Define backtracking and its principle.
[Knowledge]
2. Explain the concept of pruning in backtracking. [Comprehension]
3. Solve the 8-queens problem using backtracking. [Application]
4. Analyze the time complexity of the backtracking solution for the sum of subsets
problem. [Analysis]
5. Design a backtracking algorithm to solve the graph coloring problem. [Synthesis]
6. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of backtracking compared to other
algorithms. [Evaluation]
7. Define branch and bound and its principle. [Knowledge]
8. Explain the concept of bounding in branch and bound. [Comprehension]
9. Solve the 0/1 knapsack problem using branch and bound. [Application]
10. Analyze the time complexity of the branch and bound solution for the traveling
salesman problem. [Analysis]
1. Backtracking and Its Principle
Backtracking is a general algorithmic technique used to solve problems recursively by trying all
possible solutions. It explores a solution space, one path at a time, and backtracks when a
dead-end or infeasible solution is encountered.
Principle:
1. Start: Begin with an initial partial solution.
2. Extend: Extend the current partial solution by adding a new choice.
3. Check: Check if the extended solution is feasible.
4. Recur: If the extended solution is feasible, recursively solve the subproblem with the
extended solution as the initial partial solution.
5. Backtrack: If the extended solution is not feasible or if the recursion reaches a dead-end,
backtrack to the previous choice point and try a different choice.
2. Pruning in Backtracking Pruning is a technique used to reduce the search space in
backtracking algorithms. It involves discarding branches of the search tree that cannot lead to a
feasible solution. This is done by applying constraints or heuristics to identify and eliminate
these branches early on.
3. 8-Queens Problem Using Backtracking
The 8-queens problem involves placing eight queens on an 8x8 chessboard such that no two
queens can attack each other.
Backtracking Algorithm:
1. Start: Place the first queen in the first row, first column.
2. Extend: Try to place the next queen in the next row, starting from the first column.
3. Check: If the placement is valid (no queens attack each other), proceed to the next queen.
4. Recur: If all queens are placed, a solution is found.
5. Backtrack: If a valid placement cannot be found for a queen, backtrack to the previous
queen and try a different column.
4. Time Complexity of Backtracking for Sum of Subsets
The worst-case time complexity of backtracking for the sum of subsets problem is exponential,
O(2^n), where n is the number of elements. This is because in the worst case, the algorithm
explores all possible subsets.
5. Backtracking Algorithm for Graph Coloring
Algorithm:
1. Start: Assign the first color to the first vertex.
2. Extend: Move to the next uncolored vertex.
3. Check: Try to assign a color to the current vertex that is different from the colors of its
neighbors.
4. Recur: If a valid color is found, recursively color the remaining vertices.
5. Backtrack: If no valid color is found, backtrack to the previous vertex and try a different
color.
6. Advantages and Disadvantages of Backtracking
Advantages:
● Simple to implement: The basic idea is straightforward.
● Flexible: Can be applied to a wide range of problems.
● Can find all solutions: Not just one.
Disadvantages:
● Exponential time complexity: Can be inefficient for large problem instances.
● May require significant memory: To store the search tree.
7. Branch and Bound and Its Principle
Branch and Bound is an optimization technique used to systematically search a tree-structured
space of candidate solutions. It combines the exploration of the search space with the use of
bounds to prune branches that cannot lead to optimal solutions.
Principle:
1. Branching: Divide the problem into smaller subproblems.
2. Bounding: Compute upper and lower bounds on the optimal solution for each subproblem.
3. Prune: Prune branches that cannot lead to a better solution than the current best solution.
4. Select: Select a promising subproblem to explore further.
8. Bounding in Branch and Bound
Bounding involves calculating upper and lower bounds on the optimal solution for a given
subproblem. Upper bounds are used to prune branches that cannot lead to a solution better
than the current best solution. Lower bounds are used to estimate the potential value of a
subproblem.
9. 0/1 Knapsack Problem Using Branch and Bound
Branch and Bound Algorithm:
1. Sort items: Sort items by their value-to-weight ratio.
2. Branch: Create two branches for each item: include or exclude.
3. Bound: Calculate an upper bound for each branch using a fractional knapsack solution.
4. Prune: Prune branches whose upper bound is less than the current best solution.
5. Select: Select the branch with the highest upper bound to explore next.
10. Time Complexity of Branch and Bound for Traveling Salesman Problem
The worst-case time complexity of branch and bound for the traveling salesman problem is
exponential, O(n!). However, in practice, the algorithm can be significantly faster due to effective
pruning techniques.
