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Here’s a comprehensive, detailed review on Mineralogy and Rocks & the

Rock Cycle in the format you requested:

Mineralogy

1. Mineral

●​ Definition: Naturally occurring inorganic solid with a definite chemical

composition and an ordered internal structure (crystal lattice).

2. Mineral Properties

●​ Color: The appearance of a mineral’s surface when exposed to light, but

can be unreliable due to impurities.
●​ Streak: The color of a mineral in powdered form, usually obtained by
rubbing it on a porcelain plate.
●​ Luster: The way a mineral reflects light; can be metallic, glassy, pearly, or
dull.
●​ Hardness: A measure of a mineral’s resistance to scratching, measured
on the Mohs scale (1 = softest, 10 = hardest).
●​ Cleavage: The tendency of a mineral to break along flat planes due to
the internal structure of weak bonds.
●​ Fracture: How a mineral breaks when it does not cleave, typically uneven,
conchoidal, or splintery.
●​ Density: The mass per unit volume of a mineral, often used to help
identify minerals.
●​ Specific Gravity: The ratio of the density of a mineral to the density of
water (density of water = 1 g/cm³).

3. Crystal Structure

●​ Definition: The arrangement of atoms in a mineral that forms a specific

geometric pattern. Determines the mineral's physical properties.
●​ Crystal Systems: There are 7 types of crystal systems:
○​ Cubic: Cube-shaped crystals (e.g., halite)
○​ Tetragonal: Prism-shaped with square cross-section (e.g., zircon)
○​ Orthorhombic: Prisms with different-length axes (e.g., olivine)
○​ Hexagonal: 6-sided prisms (e.g., quartz)
○​ Trigonal: Similar to hexagonal but with slightly different symmetry
○​ Monoclinic: Prisms with unequal axes, one axis inclined (e.g.,
gypsum)
○​ Triclinic: No axes are equal, all angles are unequal (e.g., feldspar)
4. Types of Minerals

●​ Silicates: Contain silicon and oxygen, the most abundant group.

Example: quartz, feldspar.
●​ Carbonates: Contain carbonate ions (CO₃²⁻), often formed by
weathering. Example: calcite, dolomite.
●​ Oxides: Contain oxygen and a metal. Example: hematite, magnetite.
●​ Sulfides: Contain sulfur and a metal. Example: pyrite, galena.
●​ Halides: Contain halogen elements (Cl, F, Br, I). Example: halite, fluorite.
●​ Sulfates: Contain sulfate ions (SO₄²⁻). Example: gypsum, barite.
●​ Phosphates: Contain phosphate ions (PO₄³⁻). Example: apatite.

5. Common Minerals

●​ Quartz (SiO₂): Hard, glassy, often transparent or white, very common in

Earth's crust.
●​ Feldspar: The most abundant group, can be plagioclase (rich in calcium
and sodium) or orthoclase (potassium-rich).
●​ Mica: A group of silicate minerals known for their sheet-like structure;
examples include biotite (dark) and muscovite (light).
●​ Calcite (CaCO₃): Common carbonate mineral, reacts with acids to form
carbon dioxide.
●​ Pyrite (FeS₂): Often called “fool’s gold,” metallic luster, and a brassy color.

Rocks & the Rock Cycle

1. Rock

●​ Definition: Naturally occurring solid made of one or more minerals, or

mineraloids.

2. Three Main Types of Rocks

●​ Igneous Rocks: Formed from the cooling and solidification of magma or

lava.
○​ Intrusive (Plutonic): Form below Earth’s surface, cooled slowly,
large crystals. Example: granite.
○​ Extrusive (Volcanic): Form on Earth’s surface from lava, cooled
quickly, small crystals. Example: basalt.
●​ Sedimentary Rocks: Formed by the accumulation and lithification of
sediments, often in layers.
○​ Clastic: Made from fragments of other rocks. Example: sandstone.
○​ Chemical: Formed from the evaporation of water, leaving minerals
behind. Example: halite (rock salt).
○​ Organic: Formed from the remains of organisms. Example: coal,
limestone (from shells).
 ●​ Metamorphic Rocks: Formed by the transformation of pre-existing rocks
under high heat and pressure.
○​ Foliated: Exhibits layers or banding. Example: schist, slate.
○​ Non-foliated: Do not show layering. Example: marble, quartzite.

3. The Rock Cycle

●​ Definition: The continuous process through which rocks are transformed

from one type to another.​

●​ Processes Involved in the Rock Cycle:​

○​ Cooling: The process by which molten magma or lava cools to

form igneous rocks.
○​ Weathering: The breakdown of rocks into smaller particles by
mechanical (physical) and chemical processes.
○​ Erosion: The transport of weathered material by water, wind, ice, or
biological activity.
○​ Sedimentation: The accumulation of sediments in layers, often
forming sedimentary rocks.
○​ Compaction: The process by which pressure from overlying
sediments compresses the lower layers, aiding in lithification.
○​ Lithification: The process of turning sediments into solid rock
through compaction and cementation.
○​ Metamorphism: The alteration of rocks due to extreme heat and
pressure, creating metamorphic rocks.
○​ Melting: The process by which metamorphic or igneous rocks melt
to form magma, which can cool into new igneous rocks.

4. Rock Formation Process

●​ Igneous Rocks Formation:

○​ Magma cools and crystallizes inside the Earth (intrusive) or on the
surface (extrusive).
○​ Example: Granite (intrusive) vs. Basalt (extrusive).
●​ Sedimentary Rocks Formation:
○​ Sediments are deposited, compacted, and cemented over time,
forming layers.
○​ Example: Limestone, sandstone, shale.
●​ Metamorphic Rocks Formation:
○​ Existing rocks undergo heat and pressure changes, resulting in
new textures and mineral compositions.
○​ Example: Slate (from shale), marble (from limestone).

5. Sedimentary Rock Layers

●​ Stratigraphy: The study of rock layers (strata) and their sequence.

●​ Law of Superposition: In an undisturbed sequence of sedimentary rocks,
the oldest layers are at the bottom.
 ●​ Fossils: Common in sedimentary rocks and used in dating the rocks
(biostratigraphy).

6. Common Sedimentary Rocks

●​ Sandstone: Composed of sand-sized particles, often from quartz.

●​ Shale: Made from fine-grained particles, often clay, and splits easily.
●​ Limestone: Composed primarily of calcium carbonate, often from shells
and coral.
●​ Coal: Organic sedimentary rock formed from plant material under heat
and pressure.

7. Common Metamorphic Rocks

●​ Slate: Fine-grained, foliated rock from shale.

●​ Schist: Foliated rock, often with visible crystals, formed from shale or
granite.
●​ Marble: Non-foliated rock formed from limestone.
●​ Quartzite: Non-foliated, formed from sandstone.

You're right! There’s more to geology, especially within Mineralogy, Rocks, and
the Rock Cycle. Here's a more expanded version, diving deeper into each
aspect to ensure you have everything you need for your college entrance exam.

Expanded Mineralogy and Rock Cycle Review

Mineralogy (Extended)

1. Mineral Formation

●​ Crystallization: Minerals form when a liquid (like magma or water) cools

and solidifies. The rate of cooling affects the size of crystals formed.
○​ Fast cooling (like lava) forms small crystals (e.g., basalt).
○​ Slow cooling (like magma) forms larger crystals (e.g., granite).

2. Physical Properties of Minerals (Additional)

●​ Magnetism: Some minerals are magnetic, such as magnetite.

●​ Transparency: How much light passes through the mineral, classified as
transparent, translucent, or opaque.
●​ Taste: Some minerals, like halite, have a distinctive taste (salt).
●​ Odor: Some minerals, like sulfur, have a distinctive odor.
●​ Elasticity: The ability of a mineral to bend without breaking, returning to
its original shape (e.g., mica).
3. Silicate Minerals

●​ Framework Silicates: Silica tetrahedra linked in three dimensions (e.g.,

quartz, feldspar).
●​ Chain Silicates: Silica tetrahedra linked in chains (e.g., pyroxenes).
●​ Sheet Silicates: Silica tetrahedra linked in sheets (e.g., micas).
●​ Nesosilicates: Independent silica tetrahedra (e.g., olivine).
●​ Cyclosilicates: Silica tetrahedra linked in rings (e.g., beryl).

4. Economic Importance of Minerals

●​ Ore Minerals: Minerals that are mined for metals, such as hematite (iron
ore), galena (lead ore), and bauxite (aluminum ore).
●​ Gemstones: Minerals prized for their beauty, like diamond (carbon),
sapphire (corundum), and emerald (beryl).

Rock Cycle (Extended)

1. Weathering and Erosion (Expanded)

●​ Physical (Mechanical) Weathering: Breakdown of rocks into smaller

pieces without changing the composition (e.g., freeze-thaw cycles,
abrasion).
●​ Chemical Weathering: Breakdown of minerals through chemical
reactions (e.g., hydrolysis, oxidation).
○​ Example: Feldspar weathering into clay minerals.
●​ Biological Weathering: The breakdown of rocks caused by biological
activity, such as root expansion or the production of acids by
organisms.

2. Sediment Transport and Deposition

●​ Transport Mechanisms: Sediments are moved by wind, water, ice, or

biological activity.
○​ Fluvial: Transported by rivers and streams.
○​ Aeolian: Transported by wind.
○​ Glacial: Transported by glaciers.
○​ Marine: Transported by ocean currents.
●​ Deposition: When transporting agents lose energy, sediments settle to
form layers.
●​ Graded Bedding: A type of bedding where larger particles are at the
bottom of the layer and finer particles are at the top, commonly seen in
river deltas.
3. Sedimentary Rock Formation (Expanded)

●​ Lithification: The transformation of loose sediments into solid rock.

○​ Compaction: Pressure causes the sediments to reduce in volume
and become denser.
○​ Cementation: Minerals precipitate from groundwater, binding the
sediment particles together.
●​ Sedimentary Structures: Features formed during the deposition of
sedimentary rocks:
○​ Ripple Marks: Small, wave-like ridges on the surface of a sediment
layer.
○​ Cross-Bedding: Layers of sediment that are tilted at an angle.
○​ Mud Cracks: Cracks that form when a muddy layer dries out.
○​ Fossils: Remains or traces of ancient life found in sedimentary
rocks, important for dating and understanding past
environments.

4. Metamorphism (Expanded)

●​ Factors Influencing Metamorphism:

○​ Heat: Increases the rate of chemical reactions and causes
minerals to recrystallize.
○​ Pressure: Causes minerals to rearrange, forming denser
structures.
○​ Chemically Active Fluids: Fluids can introduce new elements or
compounds into a rock.
●​ Contact Metamorphism: Occurs when rocks are heated by nearby
magma or lava.
●​ Regional Metamorphism: Occurs over large areas due to tectonic forces
and high pressure.
●​ Hydrothermal Metamorphism: Occurs when rocks are altered by hot
water, typically at mid-ocean ridges.

5. Metamorphic Grade

●​ Definition: The degree of metamorphism a rock has undergone, ranging

from low-grade (low temperature and pressure) to high-grade (high
temperature and pressure).
○​ Low-Grade: Slate (from shale).
○​ Medium-Grade: Schist (from slate).
○​ High-Grade: Gneiss (from granite).

Additional Rock Types

1. Volcanic vs. Plutonic Igneous Rocks

 ●​ Volcanic (Extrusive): Rocks that cool quickly on Earth’s surface. They
have small crystals (e.g., basalt, rhyolite).
●​ Plutonic (Intrusive): Rocks that cool slowly beneath the Earth’s surface.
They have large crystals (e.g., granite, diorite).

2. Basalt vs. Granite

●​ Basalt: Dark-colored, fine-grained, rich in iron and magnesium, and poor

in silicon (mafic).
●​ Granite: Light-colored, coarse-grained, rich in silicon and aluminum
(felsic).

3. Clastic Sedimentary Rocks (Detailed)

●​ Conglomerate: Made of large, rounded pebbles or gravel cemented

together.
●​ Breccia: Similar to conglomerate but with angular, broken fragments.
●​ Shale: Fine-grained, composed of clay minerals, and splits easily along
thin layers.
●​ Sandstone: Made of sand-sized grains, commonly quartz, cemented by
silica or calcite.

4. Chemical Sedimentary Rocks (Expanded)

●​ Rock Salt (Halite): Formed by the evaporation of seawater.

●​ Limestone: Can form through evaporation or by biological processes.
●​ Gypsum: Forms through the evaporation of saline water in arid
environments.

Geological Time Scale (For Reference)

●​ Eons:
○​ Hadean: Formation of Earth.
○​ Archean: Formation of the Earth's crust and the appearance of
early life.
○​ Proterozoic: Development of photosynthesis and atmospheric
oxygen.
○​ Phanerozoic: Diverse life forms; divided into three eras: Paleozoic,
Mesozoic, and Cenozoic.
●​ Eras: Subdivisions of the Phanerozoic eon.
○​ Paleozoic Era: Early life and the first vertebrates.
○​ Mesozoic Era: The age of dinosaurs.
○​ Cenozoic Era: Mammals dominate and humans appear.

Important Concepts and Processes to Remember

1. Plate Tectonics

●​ Definition: The theory explaining the movement of Earth’s lithosphere,

which is broken into plates that float on the semi-fluid asthenosphere
beneath.
●​ Types of Plate Boundaries:
○​ Divergent: Plates move apart (e.g., Mid-Atlantic Ridge).
○​ Convergent: Plates move toward each other (e.g., Himalayas).
○​ Transform: Plates slide past each other (e.g., San Andreas Fault).

2. The Hydrologic Cycle (Water Cycle)

●​ Definition: The continuous movement of water on, above, and below the
surface of the Earth, involving processes like evaporation, precipitation,
infiltration, and runoff.

General Chemistry: Detailed Review

Basic Concepts and Definitions

1. Matter

●​ Matter: Anything that has mass and occupies space.

●​ Properties of Matter:
○​ Physical Properties: Can be observed without changing the
substance (e.g., color, density, melting point).
○​ Chemical Properties: Can only be observed by changing the
substance (e.g., reactivity, flammability).
●​ States of Matter:
○​ Solid: Definite shape and volume.
○​ Liquid: Definite volume, no definite shape.
○​ Gas: No definite shape or volume.
○​ Plasma: Ionized, high-energy state of matter (e.g., in stars).

2. Substances and Mixtures

●​ Element: A pure substance made of only one type of atom.

●​ Compound: A substance made of two or more elements chemically
bonded.
 ●​ Mixtures: Combinations of two or more substances not chemically
bonded (e.g., air, soil, saltwater).
○​ Homogeneous Mixture: Uniform composition (e.g., saltwater).
○​ Heterogeneous Mixture: Non-uniform composition (e.g., salad).

3. Atoms and Molecules

●​ Atom: The smallest unit of an element, consisting of protons, neutrons,

and electrons.
●​ Molecule: Two or more atoms bonded together (e.g., H₂O, CO₂).
●​ Ion: An atom or molecule with an electric charge due to the loss or gain
of electrons.
○​ Cation: Positively charged ion (e.g., Na⁺).
○​ Anion: Negatively charged ion (e.g., Cl⁻).

Atomic Structure

1. Subatomic Particles

●​ Protons (p⁺): Positively charged, found in the nucleus.

●​ Neutrons (n⁰): No charge, found in the nucleus.
●​ Electrons (e⁻): Negatively charged, found in orbitals around the nucleus.

2. Atomic Number and Mass Number

●​ Atomic Number (Z): The number of protons in an atom's nucleus (defines

the element).
●​ Mass Number (A): The total number of protons and neutrons in an
atom's nucleus.
●​ Isotopes: Atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons
(e.g., Carbon-12, Carbon-14).

3. Electron Configuration

●​ Bohr Model: Electrons orbit the nucleus in specific energy levels.

●​ Quantum Model: Electrons are located in orbitals with different shapes
and energy levels.
●​ Valence Electrons: Electrons in the outermost shell that determine
chemical behavior.

Periodic Table

1. Organization
 ●​ Groups (Columns): Vertical columns, elements have similar chemical
properties.
●​ Periods (Rows): Horizontal rows, elements have the same number of
electron shells.
●​ Metals, Nonmetals, and Metalloids:
○​ Metals: Good conductors of heat and electricity, malleable, ductile
(e.g., iron, copper).
○​ Nonmetals: Poor conductors, brittle, can be gases or solids (e.g.,
oxygen, sulfur).
○​ Metalloids: Have properties of both metals and nonmetals (e.g.,
silicon, arsenic).

2. Trends in the Periodic Table

●​ Atomic Radius: Increases down a group, decreases across a period.

●​ Ionization Energy: The energy required to remove an electron, decreases
down a group, increases across a period.
●​ Electronegativity: The ability of an atom to attract electrons, decreases
down a group, increases across a period.

Chemical Bonds

1. Ionic Bonding

●​ Ionic Bond: Formed when electrons are transferred from one atom to
another, creating positive and negative ions.
○​ Example: NaCl (sodium chloride), where Na⁺ and Cl⁻ ions are
formed.
●​ Properties of Ionic Compounds: High melting and boiling points,
conduct electricity in molten or aqueous states.

2. Covalent Bonding

●​ Covalent Bond: Formed when two atoms share electrons.

○​ Nonpolar Covalent Bond: Equal sharing of electrons (e.g., H₂).
○​ Polar Covalent Bond: Unequal sharing of electrons (e.g., H₂O).
●​ Lewis Structures: Diagrams showing the bonding between atoms and
lone pairs of electrons.

3. Metallic Bonding

●​ Metallic Bond: Electrons are shared freely between metal atoms,

creating a "sea of electrons" that explains conductivity and malleability.

Stoichiometry and Chemical Reactions

1. Law of Conservation of Mass

●​ Mass is neither created nor destroyed in a chemical reaction, only

rearranged.

2. Balancing Chemical Equations

●​ Ensure the same number of atoms of each element on both sides of the
equation.

3. Types of Chemical Reactions

●​ Synthesis: Two or more reactants form a product (e.g., 2H₂ + O₂ →

2H₂O).
●​ Decomposition: A compound breaks down into simpler substances (e.g.,
2H₂O → 2H₂ + O₂).
●​ Single Replacement: One element replaces another in a compound (e.g.,
Zn + CuSO₄ → ZnSO₄ + Cu).
●​ Double Replacement: Two compounds react to form two new compounds
(e.g., NaCl + AgNO₃ → NaNO₃ + AgCl).
●​ Combustion: A substance reacts with oxygen, releasing energy (e.g., CH₄
+ 2O₂ → CO₂ + 2H₂O).

4. Mole Concept

●​ Mole (mol): A quantity of substance that contains 6.022 × 10²³ particles

(Avogadro’s number).
●​ Molar Mass: The mass of one mole of a substance, expressed in g/mol.
●​ Mole-to-Mole Ratios: Used to convert between amounts of reactants and
products in a balanced chemical equation.

Solutions and Concentration

1. Solution

●​ A homogeneous mixture of solute (substance dissolved) and solvent

(substance doing the dissolving).
●​ Solubility: The ability of a substance to dissolve in a solvent, typically
expressed as g/L.
●​ Concentration: The amount of solute dissolved in a given amount of
solvent or solution.
○​ Molarity (M): Moles of solute per liter of solution (M = mol/L).

2. Dilution

●​ The process of reducing the concentration of a solute by adding more

solvent.
○​ Formula: M₁V₁ = M₂V₂, where M is molarity and V is volume.
Thermochemistry

1. Energy and Heat

●​ Energy: The capacity to do work or produce heat.

●​ Heat (q): Energy transferred between objects due to temperature
difference.
●​ Work (w): Energy transferred when an object is moved by a force.

2. First Law of Thermodynamics

●​ Energy cannot be created or destroyed, only transferred or converted

from one form to another.

3. Enthalpy (ΔH)

●​ Enthalpy Change (ΔH): The heat content change of a system at constant

pressure.
●​ Exothermic Reactions: Release heat (ΔH is negative).
●​ Endothermic Reactions: Absorb heat (ΔH is positive).

Acids and Bases

1. Arrhenius Definition

●​ Acid: A substance that increases the concentration of H⁺ ions in

aqueous solution (e.g., HCl → H⁺ + Cl⁻).
●​ Base: A substance that increases the concentration of OH⁻ ions in
aqueous solution (e.g., NaOH → Na⁺ + OH⁻).

2. Bronsted-Lowry Definition

●​ Acid: A proton (H⁺) donor.

●​ Base: A proton (H⁺) acceptor.

3. pH Scale

●​ pH: A measure of the acidity or basicity of a solution.

○​ pH = -log[H⁺].
●​ Acidic Solution: pH < 7.
●​ Neutral Solution: pH = 7.
●​ Basic Solution: pH > 7.

4. Neutralization Reaction
 ●​ An acid reacts with a base to form water and a salt (e.g., HCl + NaOH →
NaCl + H₂O).

This reviewer covers key topics in Chemistry to help you prepare thoroughly for
your college entrance exam. Make sure to practice problems, balance chemical
equations, and understand the core concepts in each section. Let me know if
you need further clarification on any topic!