The history of the Portuguese language is deeply intertwined with the
political, cultural, and social history of Portugal and Brazil, as well as the
broader history of the Iberian Peninsula. Portuguese is a Romance language
that evolved from Latin and has roots in the linguistic developments of the
Western Roman Empire. The history of Portuguese can be divided into
several key periods: Pre-Roman, Roman (Latin) Period, Old Portuguese,
Middle Portuguese, and Modern Portuguese.
1. Pre-Roman Period (Before the 1st Century BCE)
Before the Roman Empire arrived in the Iberian Peninsula, the region was
inhabited by various tribes speaking Celtic and pre-Celtic languages. Among
the prominent groups were the Celts, who spoke a Celtic language, and the
Iberians, whose language is less understood but is believed to have
influenced the early forms of the local languages.
Though these early languages left some traces in the modern languages of
the Iberian Peninsula, including Portuguese, their impact was limited
compared to the transformation that occurred after Roman conquest. The
most significant linguistic influence of this period was the Iberian languages,
which were spoken by various pre-Roman tribes in the region.
2. Roman Period (Latin Influence - c. 1st Century BCE to 5th Century CE)
The Roman conquest of the Iberian Peninsula, beginning in 218 BCE, marked
the start of the Romanization of the area. As the Romans colonized the
region, Latin became the dominant language, and the indigenous languages
gradually faded. Over time, Vulgar Latin (the spoken form of Latin, distinct
from the classical written Latin) evolved into the various Romance
languages, including Portuguese.
The Latin spoken in the Iberian Peninsula began to take on regional
characteristics due to influences from the Celtic languages, as well as later
from the Visigoths and other Germanic tribes. The Iberian Peninsula was
divided into two parts: the Hispania region, which became the Roman
province of Hispania, and the Gallaecia region, where the future territories of
Portugal and Galicia (in modern Spain) were located. The Romance
languages that emerged from the Latin spoken in these regions, particularly
in Gallaecia, were the early precursors to the Portuguese language.
3. Old Portuguese (c. 12th – 14th Century)
The earliest forms of Old Portuguese began to emerge during the 12th
century. The development of the Portuguese language coincided with the
political formation of the Kingdom of Portugal in 1139. As a result, the
establishment of a centralized monarchy played a crucial role in promoting
the use of a standardized language for administration and official purposes.
The first written documents in Old Portuguese appeared in the 12th century,
including the "Cancioneiro da Ajuda" (a collection of medieval songs) and the
"Cantigas de Santa Maria" (a collection of poems dedicated to the Virgin
Mary). These early texts reveal a language heavily influenced by Vulgar Latin
but with noticeable distinctions in vocabulary, grammar, and phonetics.
During this time, Old Portuguese was also influenced by other languages
such as Galician (spoken in the region of Galicia in modern-day Spain), Arabic
(due to the centuries of Islamic rule in the Iberian Peninsula), and Hebrew
(due to the presence of Jewish communities).
Portuguese also began to diverge from Galician-Portuguese, a closely related
language spoken in the northwest of the Iberian Peninsula. The distinction
between Portuguese and Galician began to emerge during the 14th century,
primarily as a result of political and cultural separation between Portugal and
the Kingdom of León-Castile (modern-day Spain).
4. Middle Portuguese (c. 14th – 16th Century)
The Middle Portuguese period spanned the 14th through the 16th centuries
and saw significant changes in both the phonology and grammar of the
language. It is during this period that Portuguese underwent important
linguistic transformations, particularly in terms of its pronunciation and verb
conjugation.
One of the most notable events during this period was the reign of King João
I (1385-1433) and the establishment of the Aviz dynasty, which strengthened
Portuguese national identity. As a result, there was a movement towards
greater standardization of the language, particularly in the fields of literature
and administration.
In the 15th century, the Portuguese Empire began its period of overseas
exploration, which resulted in the establishment of colonies in Africa, Asia,
and Brazil. As Portuguese explorers and merchants came into contact with
other languages and cultures, Portuguese vocabulary expanded significantly,
absorbing words from Arabic, Persian, Indian languages, and various African
languages. This process of linguistic borrowing would continue in the coming
centuries, further enriching the language.
The Renaissance also had a profound influence on Portuguese literature. Luis
de Camões, one of the most famous Portuguese poets, wrote his epic poem
"Os Lusíadas" (The Lusiads) during the late 16th century. The poem, which
recounts the voyages of Vasco da Gama, helped solidify the prestige of the
Portuguese language.
5. Early Modern Portuguese (c. 16th – 18th Century)
The period of Early Modern Portuguese is marked by the further development
and codification of the language, particularly as Portugal experienced
political and economic changes, including the decline of its colonial empire in
the 17th and 18th centuries. During this time, Portuguese continued to
develop as a global language, particularly as Brazil was colonized in the 16th
century and began to grow in importance.
In the 16th and 17th centuries, Portuguese was an important language of
international trade and diplomacy. It was spoken in Brazil, Africa, and parts of
Asia, as well as being used as a literary and scholarly language.
The Portuguese Inquisition and the consolidation of political power in
Portugal also contributed to the rise of a centralized language system. Many
aspects of the language were regulated and formalized, and Portuguese
began to develop its modern syntax and vocabulary. During this period,
however, the language was still heavily influenced by French and Latin,
particularly in terms of vocabulary, especially in intellectual, scientific, and
artistic contexts.
6. Modern Portuguese (19th Century – Present)
The Modern Portuguese period began in the 19th century and continues
today, with significant influences from the political, social, and economic
changes of the time. Brazil gained independence from Portugal in 1822,
which led to a divergence between the language spoken in Portugal and that
spoken in Brazil. Despite these differences, both variants remained mutually
intelligible, though they have evolved with distinct phonetic, lexical, and
grammatical features over time.
The 20th century saw the increasing globalization of Portuguese, especially
with the growing influence of Brazilian Portuguese. Brazilian literature, with
authors like Machado de Assis, Clarice Lispector, and Jorge Amado, helped
elevate the language as a cultural force. The rise of Brazilian cinema and
music, including genres like bossa nova, also contributed to the global
visibility of Portuguese.
The Portuguese language has undergone modern standardization, with
institutions like the Academia das Ciências de Lisboa and the Academia
Brasileira de Letras working to regulate spelling, grammar, and vocabulary.
In recent years, the language has continued to evolve, influenced by global
trends in technology, social media, and international communication.
Conclusion
The Portuguese language has a rich and varied history that reflects the
diverse cultures, peoples, and historical events that have shaped the Iberian
Peninsula and its former colonies. From its roots in Vulgar Latin to its
evolution through Old Portuguese, Middle Portuguese, and Early Modern
Portuguese, the language has been continually shaped by political, cultural,
and social forces. Today, Portuguese is spoken by over 250 million people
worldwide, making it one of the most widely spoken languages globally, and
it continues to be a significant cultural, literary, and diplomatic language.
