FUNDAMENTAL OF

DIGITAL
COMPUTERS

CSE4001
 Objective:
• This module provides a foundation for all professional computer
personnel in computer technology and related topics, including
number systems, hardware, operating systems, systems software,
and system performance measurement.
Learning Outcomes:
On successful completion of this module, students should be able to:
• Explain the principles of the architecture and organization of
computer systems.
• Explain the fundamental aspects of all digital computers
• Explain the operating principles of computer peripherals.
• Relate the principles underlying operating systems and system
software.
What is Computer???
• Today, the world is becoming digital, in which the uses of computers is
increasing day by day. In such a situation, it is necessary for everyone to know
about computer.
What is Computer???

• “A computer is an electronic device that will take some data as input, process it,
and gives output“. when any device fulfills these four conditions then that is a
computer.

• A computer is a machine that can be programmed to carry out sequences of

arithmetic or logical operations (computation) automatically.
-Wikipedia

• The computer was built to run applications and solve many difficulties through
hardware and software. It has ability to store, retrieve, and process data.
Features of Computer
• Speed:
Computers can perform millions of calculations per second. The computation speed is extremely
fast.
• Accuracy:
Because computers operate on pre-programmed software, there is no space for human error.
• Diligence:
They can perform complex and long calculations at the same time and with the same accuracy.
• Versatile:
Computers are designed to be versatile. They can carry out multiple operations at the same time.
• Storage:
Computers can store a large number of data/ instructions in its memory, which can be retrieved at
any point of time.
Basic Components of Computer
Basic Components of Computer
• There are basically three important components of a computer:
1.Input Unit
2.Central Processing Unit(CPU)
3.Output Unit
Input Unit
• The input unit consists of input devices that are attached to the computer.
• A user input data and instructions through input devices such as a keyboard,
mouse, etc.
• The input unit is used to provide data to the processor for further processing.
Central Processing Unit (CPU)
• The CPU is called the brain of the computer because it is the control center
of the computer.
• The CPU has three main components.
1. Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)
2. Control Unit (CU)
3. Memory registers
Arithmetic Logic Unit
• ALU is the main component and fundamental building block of the CPU.
• It is a digital circuit that is used to perform arithmetic and logical operations.
Control Unit
• The Control Unit is a component of the central processing unit of a computer tha
t directs the operation of the processor.
• It instructs the computer’s memory, arithmetic and logic unit, and input and outp
ut devices on how to respond to the processor’s instructions.
• In order to execute the instructions, the components of a computer receive signal
from the control unit.
Memory Registers
• A register is a temporary unit of memory in the CPU. These are used to
store the data, which is directly used by the processor.
Functions of Central Processing Unit
• Process data
• Control sequence of operations within the computers
• It gives command to all parts of a computer
• It control the use of the main memory in storing of data and instructions
• It provides temporary storage (RAM) and permanent storage(ROM) of data
Output Unit
• The output unit consists of output devices that are attached to the computer.
• It converts the binary data coming from the CPU to human understandable form.
Computer Hardware
Computer Hardware
• Computer hardware refers to the physical components that make up a
computer system.
• Hardware helps to facilitate any computing operations as well as taking
input and outputting or storing the computed results.
• There are four main computer hardware components:
1.Input Devices
2.Processing Devices
3.Output Devices
4.Storage Devices
Input Devices
• Input devices comprise of any devices that users need in-
order to give instructions to a computer and also used to
transfer data between computers.

• Input devices are classified according to the method they

use to enter data.
▪ Keying devices :
Devices used to enter data into the computer using a set of Keys
▪ Pointing Devices :
Devices that enter data and instructions into the computer using a
pointer that appears on the screen. The items to be entered are
selected by either pointing to or clicking on them
Input Devices
▪ Scanning Devices
Devices that capture an object or a document directly from the
source. They are classified according to the technology used to
capture data.
e.g. Scanners and Document readers
Processing Devices
• Processing is the core function of any computer. When a
computer receives data from an input device, this data must first
go through an intermediate stage before it is sent to an output
device.
• Processing is the intermediate stage where raw data is
transformed into information so that it can be outputted
meaningfully for the user.
Output Devices
• Output devices are devices that allow computers to send
data to other devices or to users.
• In general, the data that computers send to human users is
in forms that they can understand.
Storage / Memory Devices
• Memory devices are any devices that are capable of storing
information temporarily or permanently.
• There are two types of memory.
1. Primary memory
2. Secondary memory.
Uses of Hardware
• It establishes an effective communication mode in organizations to
improve their business standards.
• It automates the task and helps store huge chunks of data that can
benefit the organization or individual.
• The user can give the command or instructions to the hardware,
which will obtain the output as per the given instruction.
• The fast processing speed of a hardware device is useful for
executing more operations at one time.
• Hardware devices are multiprocessing, meaning the user can use
more than one hardware device simultaneously.
• Installation and upgradation of the hardware devices in a computer
system are easy as per the user’s requirements.
Computer Software
• Software is a set of instructions, data or programs used to operate
computers and execute specific tasks.
• In other words, the software is a computer program that provides a set of
instructions to execute a user’s commands and tell the computer what to do.
For example like MS-Word, MS-Excel, PowerPoint.
Type of Software
System Software
• System software is a type of computer program that is designed to run a
computer's hardware and application programs.
• Features of System Software
▪ System Software is closer to the computer system.
▪ System Software is written in a low-level language in general.
▪ System software is difficult to design and understand.
▪ System software is fast in speed(working speed).
▪ System software is less interactive for the users in comparison to
application software.
Type of System Software
• Operating System :
▪ It is the main program of a computer system.
▪ It manages all the resources.
▪ It provides an interface to the user, which helps the user to interact with
the computer system.
▪ It provides various services to other computer software.
Type of System Software
• Language Processor :
▪ System software converts the human-readable language into a machine
language and vice versa. So, the conversion is done by the language pr
ocessor.

• Device Driver :
▪ A device driver is a program or software that controls a device and
helps that device to perform its functions.
Application Software
• Software that performs special functions or provides functions that are much more
than the basic operation of the computer is known as application software.
• In other words, application software is designed to perform a specific task for end-
users.
• It includes word processors, spreadsheets, database management, inventory, payroll
programs, etc.
 Features of Application Software
• An important feature of application software is it performs more specialized tasks lik
e word processing, spreadsheets, email, etc.
• Mostly, the size of the software is big, so it requires more storage space.
• Application software is more interactive for the users, so it is easy to use and design.
• The application software is easy to design and understand.
• Application software is written in a high-level language in general.
 Types of Application Software
• General Purpose Software :
▪ This type of application software is used for a variety of tasks and it is not
limited to performing a specific task only.
For example, MS-Word, MS-Excel, PowerPoint, etc.
 Types of Application Software
• Customized Software :
▪ This type of application software is used or designed to perform specific task
s or functions or designed for specific organizations.
 Types of Application Software
• Utility Software:
▪ This type of application software is used to support the computer
infrastructure.
▪ It is designed to analyze, configure, optimize and maintains the system, and
take care of its requirements as well.
For example, antivirus, disk fragmenter, memory tester, disk repair, di
sk cleaners, registry cleaners, disk space analyzer, etc.
System VS Application Software
Need of human operators in
information systems ??????????
 COMPUTER
NUMBER SYSTEM
 Number System
• In digital electronics, the numbers are used to represent the information.
• A computer can understand the positional number system.
• It is important to learn and understand different types of number
systems so we can easily represent and interpret the information in the
form of numbers.
• In computer memory , numbers will represent in different formats.
Memory will support mainly 4 representation.
1. Decimal Number format
2. Binary Number format
3. Octal Number format
4. Hexa Decimal Number format
Decimal Number System
• The system of numbers which has base or radix 10 and it uses total 10 symbols to
represent numbers of the system is called decimal number system.
• The symbols used in the decimal number system are 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9.
• The decimal number system is a position value system.
• Lets consider the decimal representation of 1234.
▪ Step 01:

▪ Step 02:

▪ Step 03:
Binary Number System
• A number system with base or radix 2 is called binary number system.
• The binary number system uses only 2 symbols (0 and 1) to represent binary num
bers.
• All modern digital devices like computers, combinational circuits, sequential circu
its, etc. use the binary number system to operate.
• Lets consider the binary representation of 11012.
▪ Step 01:

▪ Step 02:

▪ Step 03:
 Octal Number System
• A number system which has base 8 is called an octal number system.
• Therefore, the octal number system uses 8 symbols, (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7) to represent
the number.
• Lets consider the octal representation of 1248.
▪ Step 01:

▪ Step 02:

▪ Step 03:
 Hexadecimal Number System
• The number system with base or radix 16 is called as hexadecimal number system.
• Thus, the hexadecimal number system uses 16 symbol to represent numbers.
• These symbols are 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E, F. Where, A = 10; B = 11;
C = 12; D = 13; E = 14; F = 15.
• The hexadecimal number system is extensively used in microprocessors and
microcontrollers. Lets consider the hexa decimal representation of 1AF16.
▪ Step 01:

▪ Step 02:

▪ Step 03:
Number System Conversion
• There are many methods or techniques which can be used to convert numbers from
one base to another.
Number System Conversion
Signed and Unsigned Binary Numbers
Unsigned Binary Numbers
• Unsigned numbers don't have any sign for representing negative numbers. So the
unsigned numbers are always positive.
• There is no sign bit in unsigned binary numbers so it can only represent its magni
tude.
• The range of the unsigned binary numbers starts from 0 to (2n-1).
• Example: Represent the decimal number 102 in unsigned binary numbers.
Signed Binary Numbers
• The signed numbers have a sign bit so that it can differentiate positive and negative
integer numbers.
• The signed binary number technique has both the sign bit and the magnitude of the
number.
• The signed numbers are represented in three ways.
1. Sign-Magnitude form
2. 1's Complement
3. 2's Complement
Signed Binary Numbers
1. Sign-Magnitude form
• In this form, a binary number has a bit for a sign symbol.
• If this bit is set to 1, the number will be negative else the number will be positive if
it is set to 0.
• Apart from this sign-bit, the n-1 bits represent the magnitude of the number.
2. 1's Complement
• By inverting each bit of a number, we can obtain the 1's complement of a number.
• The negative numbers can be represented in the form of 1's complement. In this
form, the binary number also has an extra bit for sign representation as a sign-magn
itude form.
• One of the main advantages of One’s Complement is in the addition and subtraction
of two binary numbers.
Signed Binary Numbers
Signed Binary Numbers
3. 2's Complement
• To find the 2's complement of the binary number, we will first find the 1’s
complement of the binary number and then add 1 to the least significant
bit of it.
• Two’s complement is one’s complement + 1.
• The range of 2’s complement for n bit is from -2n-1 to 2n-1-1.
• The main advantage of two’s complement over the previous one’s comple
ment is that there is no double-zero problem.
• Arithmetic operations are relatively easier to perform when the numbers
are represented in the two’s complement format.
 Logical Gates
• A logic gate is a device that acts as a building block for digital circuits.
• They perform basic logical functions that are fundamental to digital circuits.
• Most electronic devices we use today will have some form of logic gates in them
• Types of basic logic gates.
• OR
• AND
• NOT
• XOR
OR Gate
AND Gate
NOT / INVERTER Gate
XOR Gate
Other Gates
Usage of Logical Gates
1.Logic gates are utilized in a variety of technologies. These are components of chips
(ICs), which are components of computers, phones, laptops, and other electronic
devices.
2.Logic gates may be combined in a variety of ways, and a million of these combinat
ions are necessary to make the newest gadgets, satellites, and even robots.
3.Simple logic gate combinations can also be found in burglar alarms, buzzers, switc
hes, and street lights. Because these gates can make a choice to start or stop based on
logic, they are often used in a variety of sectors.
4.Logic gates are also important in data transport, calculation, and data processing.
Even transistor logic and CMOS circuitry make extensive use of logic gates.