refers to tho views of the Vartika-
80 8
karl. Sagaranandin and Saradatanaya refer to one Harsavikrama ' or
HarRa. 85 It seems possible that they all referred to the same author, and

tho name of the author of the Vartika was Harsa or Har§a-vikrama-

Prom these quotations and the references it appears that this Vartika was
an original treatise on dramaturgy and histrionics.
(f) Matrgupla. Matrgupta has been taken to be a commentator
33
of the Natyai&tra by Sylvain Levi. Though this view has been
accepted by authors who have written later on tho subject, 8 * from the
5 3
metrical extracts made from his work by some commentators it appears

'• BhP. 152, DR. IV. 38-3). " Bh'*.p. 47. " BhP. p. 239.

•» BhP. 251. •• Soenotol9. " NL. 1484-1485. Ag. II. pp. 245-246.
> Ag. I. pp. 115, 172. NL. 2873-2175. •• NL. 3225. " NL.3226.
• Ag. II. p. 452. Kavi thinks that Sakaligarbha - .Sakaleya- Udbhala.
" Ag, II. p. 436.

" Ag. I. p. 172. This Vmrtika seams to have been in original work like Kunw-
rila's Slokavnrtika written in verso. • Ag. I. p 174.
" Ag I. p. 207 alsoDe'9Ms.p.545. •• Ag.Lp.31.
»• NL.3225. BhP. 23*. Le Theatre indien p. 1 5.
" e. g. Skt. Poetics, Vol. (p. 32-33).
'» A. dy pp. 2, 0,7, 8, 9, 13, 15. 110, 126, 230, NL. 102, 314-316, 459-471, 534,
1186(?), BhP. p. 234.
 .

lxvii

that he composed an original work on the subject. It is probable that in

this he occasionally explained in prose the view expressed by the author of

6
the Natyasastra.' Interpreting in thia manner one can understand the

words of Sundara-nrisra, who, commenting on Bharata's definition of the

Benediction (nandi), remarks that 'in axplaining this Matrgupta said
etc'." About the time of Matrgupta, we have no sufficient evidence. All
that can be said is that, Abhinava quotes from his work once 88 and hence
he [was earlior than this great well-known commentator,. Besides this
Sagaranandin, who is possibly earlier than Abhinava, names Matrgupta
aloitg with old writers such as ASmakutta, Nakhakutta, Garga, and
Badarayana (Badari);'"' hence it appears that he was not a late writer.

From the* meagre information available about him scholars have

identified him widh the poet of that name living during the reign of Har§a-
vikramaditya of "Kashmir who seems to have been the author of a work on
drama called Vartika. This would roughly place his work at the end of
10
the 4th century AC. or in the beginning ofthe5th.' From the extracts
made from his works it appears that wrote on dramaturgy and music.

(g) Subandhu, Baradatanaya refers to one Subandhu who wrote on

dramaturgy. 41 If it is possible to identify him with the famous author of
the Vasavadatta, then he may be placed roughly in the 5th century A.C.

(li) The compilers of the Agnipurut}a and the Visiyudharmottara,

The Agnipurana treats of na{ya, nrtya, and rasa, but this treatment depends
considerably on the Natyasastra- There is literal borrowing from this

work as well as parapharases of some of its metrical passages in this

1'urana. This portion of the Agnipurana is usually placed after Dandin
(circa. 7th century).** The Vis^udharmottara too treats of nrtta, nafya
and abhinaya, and thia treatment too is dependent on the Natyasastra and
does not appear to be earlier than the 8th century.

6. Late writings on Drama

(a) Daiarupa. The Dasarupa (DaSarupaka) of Dhananjaya was
composed in the last quarter of the 10th century A.C. during the reign of
Munja (Vakpatiraja, II) the king of Malawa. This work, as its name
implies, treats of ghe ten principal forms of dramatic works (ritpa) which
constitute the subject-matter of chapter XX of the Natyasastra, but it

91
For example Sugars, (NL. 534IT.) discusses Matrgupta's view in his compi-
lation which is written in Terse and prose. It seems that this author was his model.
" Skt Poetics Vol, I. pp. 102-103.
" A g. Do's Ms. p. 643. Dr. S. K. De thought that Matrgupta was unknown
to Ag. (Skt. Poetics, Vol. i. p. 33)
" See note 23 above. " Keith, Skt. Drama, p. 291.
41
BhP.p.838. «> Skt. P.oetios, Vol.!- p. 102-103.
 4

LXVUI

actually brings in a few other relevant matters scattered over other parts

of this comprehensive work.

Any careful student of the Natyasastra will easily discover that

Dhananjaya in restating the principles of dramaturgy in a more concise

and
and systematic form has carried too far tho work of his abridgment
left out quite a number of important matters. The special stress which
its histrionics
he lays on tho literary aspect of drama by his exclusion of
and other technical sides, very clearly indicates the general decadene of
India's aesthetic culture at the time. With his professed reverence for

the rules of tho Natyasastra (ascribed to Bharata), ho seems to have mis-

understood the aims and objects of its author who composed his work for
4 3
the playwrights as woll as the producers of plays.

But whatever be its limitation, the Dasariipa, and its commentary

Avaloka without which it was only half intelligible, attained in course of

time a wido popularity and gradually superseded the Niityasastra which

socms to have become very rare with tho passage of time. And the

DaSarupa so thoroughly supplanted other dramaturgic works as existed

before its time, that with the exception of the Natya&stra it is the most

well-known work on the subject and very frequently drawn upon by the
commentators of plays as well as later writers on dramaturgy like

Visavanatha.

(b) Na{akalaksaiM-ratnako'sa. Slightly earlier than the Dasariipa

1
or contemporaneous with it, is the Nitakalaksana-ratuako&i (briefly
Natakalaksana) of Sigarauandin. Till about a quarter of a century ago
our only knowledge of the work consisted of a few quotations from it in

different commentaries. Bat in 1922 the late Sylvaiu Levi discovered its

Ms. in Nepal and published a report on its contents and other relevant
matters (Journal Asiatique, 1922, p. 210). Since then the work has been
carefully edited by M. Dillon and published (London, 1937). Just like

Dhananjaya, Sagaranandin too discusses in his NStakalaksjana, dramaturgy

in detail aud mentions only incidentally certain topics connected with
histrionics. But unlike the Dasariipa tho Natakalaksana does not treat
exclusively of dramaturgy, but refers to histrionics whenever necessary.
Though tho author professedly depends on no loss than seven different
authorities such as Harsa-vikrama, Matrgupta, Garga, Asmakutta, Nukho-
kutta, Badari (Badariiyana), and Bharata (the mythical author of the

Natyasastra) yet his dependence on tho last-named one seems to be the

greatest A large number of passages have actually been borrowed by him
5
from the same.' Besides these borrowings the extent of Sagaranandin's

" Ag. I. p. 7.
" See B. Kari, 'Date of Sr'agara-Nandiji ' in Indian and Iranian Studies prewnted
to D. Boss. Bombay. 1939. pp, 198ff, ," SeoNL.pp 143-144.
 txra

dependence on the NatyssSstra is apparent from his echoing of the

46
numerous passages of the latter.

(c) Natyadarparia. The Natyadarpana 4 ' of Ramacandra and Guna-

candra is the next important work on dramaturgy after the Dasariipa. Of
8
the two jouuVauthors* of this text, who were Jains Ramacandra lived

probably between 1100 and 1175 A.C., and ho was a disciple of the famous

Hemacandra. Ramacandra wrote a largo number of works including

many plays. But of Gunacandra, the collaborator of Ramacandra, very

little is known except that he too was a disciple of Hemacandra. T lie

Natyadarparia which is divided into four chapters, treats of dramaturgy.

This work, has been composed in Anustup couplets. Its brevity

of the treatment is compareable to that of the Da&ufipa, and as in the latt r

many, of its passages cannot be fnlly understood unless a commentary is

consulted. Fortunately for us the joint-authors of the work have loft for

us a very clearly written and informative vrtti (gloss). It is evident from

the metrical text that the authors had access to the Niityasastra and ex-

ploited it very thoroughly, And whatever could not bo accommodated in

the text has been added in the prose vrlti which has utilised also Abhi-
nava's famous commentary. Besides this the authors have occasionally
criticised tho views of other writers among whom the author of the Dasu-

rupa figures most prominently. 8 " All this has given tho Niityadarpana
a unique value and some superiority over the Dasarupa.

(d) Ruyyaka's Natakamimamsa. Ruyyaka alias Rucaka/' T who

was a Kashmirian and flourished probably in the 12th century, was a
voluminous writer on poetics. It was from one of his works (a commentary
of Mahima-bbatta's Vyaktiviveku) that we learn of his NatakaniimKmsa a
work on dramaturgy. No Ms. of this work has so far been discovered.

(e) Ehhvapralmana. Soiadiitanaya, who seems to have been a

s
Southerner and flourished in the 12th century, wrote the Bhavaprakaiana"
which dealt with dramaturgy in greater detail than either the Dasarupa or
tho Niityadarpana. And his work acquires an additional authority from
the fact that Saradatanaya had as his teacher one Divakara who was tho
04
Director of a theatre and might be taken as deeply conversant with the
theory and practice of Indian drama as it was current in his time. Though
>&radatanaya depends much on earlier authors for the materials of his
work, yet his approach to the subject is to some extent original. As the,

name of his work implies, it deals with the "expression" firakusa of the

" Printed out by M. Dillon in the margin of HU

" Ed. in G.O.8. Baroda. 1929. <• See Introduction of ND. p.:i.

" But thoy hare also drawn materials from older writers like Kohala, 6'aHkuka
and Ag. See ND. p. 224.
•' See ND. Introduction p. 3. " Skt. Poetics, p. I90ff.

' >
Ibid. p. 186. " Bid. Q.O.S. Baroda, 1930,
''
BhP. p. 2 also Introduction, p.G.
 LXX
"State" (ihavd). Now the proper expression of the States by the actors

according to the Natyasastra gives rise to the Sentiments (rasa). Hence

Saradatanaya begins his work with the description of the States and
everything connected with them- Next ho passes very naturally to the
discussion of the Sentiments, These being thoroughly discussed, he
takes up the Heroines of different classes who are the main stay of the
Sentiments. The time factor in the plot and the diction of the play
which also arc means of developing the Sentiments are considered next.

Afterwards he analyses the body of the play and its different parts.

This brings him to the consideration of the ten major and twenty minor
types of play (rtifia), and finally of the miscellaneous matters connected
with drama and theatre. To avoid prolixity we desist from giving here
any detailed account of its contents which include all' possible topics
relating to dramaturgy. It may bo briefly said that • Saradatanaya's
treatment of the subject is in many respects more comprehensive than
that of the Dasariipa, the Natakalaksana, and the Niityadarpana. And
to attain his object Saradatanaya has freely referred to the Natyasastra 65
works of 57 08
as well as the early writers like KolnuV' Matrgupta, Harsa
and Subandhu. 5 " Besides this he has sometimes mentioned authors like
Dhvanikrt, Rudrata, Dhanika, Abhinava, Blioja and, sometimes referred
also to their views and criticised these. u All this adds to the great value
of his work.
(f) Sahilyadarpana and Nalakaparibhasa, VisvanStha Kaviraja,
who flourished about the tli irtocnth century" r
was a poet and a scholar
and in this latter capacity he wrote among other things the famous
Sahityadrapana which treats all branches of the Skt. literature including
drama. It was the sixth chapter of this work dealing with drama on which
the early western writers of the ancient Indian drama mostly depended.
For his treatment of drama Visvanatha seems to have utilised tho Natya-
1
sastra,' the DasarUpa" and its commentary Avaloka 64 as well as the
Work of Rudrata and others.
SiAga-Bhupala's Natakuparibhasa
is known only in name. But his
Rasarnavasudhakara 85 also treats of drama towards its end, It seems
that no important treatise on drama was written after all these
works.

-•' >arad«tanaya'a debt to So has been pointed out by the editor of his work,
tee Introduction of BhP. pp. 61-0?. '• See above note 1. " See above notes 33-37.
" See above notes 31-32. " Sua abeve note 41.
° lihP. pp. 175, 179, 95, 150, 327, 82
160, 194, 313, 12, 152. 1U4, 213, 216, 242, 245,
251 • "
Ski. Poetics, Vol. 1. pp. 233 ff.
" See SD. 281, 306, 321, 503, 517; 537.
" So SD. Viwan .tha wrongly a aacribed to Dhanika
what belong* to DR.UII.
32-33;. This misled some scholars to boliovo that
Dhanika and Dhana»jaya were not
different persona. • • See Skt. Poetics. Vol. I. pp. 243 ft".

'
' fed. Trivandrura Oriental Series, 1916. .
 ixxr

Vf. The Natyasastra' : The Text aiitf its Commentators

1. Its Author

The If atyasastra is commonly attributed to Bharata Muni. 1 But

Bharata cannot be taken as its author, for in the Natyasastra itself

his mythical character is very obvious, and the majority of the Parana?
are silent about the socalled author of the Natyasastra*, and there is not a
him in any of the extant Puranas or the Bamayana and
single legend about

the Mahabharata. The word Bharata which originally meant 'an actor'
seems to have given rise to an eponymous author of the Rharaiasastra or
the Naiakaslra (the manual of actors).

2. lta Two Recensions

Whoever jnight be the author of the Natyasastra it is certain that

the work itself possesses undoubted signs of great antiquity, and one of
these is that its text is available in two distinct recensions. In having
two partly divergent recensions the Natyasastra can well bo compared
with works like tho Nirukta, the Brhaddevata and the Sakuntalii.
The editors of these works have differently settled the claims of their
shorter and longer recensions. At first sight the tendency would bo to
accept tho shorter recension, as representing tho original better,

because elaboration would seem in most cases to come later. But opinion
is divided in this matter: Pischcl regarded the longer recesion as being
3
nearer tho orginal , Macodonell has also given his verdict in favour of the
4
longer recesion but he has not ventured to reject tho shorter recension
entirely as being late, and Lakshinan Sarnp has definitely suggested that
5
tho shorter recension is the oalier one. All these go to show that the
problem of the relation between two recensions of any ancient work is not
so simple as to be solved off-hand. So in this case also we should not
settle the issue with the idea that the longer recension owes its bulk to
interpolations.
The text-history of tho Natyasastra shows that already in the tenth
century tho work was available in two recensions. Dhananjaya the author
of the DasarQpa quotes from the shorter recension while Bhoja, who closely
a
follows him, quoted from the longer one. Abhinava in his commentry
of tho Natyasastra, however, used the shorter recension as the basis of
7
his work. It is likely that the longtime which passed since then has
witnessed at least minor changes, intentional as well as unintentional, in the

1
Seo IHQ. Vol. VI. 1930. pp. 72 ff, Annals of BORI, Vol. XV, 1934, p. 90 fn.
'
See N8X 2-5 note 2. ' KolidW* Sakuntala. HOS. p. XI.
* The Brhaddevata, HOS. Vol. I. p. XVIII-XIX.
* Introduction to the Nighanra and Nirukta, p. 39.
'
Preface to Baroda od. of N.V. Vol. I. p. 8. ' Soe above.note 0.
 jar//
the problem becomes stf/1
'mow<<Mm&
toxtofboth tho reeeMoas. Heaoo
may give us some C/ue
But a careful examination of the rival recensions
relative autlicnticity. Bamnkrishna Kavi who has
examined no less
to their
then forty Mss of the text, is of opinion that the longer recension (which

he calls B.) seems to bo ancient, although it contains some interpolation

8
(pointed at by him) going back to a time prior to Abhinava. Mr. Kavi,
however, does not try to explain tho origin of the shorter recension which
he calls A. This view regarding the relative authenticity of the longer
recension soems to possess justification. Reasons supporting it are to be

found in the teste differcntating the two recensions, which are as follows :

(i) Chapters XIV and XV of the shorter recension dealing with

prosody introduce tho later terminology of Pingala (ra, ja, sa, na, and bha
ganas etc.) while tho longer recension uses terms like laghu and guru in

defining the scheme of metres. •

(ii) The shorter recension in its chapter XV gives definitions

of metres in Upajilti. while the corresponding ehaptcr (XVI) of the

longer recension gives them in Anustup metre and in a different order.

Considering tho fact that tho bulk of tho Natyasastra is written in this
(Anustup) metre tho longer recension in this case seems to run closer to tho
original work."

Though Ramakrishna Kavi, has overlooked it, there is yet another

point which may be said to differentiate tho two recensions. The chapter
dealing with the Natyagunas and Alamkaras have nearly forty slokns

difforntly worded in the two recensions. These Slokas in the longer

recension (ch. XVII) are written in the usual simple language of the Natya-
sastra while (ch. XVI) in tho shorter recension (tho Slokas) betray a
later polish. Tho opening stanzas of the chaptar (XVI) in the shorter

recension are in Dpajiiti metre while in tho longer recension (ch. XVII)
they arc in the iSIoka metre. This points to the earlier origin of the latter

for tho bulk of the Natyasastra as has been pointed out before is composed
in the same metro. Now the shorter recension which appears to be of later
origin, does not seem to be totally devoid of worth. It appears that this
has in certain cases preserved what once existed but arc now missing in
the longer recension. Tho cases in which the shorter recension gives in a
different language the corresponding passages of tho longer recension may
be explained by assuming that tho passages in question were probably
written from memory of the original in the prototype of the recension.

3. Unity of the Natyasastra

. Some scholars have entertained a doubt tho unity are authorship of

the Natya&istra. They think that there are indications that "it (the

* Spe above note 6. ' See above note 6.

 :

LXXJJI

XT(yu/$TstraJ /10s 6cea svA/ectctf to cousii/cmM' jnr>A/wMi/# in A&r t/u/tv

present s/iaj« "
before it assumed tiio

The .alleged indications may be sumned up as follows

(i) The colophon at the the end of the KM. text of the Natyasastra.
(ii) The mention of Kohala as the future writer on certain topics in the
Natyasastra (XXXVI. 63). (iii) Bhavabhiili's reference to Bharata
Muni, the socalled author of the Sastra, as the Tauryatrika-sntrakiira.
(iv) The mention of the siitra, the bfiasya and the karika as its constituent

parts in the Natyasastra itself along with the the existence of prose
passages in it. As for the first alleged indication Dr. 8. K. De has tried
to connect the colophon of the Natyasastra (santaptai cayam Nandi-
Bharata-samgitcffiitstakam with the chapter on music only.To Ho opines
that the Nandi-Jjharala of the colophon indicates that the chapters on
music ( XX VIII-X XXIII) are Bharata's original teaching on the subject
as modified by the doctrine of .Nandi. If
it would we could accept the view
have been easy to believe in the composite authorship of the Natyasastra.
But this does not seem to bo possible for tho following considerations :

(a) The colophon in question stands at tho end of two Mss. copied
from the same original and are missing in all the rest of the available Mss.
(b) The word samgita occurring rarely in tho Natyasastra includes

according to Siin'igadeva (c. 1300 A.C.) glla (song), vudya (instrumental

music) and nrtya or nrtta (dance). Hence the colophon may be taken in
relation to the entire text and and not with the chapters on music alone.
(c) Nandi as a writer or authority on samgita alone has not been
mentioned anywheres else.

As for the prediction that Kohala will treat certain topics not
discussed in the Niityasastra, it may be said that there is nothing in it to
show that Kohala is later than the author of this treatise. He was in all
likelihood a predecessor or a contemporary of his.
The most important of all the alleged indications of the plural
authorship of the Natyasastra is the third one. The idea that the work was
originally written in prose and was subsequently turned into verse, arose
probably from a misunderstanding of the word siitra. In spite of its tradi-

tional definition as alpnkzaram asandigdkam survad vihmlomukham

etc. there is nothing iu it to show that tho siitra must always bo iu prose.
Indeed the Niityadarpana-sutra is entirely in verse, and the Saddharma-
pundarika'Slltra of the Mahiiyiina Buddhists is partly in verse and
partly in prose. In the Mangalacarana slokas of his commentary
Abhinava too mentions the extant Natyasastra as tho Bharatastttra. Thus
on taking the siitra in its oldest sense, the theory of tho supposed original
prose version of the Niityasiistra falls to the ground. The existence of the
prose passages in the Natyasastra does not in the least help this theory, and

•° ''
Skt, Poetics, Vol 1. p. 21. , JM. GCH. Baroda, 1929.

J
IXHV
it may bo explained on the assumption that the author found it more con-

venient to write certain things in prose. AH this will remove the difficulty

in understanding the words of Bhavabhuti who mentioned Bharata as the

sulmiSra.

4. It Scope and Importance

It has already been shown what a great variety of topics the Natya-
sastra discusses in connection with its principal theme, the dramatic art.

In sharp contrast with almost all the later writers on the subject its author

treats of dramaturgy as well as histrionics. In justification of this two-

fold aspect of this work Abhinava says that 'it is for the guidance of the
1i As the drama in any form primari-
producers as well as playwrights' . is

ly and essentially a spectacle, laws of its production should be considered

indispensable for the playwrights. It is a wellknown fact that many good
literary dramas often get rejected by the theatrical directors because of
their construction being found unsuitable for successful and profitable
reperscntation in the stage. The author of the Natyasastra was evidently
conscious about this vital connection between the literary and technical
aspects of a drama, and treated of both very elaborately. It is a very
unique text dealing with every possible aspect of the dramatic theory and
practice. It is no wonder therefore that the Natyasastra was often quoted
or referred to in later treatieses on gestures, poetics, music, prosody and
even on grammar, besides being often laid under contributfon by commen-
tators of diffirent Sanskrit and Prakrit plays. And all the later writers
on dramaturgy too depended greatly if not cxeusively on this work, and
most of them expressly mentioned their debt to the Muni Bharata,
the supposed author of the Natyasastra.

5. lis Style and Method of Treatment

In style the Natyasastra differs very largely from all the later writers
on drama who professed adherence to it and formulated their rules in a con-
cise manner. Those latter are sometimes so very brief, that without the
help of a commentator thoy are not easily intelligible. Though some passa-

ges remain obscuro without a commentary or similar help yet the major por-
tion of the Natyasastra is written in a simple language in the Sloka and the
SryS metres. Though composed mainly in verse, a very small number of its

passages are in prose. As the work is in the form of dialogue between

Bharata, its mythical author, and some ancient sages, it has some similarity
with the Puranas. One of the charge, brought against the Natyasastra is

that it is very diffuse. This is true. On a careful examination of his

method of treatment it will be found that the author of the Natyasastra,
like :the famous Piinini, treated of the subject analytically. He has taken

" 4*1 p. 7. '» Haas, P.XXVIH.'

 LXXV

up iudividual topics and considered them in every possible detail and

has found it necessary to repeat things for the completion of the matter in
hand- This ha? given it diffuseness. But the adoption of this method
was unavoidable in a technical work which aimed at completeness. This
however may be said to have rendered it difficult to some extent- The
difficulty with which we moderns are confronted in studying this

ancient work, is however primarily due to its discussing an art which

has pratically gone out of vogue for quite a long time. That the text was
transmitted through a defective Ms. tradition is no less responsible for

ocSasional difficulties it presents.

6. The Early Commentators

According to Sarngadeva (SB. I. 1. 9) the commentators' who set

themselves to the task of explaining or elucidating the Natyasastra

are Lollata, Cdbhata, Sankuka, Abhinavagupta and Kirtidhara.
Abhinava in his commentary refers in addition to Bhatta
Yantra and Bhatta Nayaka who may be taken as commentators of the
Natyasastra, and quotes from of ouoa Bhasya and one Vartika. The Vartika
however seems to be an independent treaties on drama though the Bhasya
an old commentary. But in the absence of suitable data our knowledge
about the date of these commentators and the nature as well as the value of
their work, is very inadequate. We are however discussing below what-
ever meagre informations may be gathered about them.
(a) Acarya Kirtidhara and Bhusyakaxa Nanyadeva. Abhinava
* But from the special respect shown
1
has referred to Kirtidhara only once.
him by the commentator who calls him acarya, it appears that Kirtidhara
was a very early commentator of the Natyasastra, and as such he was
possibly anterior to Bhatta Udbhata and hence may be placed in the 6th or
the 7th century.
15
And Nanyadeva 16 quoted by Abhinava as the author

of the Bharata-Bha§ya seems to be another early commentator of our text.

(b) Bha\ta Udbhata. Bhatta Udbhata's" opinion has been thrice
quoted by Abhinava. As his views were controverted by Bhatta Lollata
who flourished in the 8th century it is possible that Udbhata was a person
7'
of the early 8th or the late 7th century.™ Though it has been doubted
whether Udbhata was really a commentator of the Natyasastra, from the
reference to his work by Abhinava we may be fairly certain in

this matter.

14 T
Ag.I.p.206. Cf. Skt. Poetics, Vol. I.p,29. ' Cf. Ski. Poetics, I. p. 39.

1 '
Ho should be distinguished from bis namesake who was a kiug off Mithila in

Iho 12th century (see JASB for 1915, pp. 407 ff.)

" Ag. II. pp. 70, 441, 451, De-s. Ms. pp. 392.
" See Skt. Poetics, I. pp. 76ff.
11
Skt. Poetic, I. pp. 37 ff.
 "

LXXVI

(c) Bhatlfl Lolla{a. Bhatta Lollata has been referred to as many

as eleven times.* From these he appears to be a commentator of the
Natyasastra. As the rasa theory of Saiikuka was known to have been
lavelled against Lollata's view on :the same, this latter writer nourished
"

possibly in the middle of the 8th century. 51

(d) £>ri Haitiuki. Abhinava referred to SrI-Sankuku or Hankuka

5
as many as fifteen times. - About his time wo seem to liavo some definite
information. For he
probably identical with the author of the poem
is

Bhuvanabhyudaya written during the Kashmirian king Ajitiipida whose

date is about 818 or 816 A. C. 33

(e) Malta Nayaka. Bhatta NSyaka has been referred to as many

as six times by Abhinava. u Besides explaining and elucidating the
Natyasastra, at least in part, he wrote on the Dhvani theory
an indepen-
dent work named the Hidayadarpaiia. He has been placed
between the
end of the 9th and the beginning of the 10th century.

(f) BhaUa Yantra, From the single reference to him in Abhiua-

va*s commentary it appears that Bhattu Yantra 2 * was a commentator
of
the Natyasastra. About him nothiug more can be said except that lie pre-
ceded the celebrated commentator.

7. Bhatta Abhinavaguplu
Among the commentators of the Niityasistra, Abhinavagupta or
Abhi-
nava is the most wellknown. But his fame rests also on his commentary
on the Dhvanyaloka as well as numerous learned treatises
on the Kashmir
Saivism. From the concluding portion of some of his books we learn a few
facts of his family history, and on the strength of these lie lias been placed
between the end of the 10th and the begining of the
1 1th century. 2 '
From
the AbhinavabhSrati we learn that his another name was Nvsimhagupta.- s
Although like any other work of this class it professes to explain the
text, Abhiuava's commentary is not always an adequate help for under-
standing the several difficult passages of the
Natyasastra. This drawback
might be due to its defective text tradition,
but a careful study of it will
convince any one that all ite weak -poiuts
cannot be explained away on this
assumption alone. There are instances
of Abhiuava's not being sure about
the explanation offered, for example,
the word kutafia is once explained as

" Ag I pp. 208, 260, 279, 299 II. pp. 134. 196, 415, 423, 436, 452.
,
Dc's Mb p. 380.
bkt. Poetics. Vol. I, pp 3S.39.
,217 274' '^ m ' mai8ilI -
pp 4iii436
'
'

ije 8 M8 ™>
4i3.«utf;K -
«•
'
'

" See Skt. Poetics, I pp :j8-39.

" Ag. I. pp. 4, 26,278, II. p. 298, Dee MS pp. 000, 508.
• Skt Poetics, pp. ••
I. 39ff. Ag. I. p, 208.
••
SktPoetfe 8,I.pp.U7tf. »'-S6e Ague's. Ms. pp. 428, 611.
 LXXV1I

89
'four kinds of musical instruments' and next as 'a group of singers and
players of musical instruments'" and then again as 'four of musical instru-
5
ments'," while explaining the mallavararii he gives four different views*
and does not give special support to his own preference. Besides this, his
explanation in some cases seem to be fanciful. For example, he oxplains
khamlana as (meaning) 'also fanning by means of a fan made of
J
palmleaf'.* This evidently is wrong, for in the same context vyajanakam
'fanning' has been mentioned, and kharf^ana may better be interpreted as
3*
'drawing patterns or designs'. But such instances are not many. That
Abhinava had as the basis of his commentary a defective text of the Natya-
sastra, is apparent from its published portion, and his text was in places to
some extent different from any of the versions that have reached us. It is

due to this latter fact that sometimes particular passages of the commentary
cannot be connected with any portion of the text (given above the commen-
tary) iu the Baroda edition. For example, once Abhinava writes "here
iire four ca-karas", 3 '"
but in the text indicated by the pralika two ca-kuras
only are available. And curiously enough a part of this text quoted
36
elsewhere in the commentary corroborates the available reading of
the text. Jn another place of Abhinava's commentary we have the word
37
alambhana explained, but we look in vain for it in the text. The same
is the case with avyaiireka and agama occuring in the commentary later
on.
4 "
And some responsibility for its reduced usefulness must be ascribed to

the fact that Abhinava had his commentary based on an imperfect text of

the Natyasastra.
There is still another reason due to which Abhinava's work does not

prove to be quite adequate for our need. It is probably because he wrote

the commentary with a view to help scholars of his time, whose knowledge
on many things relating to the Indian drama, theatre and general literature
he could easily assume, his commentary sometimes falls short of our needs.
But in spite of these limitations Abhinava's work has its value.

Whenever he has to explain any theory or problem concerning the dramatic

art or general aesthetics, lie does it very exhaustively by quoting all possible

views on the same and often cites examples from a vast number of dramatic
and other works some of which have perished. Often he sums up the
discussion in a masterly fashion. That he was a voluminous writer on the
abstruse philosophical topics gave him some facility in handling such
matters. But, for the purpose of reconstructing the theory and practice
of the ancient Indian drama, such scholastic discussions arc often not of
much value, though students of Indian poetics and aesthetics will surely

Ag. I.p.73. » Ag.I.p.65. •»

Ag. l.p. 186.
a j
Ag. 1. pp. 64-65.
" Ag. X. p. 41.
" See note 2 on IX 61-64'

Ag.II.p.34. • Ag. I. p. 203.

" Ag.II. pJi ,

Ag. II. pp. 9?, 226.

 LXXVTd
But it must be said of Abhioava's common-
be profited by their perusal.
passages
tary that it gives considerable help in understanding some difficult
for this we should be
of the very old obsolete text of the Natyasastra, and
genuinely greatful to him.

VII, Data of India's Cultural History in the Natyasastra

Besides giving all sorts of information relating to the dramaturgy

and histrionics as well as the allied arts of dance and music, the Natya-
sastra includes considerable other materials for the cultural historv of
India. The most important among theso will be discussed below under
their several heads.

1. Language
The Natyasastra gives some description of Pkt. (XVIII. 1-25) and
examples of Dhruva songs in Pkt. (XXXII). From these materials it
seems that the Pkt of the Natyasastra lie mid-way between the Pkt. of the
classical dramas and that of Asvaghosa's plays. Besides this there occur
in this work (XVIII. 44, 48) some references about the. nature of languages
used by the ancient tribes liko the Barbaras, Kiratas, Andhras, Dramidas,
Sabaras aud Candiilas. Thare arc besides other interesting matters relat-

ing to the language used by men of different professions aud status in life.

2. Literature

In addition to Prakrit verses given as examples of Dhruvas, the

Nfityasiistra cites numerous poetical stanzas in Skt. as examples of the
Benediction and of the different metres (V. 108-112, 130-131 : XVI).
These arc very early specimens of the ancient Indian literature. It is on
the testimony of these which are free from the artificiality of the later classi-
cal poetry, that P. Regnaud placed tho Natyasastra about the beginning of
the Christian era (Introduction to Grosset's cd. of the NS. p. VII-VIII).
The Natyasaastra contains also the earliest available discussion on
figures of speech (alamkara), and the method of criticism based on the
theory of Sentiments (rasa) which became very popular amongst Indian
scholars during the medieval times-

3. Art
In the Visnudharmottara (II. 2. 4) it has been "said that tho canons of
painting arc difficult to understand without an acquaintance with the
canons of dancing. Now the Hindu drama as we have seen before depends a
great deal on dance which is in fact its mainstay. The same work similarly
connects the canons of painting with the canons of image-making. Thus
the three arts being connected with one another, the Najyasastra receives
an aditionat importance. This view is justified by the fact that tiw
Natyasastra desoribes various male postures (sthatta) such as Vai«nava,
 ixxae

Saroapada, Vaisakha, Manila, Jlidho and Pratyaiidha (XJ. 50-71), and

female postures (sthana) (XIII. 159-169) such aslyata, Avahittha and

Asvakranta. These and the various gestures described in the Natyasastra

may also be helpful in studying specimens of the ancient sculpture and
painting. It should be noted in this connection that the Samarftngana-
sBtradhara a medieval eneyclopoedie work while describlug the rules of
making imaees describes (od. GOS. Vol. II. p. 301ff) the hand gestures
etc, almost in the language of the Natyasastra.

. 4. Metrics

Piftyeight varieties of metre of soma, ardhasama and visama types

have been described in the Natyasastra (XVI). All those are perhaps
antorior in timo to the Chandhah-siitras of Pingala. One important aspect
of this description is that the name of the following metres are different
in tho NS. e.g. Drutavilambita=Harinapluta (Ni3), Bhujangaprayata=
Aprameya (N§>, Srrigvini=Padraini (NS), Malini=Nandimukhi (Ns),
Harini=Vrsabha-cestita (Ni5), Mandakriinta=^ridhara (NS), Pvithvi=
Vilambita-gati (NS), Kusumita-lata-vellit5=Citralekha (NS).

5. Poetics

The Natyasastra enumerates (XVII. 43-106) four poetic figur, s

(alamkara), ten Gunas and ten faults (dosa) of a composition. In brief

these may be called the earliest writings on poetics. To the theory of
Sentiment (.rasa) and the States (ihava) (VI-VII) also the same remark
applies.

6. Costumes and Ornaments

Detailed descriptions of ornaments, and directions about costumes to
bo used by characters in a play according to thoir social status, profession,
religious faith, and tribal origin etc. are given in the Natya&istra (XXIII.
1-67, 110-127). These may throw interesting light on the social life of

the Indian people in tho remote past.

7. Mythology
The NStyasastra mentions (I-V, XXXIII-XXXIV, XXXVI nu-
merous gods, 'goddesses, demigods etc. Classified according to the system
adopted by Hopkin in his *Epic Mythology* they are as follows i „

(a) Lower Mythology : Serpont, Birds, Waters, (b) Spirits : Pitrs,

Bhutas, Rak§asas, Asuras, Daityas, Danavas, Yaksas, The Guhyakas. (c)

eight great gods Tho Sun-God, tho Moon-God, tho Wind-God, the
;

Fire-God, the Goii of death, Varuna and Ocean, Indra, the Dikpalas
(World-protector), (d) The Host of Spirits : Gandharvas, Apsafasas,
Kama, Asvins, Maruts, Rudras, Visvedevas, Sdityas, (e) Divine * Seers .

Brhaspati, NSrada, Tiimburu, (f) Earthly list's and Personages:

TJBtX

Bala (d.'va), Nalmsa, Sauatkumara. (g) The Three Supreme Deities i

(h) Lesser God : KSrtikcya. (i) Goddesesses :

Brahman, Vi51.u1, fiiva.

Sarasvati, Laksmi, TJnra, Parvati, Candika, Siddhi, Medha, Smrti, Mati,

Niyati, Niyyti. It is probably significant that Ganesa and the Avatiiras of
Visnu are absent from this list.

8. Geography. -

In its chapters XIV, XVIII and XXIII the Natyasastra mentions

some geographical names such as Anga, Ante (Anti) rgiri, Andhra, AvantI,
Arvnda, Svarta, Snarta, Usinara. Odra, Kalinga, Kasmlra, Kosala, Khasa,
Tamralipta, Tosala, Tripara, Daksinatya, Dramida, Nepala, Paftcala, Puli-
nda (bhiimi), Paundra, Pragjyotisa. Pramsu-pravrtti, Plavamga, Bahir-
giri, Brahmottara (Suhmottara), Bhargava, Magadha, Madraka, Malav-
artaka, Maharastra, Margava, Malava, Mahendra, Mosala, Vauga.
(

Vatea, Vanavasa, Vartika (Martika), Vahlika, Vidisa, Vidcha, Siiraseua,

SSiilaka, Sindlui, Surastra, Sauvira, Gaiiga, Carmanvati, VetravatT, Mahen-
dra, Malaya, Sahya, Mekala, Kalapaiijara, Himalaya, Vindhyn, Bhiirnta.

9. Ethnological Data.

The names of the following tribes occur in the Natyasiistra.

Kiisi, Kosala, Barbara, Andhra, Dramida, Abhira, Habara, Candala, Sakn,

Pallava (Pahlava) and Yavana. From the costumes and colours to he

assigned to their body it may bo possible to trace thorn historically.

10. Ars Amatoria.

The Natyasastra mentions Karaitantra or Kiimatantra (XXV. 38, 53-

567) and Kamasastra (XXXV. 46). But as it divides women into twenty-
four classeR, and Viitsyiiyana's Kamasiitra into four classes these names do
not seem to relate to the Kamasiitra which probably comes later.

11. Artliasaslra.

The Natyasastra Is of opinion that "The members of the court (sali/iir

stara) should be appointed after consulting the views of Brhaspati who

thinks that the following are the qualities required for this office. "They
should be always roady for work, alert, free from indolence, undaunted by
hard work, affectionate, forbearing, modest, impartial, skillful, trained in

polity and good manners, deeply conversant with .tho art of argumentation
and all other branches of knowledge, and not affected by sexual passion and
the like" (XXXIV-87-90). The word sabhastara which has been translated
here as a member of the court, occurs in the Smrti of Vyasa who holds that
this officer should hold discussion about morals (dhOrmavakya) for tho
edification of those who are present (in court). In Mbh 4.1.24, however
sabhastara appears only as a courtier (sabhya, Ntlakantha) who is parti-

cularly interested in gambling (Jolly, Hindu law and Custom, pp. 287-288).
 ,

LXXII

The description of the king, the senapati, the amalya and the pifcfowaka

„8 given in the
Natyasastra (XXXIV, 78-87) might well have been taken

from the now lost work of Brhaspati recognised by Kautilya as one of his
sources. The Natyasastra gives besides one interesting information that
the inmates of a royal palace included a smtaka (XXXIV. 84-69) and that

there was besides a functionary named kumaradhikrla (XXXIV. 76-77).

As the definition has been lost, it is not possible to know what his duty was.
Can he be identified with the kumaramatya mentioned in Samudragupta's
inscription P
• 12. Psychology.

The Natyasastra seems to be the first in recognizing the twofold

importance of psychology in connexion with the production of a play. Its

classification of Heroes and Heroines according to their typical mental and

emotional state* (XXIV. 2l0ff., XXXIV. 15ff). proves its admission of

the importance of psychology on the creative side of the dramatic

art ; for

with the complete knowledge of all possible reactions of different objects

and incidents upon such Heroes and Heroines, the playwright as well as
in charac-
actors and actresses could attain the greatest possible success
terisation. On the critical side also the importance of
psychology was

discovorod by the Hindu theorists almost simultaneously. It was

realised

that no strictly objective standard of beauty ever existed, and the

early
reactions which
enjoyment of a theatrical production consisted of peculiar
actors could success-
the art of the playwright as well as that of the
fully evoke in spectators of different types. It is on this assumption that
(VI-VH) important alike for the
the theory of Sentiments and States

criticism of the theatre and the belles letlres has been elaborated by the
Such a view does not allow any kind of
author of the Natyasastra.
dogmatism in the criticism of art and literature, and will make due
in their tastes
allowance for the views of people who may widely
differ

because of their varying cultural equipment.

VIII. TUe Date of tUe Natyasastra

investigation of the linguistic,

More than sixteen years ago, a careful

metrical, geographical and ethnographic data, of

the evidenco to be drawn
Kamasastra and the Artha-
from the history of poetics and music, of the
the- present writer came
to the conclusion that
sastra, and from inscriptions
Natyasastra existed in the second century after
the available text of the
Christ, while the tradition which it recorded may go back to a period as

early as 100 B.C. (Tho Date of Bharata-Natyasastra", in the JDL.

Vol.
made, a more intensive
XXV. 1984). 1 Since this conclusion was

1
For a bibliography on the Date of the NS. see this paper p. 1

K
txxxu
study of the text as well as accession of fresh data has confirmed the
writer's belief in ite soundness. Thc30 additional materials are being
discussed below.

1. The Geographical Data

Geographical names occur in the Natyasastra (XIV. 36ff.) mostly
in connexion with pravrttts or Local Usages which seem to be a later con-
ception and not at all indipensable for understanding the theatrical art as

explained in the Natyasastra. In fact the authors of the DasarQpa and the
Natakalak§ana, who speak of the vrttis are absolutely silent on pravrttis

whicli are connected with them. Considering the fact that those works
depend a great deal on the Natyasastra their omission of this item may be
taken as very significant. Geographical names occuring in connexion with
tho praw;ilis are found in the Mbh. and some of the PurSnos, some of those
being almost in the same sequence (see D. C Sircar, "Text of the Puranic

Lists of Peoples" in IHQ. Vol. XXI., 1945, pp. 297-314). It seems that
some interpolator put them into the text of the Natyasastra, for associating
it with all the different parts of India, though the original work was an
exposition of the dramatic art as it was practised iu the northern India
especially in the midland only. Hence the geographical data should not
bo used in determining the date of our text.

2. The Natyasastra earlier than Kalidasa

The argument that a particular dramatist who disregards any rule laid
down in the Natyasastra, will be earlier than it in time, will reverse the
accepted chronological relation between the Natyasastra and Kalidasa.
(a) Though the fact has been overlooked by oarlier writers on the
subject, Kalidasa too violates the rules of tho Natyasastra on the
following points :

(i) Though the prescribed rule (XIX. 33) is that tho king's wives
should be given names connects with tho idea of victory, some of Kali-
dasa's royal Heroines have been named as follows : Dharini, Iriivati
(Malavi.) Hamsnpadikii, Vasumati (Sak,).
(ii) It is also in disregard of the rule (XIX. 34) proscribing for tho
handmaids (presya) the names of various flowers, that Kalidasa has
Nagarika, Madhukarika, Samabhrtika, Nipunika, Candrika, Kaumudika
(Malavi.), Parabhrtika, Caturika (Sak.) as the names of handmaids in
his play. Vakuliivalikii (Malavi.) is possibly an exception.

,, (iii) Though the prescribed rule (XIX. 34) is that the names having
an idea of auspiciousness, should bo given to the menials, Kalidasa has
Raivataka and Sarasaka (Malavi.) as tho names of servants.
(iv) The term svamin has been used by an army-chief (senapaii) in
addressing the king (Sak. II) in violation of the proscribed rule that it

should he used for the crown-prince (XIX- '12).

 lxxxhi

(v) Besides these, Kalidasa has written elaborate Prologues to his

plays, though the Natyasastra does not recognize anything of this kind as
a part of the play proper. These as well as the departures from the rules
in Bhasa's play, may be taken as great dramatists' innovations which as

creative geniuses they were fully entitled to.

(b) Besides these there seems to be other facte which probably go to

show that Kalidasa knew the present Natyasastra. They are as follows :

(i) Kalidasa uses the following technical terms of the Natyasastra :

ahgahara, wtti, sandhi, prayoga, (Kumsira, VII. 91), ailga-sattva-Bacana'

srayam nrttam (Raghu, XIX. 36), palm, prasnika, sauMava, apadeia,
upavahana, sMa, vastu, mayuri mar/ana (Malavl.)

(ii) KalidSsa mentions the mythical Bharata as the director of

the celestical thoatrc (Vikram, III).

(iii) According to Katayavcnia, Kiilid:isa in his Malavi. (I. 4.0 j 21.0)

refers to particular passages in the Natyasiistra (1. 16-19 ; NS (C.) XXX,

92ff.)

3. The Mythological Data

In the paper montioned in the beginning of this chapter the present
writer was mistaken in his interpretation of the word mahagrumaifi which
does not mean Ganapati as Abhiuava the reputed commentator of the

Natyasastra opines (see notes on III.1-8.). The absenco from the Natyasastra
of this deity who does not appear in literature before the fourth century
speaks indeed for the great antiquity of this work.

4. The Ethnological Data

The Natyasastra in otie passage (XXIII. 99) names Kiratas, Barbaras
and Pulindas together with Andhras, Dramilas, Kasis and Kosalas who
wero brown (asita, lit- not white), and in another passage (XVHI. 44) names
Andhras and Dramilas together with Barbaras and Kiratas. Apastamba
the author of the Dharinasutra who lived at the latest in the 800 B-C.
belonged to the Andhra laud (Jolly, Hindu Law and Custom, p. 6 and also

P.V. Kane, Hist, of tho Dharmasastra. Vol. I. p, 45). Hence it may be

assumed on the basis of these names that the Natyasastra was in all likeli-

hood composed at a time when a section at least of the Andhras and tho
Dramilas (forefathers of the modern Tamils) were still not looked upon
as thoroughly civilized. Such a time may uot have been much after the

beginning of the Christian era.

5. The Epighraphical Data

Sylvain Levi has discovered parallelism between the Natyasastra and
the inscriptions of the Indo-Seythian Ksatrapas like Chastana who are

referred to therein as svimi a term Jtpplioablo, according to the Sastra to

Lxxxrv

the yuwraja or crown-prince (I. Ant. Vol. XXXIII. pp. 163f). Though
MM.P.V. Kane (Introduction to the 8D. p. viii) has differed from him,

Levi's argument does not seem to be without its force. It may not be con-

sidered unusual for common persons who aro intimate with him to show
the future king an exaggerated honour by calling him svamin u term to
be formally applied to the reigning monarch only. Besides the argument
put forward by Levi, there may be collected from the inscriptions other
facts too which may incline us to tako 200-300 A.C. as tho thno of the
compilation of the Natyasastra. These are as follows:

(a) The word gemdharva probably in the senso in which the Natya-
sastra uses it (XXXVI. 76) occurs in the Junagarh Bock inscription
of Budradaman, I (150 A.C.). This also mentions terms, like savslhava
and niyttddha which we moot in the Natyasastra probably in the same
sense (Junagarh Inscription of Budradaman I. See Select Inscriptions,
pp. 172-173).

(b) The respect for 'Cows and Brahmins' (go-hrahmana) which the
author of the Natyasastra shows at the end of his work (XXXVI. 77)
has its parallel iu the inscription referred to above. And respect for
Brahmins also finds expression in more than one inscription belonging to
the 3rd century A.C. {op. cit. pp. 159, 161, 165)

(c) The three tribal names Saka, Yavana, and Pahlava appearing
in the inscription of Vasistiputra Pulomayi (149 A.C.) occur in the
same order in the Natyaiastra {op. cit., p. 197,) and NS.

The cumulative effect of all these data seems to be that they may
enable us to place the Natyasastra about 200 A.C., the time of these
inscriptions.

6. The Natyasastra earlier than Bhasa

Lack of conformity to the dramaturgic rules of the Natyasastra has

sometimes been cited as an evidence of the antiquity of Bhasa, the argu-

ment being that as ho wrote before the rules were formulated, he could
not observe them. This view however, seems to be mistaken. For the
rules occurring in the Natyasastra cannot, for obvious reasons, be the
author's fabrication without relation to any pre-cxistcnt literature.' 1 If
the Natyasastra was written after Bhasa's plays, its rules had every chance
of having been a generalisation from them as well as from numerous other
drpjjiatic works existing at the time, while the contrary being the ease (i.e,

Bhisa being later than the Najyaswtw) some novelties are likely to be

• F.Hall in his Introduetion

the Dasarwpa says:
(p. 12) to At all events, he
(Bharata) .would hardly have elaborated
them (the rules) oxcept as inductions, from
actual compositions, * .
 txxxv

introduced by the dramatist in disregard of the existing rules. It is on

this line of argumont that the chronological relation between Bhasa and
the Natysiistra, will be judged below.

(a) On no less than three points, Bhasa seems to have disregarded

the rules of the Natyasastra. These are as follows :

(i) The suiradiara (Director) begins the plays, though according

to the Natyasastra the stkapaka (Introducer) should perform this

function (V. 167).

(ii) In contravention of the rule of the Natyasastra (XX. 20)

Bhasa allows death in Act I of Abhiseka.

(iii) In the^ Madhyama-vyayoga and the Dutaghtotkaca, Bhasa does

not give tho usual bharatavakaya (final benediction) and what he gives
in its stead, may be au innovation.

Hence it may be assumed that the Natyasastra was completed before

the advent of Bhasa,.

(b) Besides this, there seems to bo some good evidence in his works
to show that the dramatist was acquainted with this ancient work on
drama. For example, he mentions in a humorous context the Jester con-
founding the Natyasastra (Avi. II 0. 38-39) with the Ramayana. Bhasa's
mention of some tcchinical terms as well as the acquaintance which he
shows with some special rules of the Natyasastra may also be said to
strengthen the above assumption.

(i) First, about the technical terms. They are '•

sauslhava, prastavana,
svtradhara, prehaka, cari, gait, bhadfamtikha, hava, bhava, mama,
natakiya, the root patha, rahga.

(ii) The hetaera in the Carudatta (I. 26, 3 a) says within herself, "I
am unworthy of being allowed entrance into the harem" (abkaini aham
abbhanlara-pavesassa). This seems to refer to the N8. XX. 54. The
expression, "by means of a Nataka suiting the time" (kalasamvadiiia

nwlaena) in Pratima. (I. 4. 7) probably points to NS. XXVII. 88ff.

(iii) The vocal skill of the hetaera referred to by the Sakara (Parasite)
in tho Carudatta may also be said to point to the elaborate rules regarding
intonation (kaku) in the NS. XIX 37-8.

(iv) Besides these, expressions like "the two feet made facile in

dance due to training" {nrtlopadesa-viiada-caranau) and "she represents

the words with all her limbs" (jtbhinayati vacamsi sarvagatraih) in
the Carudatta (1.9.0, 16.0) probably relate to the elaborate discussion
on dance and tho use of gestures in the Natyasastra.

On the. basis of all these it may be assumed that Bhasa was

acquainted with the contents of the-pfeseut text of the Natyasastra. Hence
LXXXVI

it ma; be placed in the 2nd centuary A. C. i-e. one century before

the time generally assigned to Bhasa's works. (Jolly, Introduction to Ari

p. 10, bat according to Konow Bhasa's date may be the 2nd century
A.C. See ID. p. 51).

From the foregoing discussions it may be reasonable to assume

the existence of the Natyasastra in the 2nd centuary A.C., though it must
not be supposed that the work remained uninterfored with by interpolators
of later ages. Such an interpolation may exist more or less in all the ancient

texts. For example, Aristotle's Poetics too, in its received text, has bfien

suspected to have interpolated passages in it. There are indeed interpolated

passages in the Natyaiastra and some of these have been^ pointed out'
and a few more may by some chance bo discovered afterwards. But this

may not bring down the work as a whole to later times.

1
See notes on XVlfl. 6, 48 ; XX. 63. Besides these cases, the seventeen couplets
after XV. 101 and the five couplets after XVI 169 are spurious. For theae do not
giro any important information regarding the art of the theatre or dramaturgy and may
be merely scholastic additions. The passage on pravrtlis XIV. 36-55 may also bo
spurious.