Viva Questions

1. What is a modifier?

Answer:

A modifier, also called a modifying function is a member function that changes the value
of at least one data member. In other words, an operation that modifies the state of an
object. Modifiers are also known as 'mutators'.

2. What is an accessor?

Answer:

An accessor is a class operation that does not modify the state of an object. The accessor
functions need to be declared as const operations

3. Differentiate between a template class and class template.

Answer:

Template class:
A generic definition or a parameterized class not instantiated until the client provides the
needed information. It's jargon for plain templates.

Class template:
A class template specifies how individual classes can be constructed much like the way a
class specifies how individual objects can be constructed. It's jargon for plain classes.

4. When does a name clash occur?

Answer:

A name clash occurs when a name is defined in more than one place. For example., two
different class libraries could give two different classes the same name. If you try to use
many class libraries at the same time, there is a fair chance that you will be unable to
compile or link the program because of name clashes.

5. Define namespace.

Answer:

It is a feature in c++ to minimize name collisions in the global name space. This
namespace keyword assigns a distinct name to a library that allows other libraries to use
 the same identifier names without creating any name collisions. Furthermore, the
compiler uses the namespace signature for differentiating the definitions.

6. What is the use of 'using' declaration.

Answer:

A using declaration makes it possible to use a name from a namespace without the scope
operator.

7. What is an Iterator class?

Answer:

A class that is used to traverse through the objects maintained by a container class. There
are five categories of iterators:

1. input iterators,
2. output iterators,
3. forward iterators,
4. bidirectional iterators,
5. random access.

An iterator is an entity that gives access to the contents of a container object without
violating encapsulation constraints. Access to the contents is granted on a one-at-a-time
basis in order. The order can be storage order (as in lists and queues) or some arbitrary
order (as in array indices) or according to some ordering relation (as in an ordered binary
tree). The iterator is a construct, which provides an interface that, when called, yields
either the next element in the container, or some value denoting the fact that there are no
more elements to examine. Iterators hide the details of access to and update of the
elements of a container class.
The simplest and safest iterators are those that permit read-only access to the contents of
a container class. The following code fragment shows how an iterator might appear in
code:

cont_iter:=new cont_iterator();
x:=cont_iter.next();
while x/=none do
...
s(x);
...
x:=cont_iter.next();
end;
 In this example, cont_iter is the name of the iterator. It is created on the first line by
instantiation of cont_iterator class, an iterator class defined to iterate over some container
class, cont. Succesive elements from the container are carried to x. The loop terminates
when x is bound to some empty value. (Here, none)In the middle of the loop, there is s(x)
an operation on x, the current element from the container. The next element of the
container is obtained at the bottom of the loop.

29. List out some of the OODBMS available.

Answer:

o GEMSTONE/OPAL of Gemstone systems.

o ONTOS of Ontos.
o Objectivity of Objectivity inc.
o Versant of Versant object technology.
o Object store of Object Design.
o ARDENT of ARDENT software.
o POET of POET software.
30. List out some of the object-oriented methodologies.

Answer:

o Object Oriented Development (OOD) (Booch 1991,1994).

o Object Oriented Analysis and Design (OOA/D) (Coad and Yourdon 1991).
o Object Modelling Techniques (OMT) (Rumbaugh 1991).
o Object Oriented Software Engineering (Objectory) (Jacobson 1992).
o Object Oriented Analysis (OOA) (Shlaer and Mellor 1992).
o The Fusion Method (Coleman 1991).
31. What is an incomplete type?

Answer:

Incomplete types refers to pointers in which there is non availability of the

implementation of the referenced location or it points to some location whose value is not
available for modification.
Example:

int *i=0x400 // i points to address 400 *i=0; //set the value of memory location pointed
by i.
 Incomplete types are otherwise called uninitialized pointers.

32. What is a dangling pointer?

Answer: A dangling pointer arises when you use the address of an object after its
lifetime is over. This may occur in situations like returning addresses of the automatic
variables from a function or using the address of the memory block after it is freed.

33. Differentiate between the message and method.

Answer:

Message Method
Objects communicate by Provides response to a message. to
sending messages each other.
A message is sent to invoke a It is an implementation of an
method. operation.

34. What is an adaptor class or Wrapper class?

Answer:

A class that has no functionality of its own. Its member functions hide the use of a third
party software component or an object with the non-compatible interface or a non-
object- oriented implementation.

35. What is a Null object?

Answer:

It is an object of some class whose purpose is to indicate that a real object of that class
does not exist. One common use for a null object is a return value from a member
function that is supposed to return an object with some specified properties but cannot
find such an object.

36. What is class invariant?

Answer:

A class invariant is a condition that defines all valid states for an object. It is a logical
condition to ensure the correct working of a class. Class invariants must hold when an
object is created, and they must be preserved under all operations of the class. In
particular all class invariants are both preconditions and post-conditions for all operations
or member functions of the class.

37. What do you mean by Stack unwinding?

 Answer:

It is a process during exception handling when the destructor is called for all local objects
between the place where the exception was thrown and where it is caught.

38. Define precondition and post-condition to a member function.

Answer:

Precondition:
A precondition is a condition that must be true on entry to a member function. A class is
used correctly if preconditions are never false. An operation is not responsible for doing
anything sensible if its precondition fails to hold.
For example, the interface invariants of stack class say nothing about pushing yet another
element on a stack that is already full. We say that isful() is a precondition of the push
operation.

Post-condition:
A post-condition is a condition that must be true on exit from a member function if the
precondition was valid on entry to that function. A class is implemented correctly if post-
conditions are never false.
>For example, after pushing an element on the stack, we know that isempty() must
necessarily hold. This is a post-condition of the push operation.

39. What are the conditions that have to be met for a condition to be an invariant of the class?

Answer:

The condition should hold at the end of every constructor.

The condition should hold at the end of every mutator(non-const) operation.

40. What are proxy objects?

Answer:

Objects that stand for other objects are called proxy objects or surrogates.

Example:

template
class Array2D
{
public:
class Array1D
{
public:
 T& operator[] (int index);
const T& operator[] (int index) const;
...
};
Array1D operator[] (int index);
const Array1D operator[] (int index) const;
...
};

The following then becomes legal:

Array2Ddata(10,20);
........
cout«data[3][6]; // fine

Here data[3] yields an Array1D object and the operator [] invocation on that object yields
the float in position(3,6) of the original two dimensional array. Clients of the Array2D
class need not be aware of the presence of the Array1D class. Objects of this latter class
stand for one-dimensional array objects that, conceptually, do not exist for clients of
Array2D. Such clients program as if they were using real, live, two-dimensional arrays.
Each Array1D object stands for a one-dimensional array that is absent from a conceptual
model used by the clients of Array2D. In the above example, Array1D is a proxy class.
Its instances stand for one-dimensional arrays that, conceptually, do not exist.

41. Name some pure object oriented languages.

Answer:

o Smalltalk,
o Java,
o Eiffel,
o Sather.
42. Name the operators that cannot be overloaded.

Answer:

sizeof . .* .-> :: ?:

43. What is a node class?

Answer:

A node class is a class that,

 o relies on the base class for services and implementation,
o provides a wider interface to te users than its base class,
o relies primarily on virtual functions in its public interface
o depends on all its direct and indirect base class
o can be understood only in the context of the base class
o can be used as base for further derivation
o can be used to create objects.
o A node class is a class that has added new services or functionality beyond
the services inherited from its base class.
44. What is an orthogonal base class?

Answer:

If two base classes have no overlapping methods or data they are said to be independent
of, or orthogonal to each other. Orthogonal in the sense means that two classes operate in
different dimensions and do not interfere with each other in any way. The same derived
class may inherit such classes with no difficulty.

45. What is a container class? What are the types of container classes?

Answer:

A container class is a class that is used to hold objects in memory or external storage. A
container class acts as a generic holder. A container class has a predefined behavior and a
well-known interface. A container class is a supporting class whose purpose is to hide the
topology used for maintaining the list of objects in memory. When a container class
contains a group of mixed objects, the container is called a heterogeneous container;
when the container is holding a group of objects that are all the same, the container is
called a homogeneous container.

46. What is a protocol class?

Answer:

An abstract class is a protocol class if:

o it neither contains nor inherits from classes that contain member data, non-
virtual functions, or private (or protected) members of any kind.
o it has a non-inline virtual destructor defined with an empty
implementation,
o all member functions other than the destructor including inherited
functions, are declared pure virtual functions and left undefined.
47. What is a mixin class?

Answer:
 A class that provides some but not all of the implementation for a virtual base class is
often called mixin. Derivation done just for the purpose of redefining the virtual functions
in the base classes is often called mixin inheritance. Mixin classes typically don't share
common bases.

48. What is a concrete class?

Answer:

A concrete class is used to define a useful object that can be instantiated as an automatic
variable on the program stack. The implementation of a concrete class is defined. The
concrete class is not intended to be a base class and no attempt to minimize dependency
on other classes in the implementation or behavior of the class.

49. What is the handle class?

Answer:

A handle is a class that maintains a pointer to an object that is programmatically

accessible through the public interface of the handle class.

Explanation:

In case of abstract classes, unless one manipulates the objects of these classes through
pointers and references, the benefits of the virtual functions are lost. User code may
become dependent on details of implementation classes because an abstract type cannot
be allocated statistically or on the stack without its size being known. Using pointers or
references implies that the burden of memory management falls on the user. Another
limitation of abstract class object is of fixed size. Classes however are used to represent
concepts that require varying amounts of storage to implement them.
A popular technique for dealing with these issues is to separate what is used as a single
object in two parts: a handle providing the user interface and a representation holding all
or most of the object's state. The connection between the handle and the representation is
typically a pointer in the handle. Often, handles have a bit more data than the simple
representation pointer, but not much more. Hence the layout of the handle is typically
stable, even when the representation changes and also that handles are small enough to
move around relatively freely so that the user needn't use the pointers and the references.

50. What is an action class?

Answer:

The simplest and most obvious way to specify an action in C++ is to write a function.
However, if the action has to be delayed, has to be transmitted 'elsewhere' before being
performed, requires its own data, has to be combined with other actions, etc then it often
becomes attractive to provide the action in the form of a class that can execute the desired
 action and provide other services as well. Manipulators used with iostreams is an obvious
example.

Explanation:

A common form of action class is a simple class containing just one virtual function.

class Action
{
public:
virtual int do_it( int )=0;
virtual ~Action( );
}

Given this, we can write code say a member that can store actions for later execution
without using pointers to functions, without knowing anything about the objects
involved, and without even knowing the name of the operation it invokes. For example:
class write_file : public Action

{
File& f;
public:
int do_it(int)
{
return fwrite( ).suceed( );
}
};
class error_message: public Action
{
response_box db(message.cstr( ),"Continue","Cancel","Retry");
switch (db.getresponse( ))
{
case 0: return 0;
case 1: abort();
case 2: current_operation.redo( );return 1;
}
};

A user of the Action class will be completely isolated from any knowledge of derived
classes such as write_file and error_message.

51. When can you tell that a memory leak will occur?

Answer:
 A memory leak occurs when a program loses the ability to free a block of dynamically
allocated memory.

52. What is a parameterized type?

Answer:

A template is a parameterized construct or type containing generic code that can use or
manipulate any type. It is called parameterized because an actual type is a parameter of
the code body. Polymorphism may be achieved through parameterized types. This type of
polymorphism is called parameteric polymorphism. Parameteric polymorphism is the
mechanism by which the same code is used on different types passed as parameters.

53. Differentiate between a deep copy and a shallow copy?

Answer:

Deep copy involves using the contents of one object to create another instance of the
same class. In a deep copy, the two objects may contain ht same information but the
target object will have its own buffers and resources. the destruction of either object will
not affect the remaining object. The overloaded assignment operator would create a deep
copy of objects. Shallow copy involves copying the contents of one object into another
instance of the same class thus creating a mirror image. Owing to straight copying of
references and pointers, the two objects will share the same externally contained contents
of the other object to be unpredictable.

Explanation:

Using a copy constructor we simply copy the data values member by member. This
method of copying is called shallow copy. If the object is a simple class, comprised of
built in types and no pointers this would be acceptable. This function would use the
values and the objects and its behavior would not be altered with a shallow copy, only the
addresses of pointers that are members are copied and not the value the address is
pointing to. The data values of the object would then be inadvertently altered by the
function. When the function goes out of scope, the copy of the object with all its data is
popped off the stack.
If the object has any pointers a deep copy needs to be executed. With the deep copy of an
object, memory is allocated for the object in free store and the elements pointed to are
copied. A deep copy is used for objects that are returned from a function.

54. What is an opaque pointer?

Answer:
 A pointer is said to be opaque if the definition of the type to which it points to is not
included in the current translation unit. A translation unit is the result of merging an
implementation file with all its headers and header files.

55. What is a smart pointer?

Answer:

A smart pointer is an object that acts, looks and feels like a normal pointer but offers
more functionality. In C++, smart pointers are implemented as template classes that
encapsulate a pointer and override standard pointer operators. They have a number of
advantages over regular pointers. They are guaranteed to be initialized as either null
pointers or pointers to a heap object. Indirection through a null pointer is checked. No
delete is ever necessary. Objects are automatically freed when the last pointer to them has
gone away. One significant problem with these smart pointers is that unlike regular
pointers, they don't respect inheritance. Smart pointers are unattractive for polymorphic
code. Given below is an example for the implementation of smart pointers.

Example:

template ‹class X›
class smart_pointer
{
public:
smart_pointer(); // makes a null pointer
smart_pointer(const X& x) // makes pointer to copy of x

X& operator *( );
const X& operator*( ) const;
X* operator->() const;

smart_pointer(const smart_pointer ‹X› &);

const smart_pointer ‹X› & operator =(const smart_pointer‹X›&);
~smart_pointer();
private:
//...
};

This class implement a smart pointer to an object of type X. The object itself is located on
the heap. Here is how to use it:
smart_pointer ‹employee› p= employee("Harris",1333);
Like other overloaded operators, p will behave like a regular pointer,
cout«*p;
p -> raise_salary(0.5);

56. What is reflexive association?

 Answer:

The 'is-a' is called a reflexive association because the reflexive association permits
classes to bear the is-a association not only with their super-classes but also with
themselves. It differs from a 'specializes-from' as 'specializes-from' is usually used to
describe the association between a super-class and a sub-class. For example: Printer is-a
printer.

57. What is slicing?

Answer:

Slicing means that the data added by a subclass are discarded when an object of the
subclass is passed or returned by value or from a function expecting a base class object.

Explanation:
Consider the following class declaration:

class base
{
...
base& operator =(const base&);
base (const base&);
}
void fun( )
{
base e=m;
e=m;
}

As base copy functions don't know anything about the derived only the base part of the
derived is copied. This is commonly referred to as slicing. One reason to pass objects of
classes in a hierarchy is to avoid slicing. Other reasons are to preserve polymorphic
behavior and to gain efficiency.

58. What is name mangling?

Answer:

Name mangling is the process through which your c++ compilers give each function in
your program a unique name. In C++, all programs have at-least a few functions with the
same name. Name mangling is a concession to the fact that linker always insists on all
function names being unique.
 Example:
In general, member names are made unique by concatenating the name of the member
with that of the class e.g. given the declaration:

class Bar
{
public:
int ival;
...
};
ival becomes something like:
// a possible member name mangling
ival__3Bar
Consider this derivation:
class Foo : public Bar
{
public:
int ival;
...
}

The internal representation of a Foo object is the concatenation of its base and derived
class members.

// Pseudo C++ code

// Internal representation of Foo
class Foo
{
public:
int ival__3Bar;
int ival__3Foo;
...
};

Unambiguous access of either ival members is achieved through name mangling.

Member functions, because they can be overloaded, require an extensive mangling to
provide each with a unique name. Here the compiler generates the same name for the two
overloaded instances(Their argument lists make their instances unique).

59. What are proxy objects?

Answer:
 Objects that points to other objects are called proxy objects or surrogates. Its an object
that provides the same interface as its server object but does not have any functionality.
During a method invocation, it routes data to the true server object and sends back the
return value to the object.

60. Differentiate between declaration and definition in C++.

Answer:

A declaration introduces a name into the program; a definition provides a unique

description of an entity (e.g. type, instance, and function). Declarations can be repeated in
a given scope, it introduces a name in a given scope. There must be exactly one definition
of every object, function or class used in a C++ program.
A declaration is a definition unless:

o it declares a function without specifying its body,

o it contains an extern specifier and no initializer or function body,
o it is the declaration of a static class data member without a class definition,
o it is a class name definition,
o it is a typedef declaration.

A definition is a declaration unless:

o it defines a static class data member,

o it defines a non-inline member function.
61. What is cloning?

Answer:

An object can carry out copying in two ways i.e. it can set itself to be a copy of another
object, or it can return a copy of itself. The latter process is called cloning.

62. Describe the main characteristics of static functions.

Answer:

The main characteristics of static functions include,

o It is without the a this pointer,

o It can't directly access the non-static members of its class
o It can't be declared const, volatile or virtual.
o It doesn't need to be invoked through an object of its class, although for
convenience, it may.
63. Will the inline function be compiled as the inline function always? Justify.
 Answer:

An inline function is a request and not a command. Hence it won't be compiled as an

inline function always.

Explanation:

Inline-expansion could fail if the inline function contains loops, the address of an inline
function is used, or an inline function is called in a complex expression. The rules for
inlining are compiler dependent.

64. Define a way other than using the keyword inline to make a function inline.

Answer:

The function must be defined inside the class.

65. How can a '::' operator be used as unary operator?

Answer:

The scope operator can be used to refer to members of the global namespace. Because the
global namespace doesn’t have a name, the notation :: member-name refers to a
member of the global namespace. This can be useful for referring to members of global
namespace whose names have been hidden by names declared in nested local scope.
Unless we specify to the compiler in which namespace to search for a declaration, the
compiler simple searches the current scope, and any scopes in which the current scope is
nested, to find the declaration for the name.

66. What is placement new?

Answer:

When you want to call a constructor directly, you use the placement new. Sometimes you
have some raw memory that's already been allocated, and you need to construct an object
in the memory you have. Operator new's special version placement new allows you to do
it.

class Widget
{
public :
Widget(int widgetsize);
...
Widget* Construct_widget_int_buffer(void *buffer,int widgetsize)
{
return new(buffer) Widget(widgetsize);
 }
};

This function returns a pointer to a Widget object that's constructed within the buffer
passed to the function. Such a function might be useful for applications using shared
memory or memory-mapped I/O, because objects in such applications must be placed at
specific addresses or in memory allocated by special routines

67. What do you mean by analysis and design?

Analysis:
Basically, it is the process of determining what needs to be done before how it should be
done. In order to accomplish this, the developer refers the existing systems and
documents. So, simply it is an art of discovery.

Design:
It is the process of adopting/choosing the one among the many, which best accomplishes
the users needs. So, simply, it is compromising mechanism.

68. What are the steps involved in designing?

Before getting into the design the designer should go through the SRS prepared by the
System Analyst.
The main tasks of design are Architectural Design and Detailed Design.
In Architectural Design we find what are the main modules in the problem domain. In
Detailed Design we find what should be done within each module.

69. What are the main underlying concepts of object orientation?

Objects, messages, class, inheritance and polymorphism are the main concepts of object
orientation.

70. What do u meant by "SBI" of an object?

SBI stands for State, Behavior and Identity. Since every object has the above three.

o State:
It is just a value to the attribute of an object at a particular time.
o Behaviour:
It describes the actions and their reactions of that object.
o Identity:
An object has an identity that characterizes its own existence. The identity makes
it possible to distinguish any object in an unambiguous way, and independently
from its state.
71. Differentiate persistent & non-persistent objects?

Persistent refers to an object's ability to transcend time or space. A persistent object

stores/saves its state in a permanent storage system with out losing the information
represented by the object.

A non-persistent object is said to be transient or ephemeral. By default objects are

considered as non-persistent.

72. What do you meant by active and passive objects?

Active objects are one which instigate an interaction which owns a thread and they are
responsible for handling control to other objects. In simple words it can be referred as
client. Passive objects are one, which passively waits for the message to be processed. It
waits for another object that requires its services. In simple words it can be referred as
server.

73. What is meant by software development method?

Software development method describes how to model and build software systems in a
reliable and reproducible way. To put it simple, methods that are used to represent ones'
thinking using graphical notations.

74. What are models and meta models?

Model:
It is a complete description of something (i.e. system).

Meta model:
It describes the model elements, syntax and semantics of the notation that allows their
manipulation.

75. What do you meant by static and dynamic modeling?

Static modeling is used to specify structure of the objects that exist in the problem
domain. These are expressed using class, object and USECASE diagrams.

But Dynamic modeling refers representing the object interactions during runtime. It is
represented by sequence, activity, collaboration and statechart diagrams.

76. Why generalization is very strong?

Even though Generalization satisfies Structural, Interface, Behaviour properties. It is

mathematically very strong, as it is Antisymmetric and Transitive.
 Transitive: A=>B, B=>c then A=>c.
A. Salesman.
B. Employee.
C. Person.

Note:

All the other relationships satisfy all the properties like Structural properties, Interface
properties, Behaviour properties.

77. Differentiate Aggregation and containment?

Aggregation is the relationship between the whole and a part. We can add/subtract some
properties in the part (slave) side. It won't affect the whole part.

Best example is Car, which contains the wheels and some extra parts. Even though the
parts are not there we can call it as car.

But, in the case of containment the whole part is affected when the part within that got
affected. The human body is an apt example for this relationship. When the whole body
dies the parts (heart etc) are died.

78. Can link and Association applied interchangeably?

No, You cannot apply the link and Association interchangeably. Since link is used
represent the relationship between the two objects.
But Association is used represent the relationship between the two classes.
link :: student:Abhilash course:MCA
Association:: student course

79. Differentiate a „module‟ from an „object‟ ?

Answer: A module is „functionally decomposed‟ piece of code which performs a particular

process or a set of processes. An object is a unit of software comprising both data and
process which provide some meaningful behaviour.

80. What is the difference in lifetime and visibility between external, automatic and static
objects?
Answer: External objects exist for the lifetime of the program and their visibility is global.
Automatic objects exits as long as they remain in scope and are visible only within that
scope. Static objects are created and visible within a particular scope, but persist from their
point of creation until the end of the program.

81. How we can say that the OOP concepts are taken from real life ?
Answer: In a real life the objects are pen, pencil car, book etc. These objects have two main
things: 1) structure(attribute) 2) Behavior (or nature)
For example: The structure of pen consist color of pen, length of pen, the material by using
which body of pen is made etc. The behavior of pen means the job performed by pen that is
writing. Here the job of pen is only one. Now we can compare that real objects with objects
of OOP. We have already studied that object of OOP consists data and function. The
structure of real life objects can map with data member of object of OOP and behavior can
map with function. By above analysis we can say that the object concept is taken from real
life object. And in real life the object communicated with each other like in object oriented
programming.

82. What do you under stand by constructor and destructor ? Explain with example .
Answer: Constructor: Objects generally need to initialize variables or assign dynamic
memory during their process of creation to become operative and to avoid returning
unexpected values during their execution. a class can include a special function called
constructor, which is automatically called whenever a new object of this class is created.
This constructor function must have the same name as the class, and cannot have any return
type; not even void. Constructors cannot be called explicitly as if they were regular member
functions. They are only executed when a new object of that class is created. Neither the
prototype nor the later constructor declaration includes a return value; not even void.
Destructor : The destructor fulfills the opposite functionality. It is automatically called
when an object is destroyed, either because its scope of existence has finished (for example,
if it was defined as a local object within a function and the function ends) or because it is an
object dynamically assigned and it is released using the operator delete. The destructor must
have the same name as the class, but preceded with a tilde sign (~) and it must also return no
value. The use of destructors is especially suitable when an object assigns dynamic memory
during its lifetime and at the moment of being destroyed we want to release the memory that
the object was allocated.

83. What do you understand by object oriented programming ?

Answer : Object-Oriented Programming groups related data and functions together in a
class, generally making data private and only some functions public. Restricting access
decreases coupling and increases cohesion. While it is not a panacea, it has proven to be very
effective in reducing the complexity increase with large programs. For small programs may
be difficult to see the advantage of OOP over, eg, structured programming because there is
little complexity regardless of how it's written. Many of the mechanics of OPP are easy to
demonstrate; it is somewhat harder to create small, convincing examples. OOP is often said
to incorporate three techniques: inheritance, encapsulation, and polymorphism.

84. Explain terms Encapsulation, Polymorphism & Inheritance .

Answer: Encapsulation-Encapsulation is grouping data and functions together and keeping
their implementation details private. Greatly restricting access to functions and data reduces
coupling, which increases the ability to create large programs. Classes also encourage
coherence, which means that a given class does one thing. By increasing coherence, a
program becomes easier to understand, more simply organized, and this better organization is
reflected in a further reduction in coupling.
Inheritance : Inheritance means that a new class can be defined in terms of an existing class.
There are three common terminologies for the new class: the derived class, the child class, or the
subclass. The original class is the base class, the parent class, or the superclass. The new child
class inherits all capabilities of the parent class and adds its own fields and methods. Altho
inheritance is very important, especially in many libraries, is often not used in an application.

Polymorphism :Polymorphism is the ability of different functions to be invoked with the same
name. There are two forms. Static polymorphism is the common case of overriding a function by
providing additional definitions with different numbers or types of parameters. The compiler
matches the parameter list to the appropriate function. Dynamic polymorphism is much different
and relies on parent classes to define virtual functions which child classes may redefine. When
this virtual member function is called for an object of the parent class, the execution dynamically
chooses the appropriate function to call - the parent function if the object really is the parent
type, or the child function if the object really is the child type

85. What is operator precedence? Explain the operator precedence in C++ .

Answer : Operator precedence refers to the order in which operators get used. An operator with
high precedence will get used before an operator with lower precedence. For example:
int result = 4 + 5 * 6 + 2;

86. What do you understand by access specifier. How many access specifier used in c++?
Answer : Access Specifier : A way of labelling members of a class to specify what access is
permitted. In C++ there are types of access specifier used :
1.Public : It used to specify that class members are accessible from any (non-member)
function.
2. Private : It is used to specify that a class member can only be accessed from member
function and friends of the class.
3. Protected: It is used to specify that a class member can only be accessed by member
functions and friends of its own class and by member functions and friends of
classes derived from this class.

87. Explain the term overloading ? How many types of overloading we can use in C++?
Answer: Overloading specify more than one function of the same name, but with varying
numbers and types of parameters. Two or more functions or operators may be given the same
name provided the type signature for each function is unique: In C++ we can use two types of
overloading Function overloading and operator overloading.

88. Explain the concept of friend function?

Answer: In principle, private and protected members of a class cannot be accessed from outside
the same class in which they are declared. However, this rule does not affect friends. Friends are
functions or classes declared as such. If we want to declare an external function as friend of a
class, thus allowing this function to have access to the private and protected members of this
class, we do it by declaring a prototype of this external function within the class, and preceding it
with the keyword friend:

89. What do you understand by abstract class ?

Answer: An abstract class is one that is not used to create objects. An abstract class is used only
for base class. A class that can only be used as a base class for some other class.

90. Explain the concept of Early binding and Late binding ?

Answer : Early Binding : Binding generally means liking . In a c++ program choosing
a function in normal way during it compilation time is called as static or early
binding.
Late Binding : Late binding I the binding of function during the runtime of the program. In
other words, we can say that choosing the function during execution/run time is called late
binding.

91. What do you understand by virtual member ?

Answer : A member of a class that can be redefined in its derived classes is known as a virtual
member. In order to declare a member of a class as virtual, we must precede its declaration with
the keyword virtual.

92. What do you understand by pure virtual function ? Explain with example.
Answer : A pure virtual function is one with an initializer of " = 0" in its declaration:
Sy : virtual data type function name() = 0;
This type of function is called a pure virtual function, and all classes that contain at least one
pure virtual function are abstract base classes.

93. What is this pointer ? How can we use ? Explain with example .
Answer: The this pointer is used as a pointer to the class object instance by the member
function. The address of the class instance is passed as an implicit parameter to the member
functions. It is a common knowledge that C++ keeps only one copy of each member function
and the data members are allocated memory for all of their instances. This kind of various
instances of data are maintained use this pointer.
 this pointer stores the address of the class instance, to enable pointer access of the
members to the member functions of the class.
 this pointer is not counted for calculating the size of the object.
 this pointers are not accessible for static member functions.
 this pointers are not modifiable

94. What is a template?

Answer: Templates allow to create generic functions that admit any data type as parameters and
return value without having to overload the function with all the possible data types. Until certain
point they fulfill the functionality of a macro. Its prototype is any of the two following ones:
template <class indetifier> function_declaration; template <typename indetifier>
function_declaration;
The only difference between both prototypes is the use of keyword class or typename, its use is
indistinct since both expressions have exactly the same meaning and behave exactly the same
way.
95. What is RTTI?
Answer: Runtime type identification (RTTI) lets you find the dynamic type of an object when
you have only a pointer or a reference to the base type. RTTI is the official way in standard C++
to discover the type of an object and to convert the type of a pointer or reference (that is,
dynamic typing). The need came from practical experience with C++. RTTI replaces many
Interview Questions - Homegrown versions with a solid, consistent approach.

96. What is the difference between an external iterator and an internal iterator? Describe an
advantage of an external iterator.

Answer: An internal iterator is implemented with member functions of the class that has items to
step through. .An external iterator is implemented as a separate class that can be "attach" to the
object that has items to step through. .An external iterator has the advantage that many difference
iterators can be active simultaneously on the same object.

97. What is a scope resolution operator?

Answer: A scope resolution operator (::), can be used to define the member functions of a class
outside the class.

98. What do you mean by pure virtual functions?

Answer: A pure virtual member function is a member function that the base class forces derived
classes to provide. Normally these member functions have no implementation. Pure virtual
functions are equated to zero.
class Shape { public: virtual void draw() = 0; };

99. How do you decide which integer type to use?

Answer: It depends on our requirement. When we are required an integer to be stored in 1 byte
(means less than or equal to 255) we use short int, for 2 bytes we use int, for 8 bytes we use long
int. A char is for 1-byte integers, a short is for 2-byte integers, an int is generally a 2-byte or 4-
byte integer (though not necessarily), a long is a 4-byte integer, and a long long is a 8-byte
integer.

100. What is the difference between char a[] = “string”; and char *p = “string”;?
Answer: In the first case 6 bytes are allocated to the variable a which is fixed, where as in the
second case if *p is assigned to some other value the allocate memory can change.