WOLKITE UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF NATURAL AND

COMPUTATIONAL SCIENCES
DEPARTMENT OF BIOLOGY
All Courses Selected For Exit Exam

For Students of Biology

Only For Blue Print
Prepared By; Wolkite University Students 4th
Year 2024 G.C
Biochemistry is the branch of science that explores the chemical
processes and substances that occur within living organisms. It is
a multidisciplinary field that combines principles from biology,
chemistry, physics, and mathematics to understand the molecular
mechanisms underlying life processes. Here's an overview of key
aspects of biochemistry:
1. Biomolecules:
Proteins: Macromolecules composed of amino acid monomers
linked by peptide bonds. Proteins have diverse functions,
including enzymatic catalysis, structural support, and signaling.

Nucleic Acids: Polymers of nucleotides, including DNA

(deoxyribonucleic acid) and RNA (ribonucleic acid), which
store and transmit genetic information.
Carbohydrates: Organic compounds composed of carbon,
hydrogen, and oxygen, including sugars, starches, and cellulose,
which serve as energy sources and structural components.
Lipids: Hydrophobic molecules such as fats, phospholipids, and
steroids, which play roles in energy storage, membrane
structure, and signaling.
2. Metabolism:
Catabolism: The breakdown of complex molecules into simpler
ones, releasing energy (e.g., cellular respiration).
Anabolism: The synthesis of complex molecules from simpler
ones, requiring energy input (e.g., photosynthesis).
Enzymes: Biological catalysts that accelerate chemical
reactions by lowering the activation energy required for the
reaction to occur. Enzymes are essential for metabolism and are
highly specific for their substrates.
3. Bioenergetics:
ATP: Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is the primary energy
currency of cells, storing and transferring energy in chemical
form.

Glycolysis: The metabolic pathway that converts glucose into

pyruvate, generating ATP and NADH.
Citric Acid Cycle: Also known as the Krebs cycle or
tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle, this pathway oxidizes acetyl-
CoA to produce ATP, NADH, and FADH2.
4. Molecular Biology:
DNA Replication: The process by which DNA molecules are
copied to produce identical daughter DNA molecules.
Transcription: The synthesis of RNA molecules using DNA as
a template by the enzyme RNA polymerase.
Translation: The conversion of mRNA sequences into protein
sequences by ribosomes, using tRNA molecules to bring amino
acids to the ribosome.
5. Structural Biology:
Protein Structure: Proteins fold into specific three-dimensional
structures (e.g., primary, secondary, tertiary, quaternary) that
determine their biological functions.
X- ray Crystallography: A technique used to determine the three-
dimensional structure of proteins by analyzing the diffraction
patterns of X-rays passing through crystallized protein samples.

Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR): Another method used to

study protein structure by analyzing the interactions between
atomic nuclei in a magnetic field.
Conclusion:
Biochemistry is a fundamental discipline that provides insights
into the molecular basis of life. By studying the structure,
function, and interactions of biomolecules, biochemists uncover
the underlying mechanisms of biological processes, from
metabolism and energy transfer to genetic information storage
and expression. The knowledge gained from biochemistry has
wide-ranging applications in medicine, biotechnology,
agriculture, and environmental science, contributing to advances
in human health, food production, and sustainability.

A. Employ biochemistry in life science at molecular and

chemical levels using biochemical principles to reallife
Certainly! Biochemistry plays a crucial role in various
aspects of life sciences, spanning from molecular and
cellular biology to physiology and medicine. Here are
some real-life applications of biochemistry principles at
the molecular and chemical levels:

1. Drug Discovery and Development:

Target Identification: Biochemical principles help identify
molecular targets (e.g., proteins, enzymes, receptors) involved in
diseases, such as cancer or infectious diseases.
Drug Design: Understanding the structure and function of
biomolecules enables the rational design of drugs that
specifically interact with target molecules, modulating their
activity or function.
Drug Screening: High-throughput screening assays based on
biochemical principles are used to test large libraries of
compounds for their potential to inhibit or activate specific
biological targets.
2. Medical Diagnostics:
Biomarker Detection: Biochemical markers (e.g., proteins,
metabolites) in biological samples can indicate the presence of
diseases or physiological changes, enabling early diagnosis and
monitoring of health conditions.
Immunological Assays: Techniques such as enzyme-linked
immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and Western blotting rely on
biochemical interactions between antibodies and antigens for the
detection and quantification of specific proteins.
3. Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering:
Recombinant Protein Production: Biochemical techniques are
used to engineer microorganisms or cell cultures to produce
recombinant proteins of interest, such as insulin or vaccines.
Gene Editing: Technologies like CRISPR-Cas9 utilize
biochemical principles to precisely edit DNA sequences,
enabling targeted modifications of genomes for research,
biotechnology, and potential therapeutic applications.
4. Agriculture and Food Science:
Crop Improvement: Understanding biochemical pathways
involved in plant metabolism and stress responses can aid in the
development of genetically modified crops with improved yield,
nutritional content, or resistance to pests and diseases.

Food Processing: Biochemical reactions and enzymatic

processes are utilized in food processing techniques such as
fermentation, preservation, and flavor enhancement.
5. Environmental Biotechnology:
Bioremediation: Biochemical processes involving
microorganisms can be harnessed to degrade pollutants and
remediate contaminated environments, offering sustainable
solutions for environmental cleanup.

Bioenergy Production: Biochemical conversion of biomass

(e.g., plant residues, algae) into biofuels (e.g., ethanol, biodiesel)
offers renewable alternatives to fossil fuels, mitigating
greenhouse gas emissions.
Conclusion:
Biochemistry provides the foundational knowledge and tools to
address diverse challenges in life sciences and real-world
applications. By understanding the molecular and chemical
processes underlying biological phenomena, researchers can
develop innovative solutions for human health, agriculture,
biotechnology, environmental sustainability, and beyond. The
interdisciplinary nature of biochemistry enables collaboration
across fields to tackle complex problems and drive scientific and
technological advancements for the benefit of society.

B. Transfer basic knowledge of the biomolecules of life and

their structures and functions
Certainly! Here's a basic overview of the biomolecules of life,
including their structures and functions:
1. Proteins:
Structure: Proteins are macromolecules composed of amino acid
monomers linked by peptide bonds. They have four levels of
structure:
Primary Structure: Linear sequence of amino acids.
Secondary Structure: Local folding patterns such as alpha
helices and beta sheets.
Tertiary Structure: Overall three-dimensional conformation of a
single polypeptide chain.
Quaternary Structure: Arrangement of multiple polypeptide
chains in a protein complex.
Function: Proteins have diverse functions, including:
Enzymatic catalysis (e.g., enzymes).
Structural support (e.g., collagen).
Transport of molecules (e.g., hemoglobin).
Cell signaling (e.g., hormones, receptors).
Immune defense (e.g., antibodies).
2. Nucleic Acids:

Structure: Nucleic acids include DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)

and RNA (ribonucleic acid). They are composed of nucleotide
monomers, each consisting of a phosphate group, a sugar
molecule (deoxyribose in DNA, ribose in RNA), and a
nitrogenous base (adenine, guanine, cytosine, thymine in DNA;
adenine, guanine, cytosine, uracil in RNA).

Function: Nucleic acids store and transmit genetic information:

DNA contains the genetic code that determines an organism's
traits.
RNA plays roles in gene expression, including transcription
(mRNA), translation (tRNA, rRNA), and regulatory functions
(e.g., microRNAs).
3. Carbohydrates:
Structure: Carbohydrates include sugars, starches, and cellulose.
They are composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms,
typically in a ratio of 1:2:1. Carbohydrates can be classified into
monosaccharides (e.g., glucose), disaccharides (e.g., sucrose),
and polysaccharides (e.g., glycogen).
Function: Carbohydrates serve as a source of energy and
structural components:
Monosaccharides are the primary energy source for cellular
metabolism.
Polysaccharides, such as glycogen in animals and starch in
plants, store energy.
Carbohydrates also play roles in cell-cell recognition and
adhesion.

4. Lipids:
Structure: Lipids are diverse hydrophobic molecules, including
fats, phospholipids, steroids, and waxes. They are composed of
carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms, with nonpolar
hydrophobic regions and polar hydrophilic regions.
Function: Lipids have various functions in cells and organisms:
Energy storage (e.g., triglycerides).
Structural components of cell membranes (e.g., phospholipids).
Signaling molecules (e.g., steroid hormones).
Insulation and protection (e.g., adipose tissue).
Conclusion:
Biomolecules are essential components of living organisms,
playing critical roles in cellular structure, function, and
metabolism. Understanding the structures and functions of
proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids provides
insights into the molecular basis of life and underpins the
biological processes that sustain living organisms. This
knowledge forms the foundation for research in biology,
medicine, biotechnology, and other life sciences disciplines.

A. Describe the metabolism of important biological molecules

Metabolism is the collective term for the biochemical processes
that occur within living organisms to maintain life. It involves
the conversion of nutrients and other molecules into energy and
the synthesis of essential biomolecules. Here's an overview of
the metabolism of important biological molecules:
1. Carbohydrate Metabolism:
Glycolysis: The breakdown of glucose into pyruvate, producing
ATP and NADH.
Gluconeogenesis: The synthesis of glucose from non-
carbohydrate precursors, such as pyruvate or amino acids.
Glycogenesis: The synthesis of glycogen from glucose for
energy storage in liver and muscle cells.
Glycogenolysis: The breakdown of glycogen into glucose for
energy release during times of need.
2. Lipid Metabolism:
Fatty Acid Synthesis: The biosynthesis of fatty acids from
acetyl-CoA, which are then used for the synthesis of
triglycerides and phospholipids.
Beta-Oxidation: The breakdown of fatty acids into acetyl-CoA
for energy production.
Lipogenesis: The synthesis of lipids from excess glucose or
amino acids for energy storage as adipose tissue.
Lipolysis: The breakdown of triglycerides into fatty acids and
glycerol for energy release.
3. Protein Metabolism:
Protein Synthesis: The synthesis of proteins from amino acids,
guided by mRNA templates during translation.
Protein Degradation: The breakdown of proteins into amino
acids through processes such as proteolysis and autophagy.
Amino Acid Metabolism: The interconversion of amino acids
for biosynthesis of new proteins or other nitrogen-containing
compounds.
4. Nucleotide Metabolism:
Nucleotide Synthesis: The biosynthesis of nucleotides (purines
and pyrimidines) for DNA and RNA synthesis.
Nucleotide Salvage Pathways: The recycling of nucleotide
precursors from degradation products for nucleotide synthesis.
Nucleotide Catabolism: The breakdown of nucleotides into
nucleosides and bases for energy production or elimination of
waste products.
5. Energy Metabolism:
Cellular Respiration: The process by which cells convert
nutrients (e.g., glucose) into ATP through aerobic or anaerobic
respiration pathways.
Oxidative Phosphorylation: The coupling of electron transport
chain reactions to ATP synthesis through chemiosmosis.
Photosynthesis: The process by which plants and algae convert
light energy into chemical energy in the form of glucose and
oxygen.
Conclusion:
Metabolism is a complex network of biochemical reactions that
governs the flow of energy and matter within living organisms.
The metabolism of carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and
nucleotides is tightly regulated to meet the energy demands and
biosynthetic requirements of cells. Understanding the metabolic
pathways and their regulation is essential for elucidating the
molecular basis of health and disease and developing strategies
for disease treatment and prevention.
B. Discuss how energy in the food is released and stored in
high-energy molecules
Energy in food is released and stored through metabolic
processes that involve the conversion of complex organic
molecules into simpler compounds, along with the transfer and
utilization of chemical energy. Here's how energy is released
and stored in high-energy molecules like ATP:

1. Cellular Respiration:
a. Glycolysis:
Release of Energy: The process starts with glycolysis, which
occurs in the cytoplasm. Glucose (a six-carbon sugar) is broken
down into two molecules of pyruvate (a three-carbon
compound), generating a small amount of ATP and NADH.
Storage of Energy: Some of the energy released during
glycolysis is stored temporarily in the form of high-energy
intermediates, such as ATP and NADH.
b. Citric Acid Cycle (Krebs Cycle):
Release of Energy: Pyruvate enters the mitochondria, where it is
converted into acetyl-CoA, which enters the citric acid cycle.
The citric acid cycle generates NADH, FADH2, and a small
amount of ATP through a series of redox reactions.
Storage of Energy: NADH and FADH2 molecules produced
during the citric acid cycle carry high-energy electrons to the
electron transport chain.
 c. Electron Transport Chain (ETC):
Release of Energy: NADH and FADH2 donate electrons to the
electron transport chain located in the inner mitochondrial
membrane. Electrons move through a series of protein
complexes, releasing energy.
Storage of Energy: The energy released by electron transfer is
used to pump protons (H+) across the inner mitochondrial
membrane, creating an electrochemical gradient.
d. ATP Synthesis:
Release of Energy: The flow of protons back into the
mitochondrial matrix through ATP synthase drives the synthesis
of ATP from ADP and inorganic phosphate (Pi).
Storage of Energy: ATP molecules synthesized during oxidative
phosphorylation store energy in the phosphate bonds, making
them readily available for cellular work.
2. Photosynthesis:
a. Light Reactions:
Release of Energy: Photosynthesis begins with light reactions
occurring in the thylakoid membranes of chloroplasts.
Chlorophyll molecules absorb light energy, which is used to
split water molecules, releasing oxygen and generating high-
energy electrons.
Storage of Energy: The high-energy electrons are transferred
through an electron transport chain, generating ATP and
NADPH.
b. Calvin Cycle (Dark Reactions):
Release of Energy: ATP and NADPH produced during the light
reactions are used to drive the Calvin cycle, where carbon
dioxide is fixed and reduced to produce carbohydrates.
Storage of Energy: The energy stored in the chemical bonds of
carbohydrates, such as glucose, represents potential energy that
can be released through cellular respiration to generate ATP.
Conclusion:
In both cellular respiration and photosynthesis, energy from
food or light is captured and stored in high-energy molecules
like ATP and NADPH. These molecules serve as energy
currency in cells, providing the necessary energy for cellular
processes such as biosynthesis, muscle contraction, nerve
impulse transmission, and active transport. The balance
between energy release and storage is essential for maintaining
cellular homeostasis and sustaining life processes in organisms.

E.Run processes involving enzymatic activities in different

industrial sectors emphasizing on enzyme structure,
function, and classes
Enzymes play crucial roles in various industrial sectors due to
their ability to catalyze biochemical reactions with high
specificity and efficiency. Here are some examples of industrial
processes involving enzymatic activities, along with their
enzyme structure, function, and classes:
1. Food Industry:
Enzymes Used:
Amylases: Break down starch into sugars (e.g., glucose,
maltose).
Proteases: Hydrolyze proteins into peptides and amino acids.
Lipases: Catalyze the hydrolysis of fats and oils into fatty acids
and glycerol.
Applications:
Brewing and Distilling: Amylases convert starch into
fermentable sugars for beer and ethanol production.
Baking: Amylases and proteases improve dough fermentation
and texture in breadmaking.
Cheese Production: Proteases aid in cheese ripening and flavor
development.
Fruit Juice Processing: Pectinases and cellulases enhance juice
extraction and clarification.

2. Pharmaceutical Industry:
Enzymes Used:
Kinases: Catalyze the phosphorylation of molecules, often used
in drug synthesis.
Hydrolases: Include various enzymes like esterases and lipases
used in drug formulation and synthesis.
Oxidoreductases: Catalyze redox reactions, important in drug
metabolism and synthesis.
Applications:
Drug Synthesis: Enzymes facilitate the synthesis of
pharmaceutical compounds through biocatalysis, offering
environmentally friendly and cost-effective routes.

Bioprocessing: Enzymes are used in downstream processing

steps, such as purification and formulation of drugs and
biologics.
Biocatalytic Transformations: Enzymes enable the synthesis of
chiral intermediates and active pharmaceutical ingredients
(APIs) with high stereoselectivity.

3. Textile Industry:
Enzymes Used:
Cellulases: Break down cellulose fibers, facilitating biofinishing
and softening of textiles.
Amylases and Proteases: Remove starch and protein-based
stains from fabrics.
Applications:
Fabric Finishing: Enzymatic treatments improve fabric texture,
appearance, and performance, reducing the need for harsh
chemicals and mechanical processes.
Denim Finishing: Enzymes such as cellulases create distressed
or stone-washed effects on denim garments.
4. Detergent Industry:

Enzymes Used:
Proteases and Lipases: Break down protein-based and lipid-
based stains, respectively.
Amylases: Hydrolyze starch-based stains.
Applications:
Laundry Detergents: Enzymes enhance the removal of tough
stains and improve the cleaning efficiency of detergents,
especially at lower temperatures.
Industrial Cleaning: Enzymatic cleaners are used in various
industrial applications, such as food processing equipment and
medical instrument sterilization.
Conclusion:
Enzymes are versatile biocatalysts widely used in industrial
processes across diverse sectors, including food,
pharmaceuticals, textiles, and detergents. Their structure,
function, and classification determine their suitability for
specific applications, offering numerous advantages such as
efficiency, specificity, and environmental sustainability.
Advances in enzyme engineering and biotechnology continue to
expand their utility in industrial bioprocesses, driving innovation
and sustainability in manufacturing practices.