SOLUTIONS

notes

Mentor-
SHIVAM sengar
 i
Sudeten
have to divide this
for making this chapter Easy we
chapter into 4 parts
part 1 Introduction and concentration solution of
part 2 Solubility and V P of liquid solution
Paret 3 ideal and now ideal solution and areotmot
Study of
Part 4 Colligative properties and Van't Hoff factor

Part I Introduction andconcentrationofsolutions

IE11 f iiicutzntni
Bronze Cut Sn
ppm of fluoride ions in water Prevent tooth decay
1 Sppm of fluoride ion in water Mottling of teeth
Higher conc of fluoride ion in water become poisonous
Note Naf used in rat poison

Suktion Solution are homogeneous mixture of two

or more substance
It consist of 2 type of component
Solute Solvent
Solvent Component whose physical state is always
same as solution and generally it present
in large quantity

Site Component whose physical state may or maynot

equal to solution and generally it's present in
less quantity
mHb solvent no identity karo sbse pehle ab bolo Kais
Note Jo physical state solution ki hogi wahi solvent ki
solvent dono same
hogi our jab solute our physicalstate me hai
tab amount se check Karlo
t.IE
igfnifIt
No of components Physical stateSolven
Solute and
of
component Solution

2
3
4
Ing
Ternary

Note Aqueous solution ay Jisme Solvent water no

dilute Solution dit Jisme solute Ka amount bhutKam
Concentrated solution conc Jismesolute Ka amountJyadah
Commentating solution It is defined as the amountof
solute dissolved in fixedamount ofsolvent on solution
Concentration
of solution to determine he 2 methods
hote hai qualitatively quantitatively
Isme sbse best hair Kyunki iss method
quantitatively
se ham amount determine way skte hai
In quantitatively concentration ofsolution can

be determined in following ways

1 Percentage 5 Mole fraction
2 6 Normality
ppm partsper million
3 Molarity 7 formality
4 Molality

c
oeetagei EE.fi i i ii in

the solution is called

loogm of masspercentage
mass of solute
MItftf.IE
Wsolute Wsolvent
ution4oo

Note Wsolution
NY w w solun
ng of solute present in loogsolu

eg 35 w w
glucose solution
glucose present in ofsolution
 g g g
Yemen percentage tI The volume of
solute in me present in looml of solution
volume of solute
É E
Notes 10 ethanol Solyn Iomd of ethanol presentin loomeSolyn
Remember 35 CV V1solunof ethyleneglycol used as an antifreeze
faith a hot nites.ge se time thinks

ig isolation
mass
by volume T.im fts.niIi n

Note re w v1
ofsolute present in loomesolution
This unit used sign
in medicine and pharmacy

It
appealependent
solute
is defined as

1 million
the of part of
no
present in

parts of solution
solute 106
of
ppm 1 ftp fs.mn
Note e Actual percentage Ki farah ppm Ko bhi
me

3 method se nikala Ja skta hai massppm Volumeppm

mass
by
volume
ppm bas theda sa change hoga formula
me me too the isme 106 baakiSabsameha
 g g g
solute
ng of
mass
xppm by means present
in 106g of Solution
Ab boat aati hai ppm unit me concentration to
Kahan measure Kante hai sea water me Kitni
dissolved hai usko ppm me measure Kante ha
oxygen
water on atmosphere me pollutants ka amount
bhi ppm me measure Kante hai

Muddy M It is defined as the no of mole

of solute dissolve in 11 of solution
M Cnsolute
Molarity nefmleofso.lu
Volume ofSolution Vso un e

Unit moles litre

Molarity change with temperature because volume depend
on Temp As we know MIL
T V Molarity M highTemp low molarity
Tt Vt Molarity
M low temp high molarity

Mudality
m It is defined as the no of mole of
solute present in thy of solvent
Molality niggfegtf.it itif
 Unite moles
kg
does not depend on temperature because
It
mass does not change with temp

It is defined as the ratio

X
Malefactions
mole of component to the total
of no
of given
no of mole of all the component present in a solution

solute
ns olvent It
solvent
ns vent
solute solvent I
It has no units and does notdepend on temp

CN It is defined the of
Nerality as no

gram equivalent of solute present

in 11 of of solution
Normality
ng.ftom.fi Iit
no of
gram equivalent f 7
w mass Et Equivalent mass Mt Molar mass
t n
 I
Unite L
gm eq
Note mass mole fraction and molality do
ppm
not change with temp
only Volume mass volume molarity and Normality
change with temp

Part 2Edbility www.efdquiddutiont

Solubility The maximum amount of solute that can be dissolved

in a fixed amount of solvent at fixedtemp

me dissolve
liquid honey
Solid ka

dffiffif ff.fi
Siddity
ionsdution
se's.fi ss'ahfhidphine
at initialt mateofdissolution rate ofCrystallisation
at equilibrium rate of dissolution rate of Crystallisation
Rate means speed

Edemafleetingdesolubility if www.quid i

Nature ofsolute andsolvent It follow theprinciple of likedissol

ikwich Thf solute dissolve in polar solvent and

non polar solute dissolve in non polar solvent

 I
netted temperature
dissolution AHsolan
case I process is endothermic tve
If
T Solubility of solid in liquid
Case I dissolution process is exothermic DHsolun
If ve

T solubility of solid in liquidto

Effetof Ieee SolubilityP

Due to low compressibility of solid and liquid with
the increase in pressure only small increase in
large
solubility of solid in liquid

Ibility 4
ff.fi fution solution

The dissolution process ofgas in liquid is exothermic

EEeattetingekility of gasiinliqu.de

the gas which can be easily

Netreoffer Generally
liquified HighCritical temp are more soluble in liquid
Note To liquified hoti hai unke molecules k beech
gas easily
me intermolecular force
Jyada hota hai to wo liquid k Sath
bhi high intermolecular force banagege isilige no easilydissolving
 gh for yy y y y g
Effect temperature
The solubility of gas in liquid decrease with increase in

temp because the dissolution process of gas in liquidis exotherm

low solubility ofgas it
746 I high solubility ofgas in liquid

Aquatic animals are more comfortable in cold water than in

warm water
Ans Because is more soluble in coldwater low temp
oxygen

Effect of pressure The solubility of in a liquid increase

gas
with increase in pressure
ofgas
P Solubility of in 1
Thampatiale Tree
Tengiz ne

alaybtanealuystatementsepansolubilitynbishmentationf
Ki Koshish Ki pay aapko sbse important statementyaad
olkhna am usiko exam me likhna hai

Henry law Alc to this law

The solubility of
gas in liquid
is directly

proportional to partial pressure of gas above the surfaceof

liquid at equilibrium

OR
 The mole fraction of gas in the solution is proportional
to the partial pressure of over the solution
gas
OR
The above the surface
partial
pressure of gas
of solution is proportional to the mole fraction of
the in solution
gas
Pgas α Ngas e fraction ofgasso
IPJas ingas.fm on
Partial pressure
ofgas Henry's law constant

Entity.pe ont
and nature of gas
Unit of Kr Unit of Pgas
Pyas the agas KH at const Pt
Pff Katya
An to
regas solubility so say kH stability
we can

T KH Ugas solubility
Note IÑHαTαfubility
h IPvIl
Pgas kn Ugas Pg's
slope Kh
m n
y
 g

tiffeniffed very low

T must not be very
high
Cras must not react with liquid
Ka ek our statement the Jiska use ham log
Henry
sint Kuch J formulae me use Kamege

map IMIT me mass

ofgas
of
dissolved kt constant
pe pressure gas

EDGE.fi IsaITiyofeoainsottdainksandsoda
water the bottle is sealed under high pressure
To avoid bends as well as the toxic Effect of
high concentration of nitrogen in the blood aim is diluted
with helium because oflower solubility in blood than nitrogen

1) In soft drinks and soda water, CO2 is passed under high

pressure and sealed why?
Ans -increases the solubility of CO2, based on Henry’s law

2) Scuba divers have high concentrations of dissolved

atmospheric gases in blood why?
Scuba divers go deep into sea which results in high pressure under water,

which causes more solubility of gases inhaled based on Henry’s law.

3) When scuba diver comes to surface experiences a medical condition
known as bends, which are painful and dangerous to life why?

Ans-When divers come to surface, pressure decreases, this releases the

dissolved gases and leads to the formation of bubbles of nitrogen in the

blood. This blocks capillaries and creates condition called bends

4) What is Scuba divers air tank composition ?

Ans-Air diluted with helium. He-11.7% + 56.2%N2 + 32.1%
oxygen

5) Why do people living at hill top or at higher altitudes

experience a condition known as anoxia ?
Ans-At high altitudes the partial pressure oxygen is less than that
on ground. This leads to low concentrations of oxygen in the blood
and tissues of the people . This leads to weakness and inability to
think properly for climbers

5)Between ammonium chloride and sodium chloride which is

more soluble with rise in temperature?
Ans-Ammonium chloride…as its enthalpy of dissolution is
endothermic
Weber here At equilibrium the pressure exerted
by
vapour molecule on the surface of liquid at
constant temperature called vapour pressure

liquid h vapour

Atequilibrium rate ofcondensation rate ofvaporization

Elaffeting demesne
Intermolecularforces I mF ofparticleformvapour
no Vpt
V.pt
ntermolecutatt

Temperature T k.eeofmolecule no
ofparticle formVapour
note visa
1 1

It fi itii Ettiionent.aen
the Vapourpressure of solution becomes lower than Vapour

pressure of pure solvent at same temp because some

space of liquid surface is occupied by non volatile solute

particle so less no of liquid solvent particleget vapomised
 Initiate

Edict
Deko
that liquidations
Kisi container Koi ek volatile substance
me
agay
hai to uska VP ham easily nikal sakte hai Kisi bhi
device se
par agay container me mixture hai
volatile substance Ka maunlijigeki.si mixture
me do volatile hai A and B to ham Kisi
substance

bhi device se mixture ka total pressure to nitral

Sakte hai par agay us mixture me A Ka our B Ka
individual pressure nikalna hai to ham Kisi bhi
device ki madad se nhin nitral skte Isilige Jab
Kisi mixture me Kisi bhi volatile substance Ka V P
nikalna no to uske lige Raoult's ne law diga
Volatile substance means t Jo easily evaporate toJaye
non volatile substance means To easily evaporate na no
Ham ye maunke chalege ki non volatile substance ka VP zero
hoga
Volatile substance egt Water Alcohol Essential oils Gases

non volatile substance

tege Sugars Salts Metals Minerals
 Rautlawi Ale to this law for a solution of
volatile liquid the partial vapour pressure
of each component in the solution is directly proportional
to it's mole
fraction
Let a solution consist of two volatile
component A and B
PAXNA PA PIRA
PBαRB PB POBAB

Leper peered quiddiquiddtion

FB
p
I p

IEEE
Fida fixture
PA NA PA PINA
PB α NB PB PBUB
Ps PA PB Ps PARA T PSHB

P V.PH ftpfti fv.ff

EihAtPp ftp.eonhf nB
componentB
I

Pita 1 4 1 19 ifBumph ftp.t's nYmPi me

MBY molefraction component B in Solun mixture
netflix.it ffEjfp In raga
PB Yp Ps YB Ppf PBp

Ya mole
fraction of component A in Vapourphase
YBT mole fraction of component B in Vapour phase

V P of solid liquid solution

TastePb altw.tn fsofd is non volatile in nature
PA o
y
n

liquidB Is solution me liquidB bhi

hai any solid A bhi our ham sbhi
Topatu hai solid non volatile hai.is
iyeuska UP zero hoga
our solution Ka V P liquid B K barabay hogy
PA α NA PA POANA PB O

Ps PATPB Ps PARATO

v.PCHPITT.net
Lowering in a non volatile solute is

added to volatile solvent then the partial

VPofsolvent is decrease This decrease in VP is called
in VP
 y
solvent Ultimate solution
pure Ps on Psolvent
Psolvent

Ps VP distinct
of Solution solution
Psolvent VP of solvent in

Identify which liquid will have a

higher V P at 90C
if the boiling point of two liquid A and B are 140C and
180C respectively
Ans liquid A has higher VP because
they have
lower boiling point we know UP is inversely
proportional to B P
O How is the VP of a solvent affected when a
non volatile solute is dissolved in it
Ans When non volatile solute dissolve in solvent
then the solvent is decrease
VP of because som

part of surface area of solventgetscovered by non volatilesoluptant

Solution which follow Raoult's law
Indefution
at concentration
any

fdtefg.fi ffIfaleulatedv.pofsolun
PB Ps POARA RB
 Solute Solvent A B interaction is nearly same as

pure solvent B B or Solute A A interaction

DH mix
Enthalpy ofmixing 0
Volume of mixing DVmix o

eg n hexane and n heptane

Chloroethane and bromoethane

Benzene and Toluene

Methanol and Ethanol

Solution which do not

Nucleated follow
Raoult's law at concentration
any
o Ps PARA PBUB
DH mix to DVmix 0

Theme are 2
type of non ideal solution
Non 2

solute solvent
i.it t
pure on interaction
ApIp A B

characteristics observed VPofSoluns Calculated VP Soly

of
Ps POANA PB RB
A Hmix tve Δ Umix tve
g Clut CH 004
Ethanol acetone CHICOCH

Carbondisulphide acetone
S2
Ethanol 2H04 Water H2O

tuom
fiff.it itieenegatiedeviation
Whetsolute solvent interaction is
stronger than
pure solute on solvent interaction
ApIp A B

characteristics observed VPofSolundalculated VP Solun

of
Ps SPARAT PB RB
DHmix ve Δ Umix ve

HNO2t H2O
g
42504 7H20
HUout 410
CHCOON
pyridine
phenol pyridine
phenol aniline
Chloroform acetone
 What happen when acetone is added to ethanol
Ans In pure ethanol molecules are hydrogen bonded
on
adding acetone some H bond between ethanol
molecule break Due to weakening of interaction
there is an increase in V P of mixture The mixture

show positive deviation from Raoult's law

What happen when acetone is added to carbondisulphide Si

Ans when acetone added to Carbon disulphide
is

then dipolar interaction b w acetone and Csr are weaker

than theirrespective interaction so it's V P increase
Hence the mixture show the deviation from Raoult'slaw

What happen when acetone is added to chloroform

Ans In this mixture the interaction between
chloroform and acetone is H bond which is stronger
than their individual interaction it mean on mixing
interaction increase so V P decrease that's why
ve deviation
this mixture show from Raoult's law
c o Hela
acetone chloroform
 I
What happen when phenol is added to aniline
Ans In this mixture the interaction between
phenol and aniline is
stronger intermolecular H bond
which is
stronger than the respective intermolecular
H bond so this mixture show ve deviation
from
Raoult's law
Note Jab do compound no milane pay
bhi
interaction Cattan force decrease to wo solution
tvedeviation dikhayega our agay increase ho to
Wo banne wala solun ve deviation dikhayega

Azeotrope They the binary mixture of solution

are

that have the same composition in liquid

and vapour phase and boils at constant temperature
There are 2 types
of
azeotropes
Minimum boiling azeotrope maximum boiling azeotrope
azeotrope Those azeotropic mixture
weaboiling whose boiling point is
less than that of each component
eg 95 ethanol 5 water
Non ideal solun show tve deviation form minimum

azeotropes BPL UP snowtuedeviation

 my
Those azeotropic mixture
Msembing Infest whose B P is more than
that of each component
99 20 2 49 and 79.0 water 69 HNO 32 water
Non ideal Solun Show ve deviation from Raoult's
law
form maximum boiling azeotrope

Part 4
filigate piety addthis.trt.ie
Properties that depend on the
Gliga pety no
of solute particles but not
on the nature ofsolute particle present in the solu
It can be classified unto 4 types
Relative lowering on Vapour pressure RLVP
Elevation in
Boiling point DTs
Depression in freezing point
Osmotic pressure

Notes Each colligative property

Solun
is defined for dilute
 it
Vapour pressure DP to the
t.it 7
VP of pure
gi
solvent
R L VP P resolute
Dpf lvenpt

Ps VP
of solun VP
of solvent insulun
R 2 up resolute
hs.FI solvent

for dilute Solun hsolute Lansolvent

R L VP R.ua
e kitten
R L UP depends upon relative no
of solute pantic
Therefore it is called colligative property

Edii.ifit.tk ifa edto volatile solvent

then the boiling point ofsolvent increased this increased

in boiling point is called Elevation in Boiling point

Elative
pureTSsolvent solution
Tb
7 2 To
Tb To T
Elevation in B.PTpofsolution B P of pure solvent
 Tb am
ATD Hb m molality
mflat Elevationconstant
Ebulfoscopic constant

points for Kb
Petition The elevation inboiling point of Imola
solution is known as molal Elevation
constant DTB Kbm
l DTD Kb
If m

Unit of Kb K mold on C tigmott

kg
Value of Kb depends on nature of solvent and
does not depend on nature
of solute
for water Kb 0.52K kg mol
a Ko
Ek 1d
T B P of pure solvent Msolvent Molarmass ofsolven
Rt Universal constant Δ HueEnthalpy changeof
gas vaporisation
Ivy Latent heat of vapourisation ofliquid
Note B Pe Jis temp.pe liquid Ka V P latm be equal
to waki temp us liquid ka B P
 ga

F1efaiti.is added to volatile

solvent then the
freezing point of solvent is decreased
This decreased in
freezing point is called depress
in freezing point at
solvent solution
pure
CTH
Ef.EE
dep tfE point
freezing pointof solution
freezing point freezing solvent
of pure
ΔTf am

DTF Ttm
molal depression constant
on
Cryoscopic constant

fff.infifttie depression in

freezing point of 1molal solution

is called molal depression constant

l
DTT kt
ΔTf KfM If m

Unit of kt k kgmot on C kymol

It depend on nature of solvent and Temp
water 1.86 k Kgmol
 I 1 g
d
t f 118 51
DHft Enthalpy of fusion
latent heat
1ft of fusion
Speed pentadetderine
The addition of a solute to a liquid solvent will usually raise the
boiling point of the solvent. (Adding salt to boil water when
cooking)
In pressure cooker, food is cooked properly in less time because
B.P . of water increases due to increase of external pressure on it
At higher altitudes, food is not cooked properly because B.P . of water

decreases due to decrease of external pressure on it.

Sadpointdouterionin tenpoint
Ethylene glycol(non-volatile solute) is added in radiators of vehicles
as anti-freezing agent in cold regions to lower the freezing point.

Camphor is the best solvent for determination of molar mass of solute by

using depression in freezing point since its Kf is very high

To clear the ice from roads, salts (NaCl or CaCl₂ or MgCl2) are used
because it decreases the freezing point and melting becomes easy.
 Semipermeable embrane CS.P.IM
Those membrane through which only
solvent molecule can

pass but not solute called S.P.me

There are2 types of S.P.me

Natural S.P.me Animal membrane eggmembrane cell membrane
S.P.me
Artificial Copper ferrocyanide Cellophane

The in Which solvent

Quest spontaneous process
particle moves from lower concentration to higher
concentration solution S.P.me called osmosis
of through
15PM Osmosis means flow of solvent
wet cone solan higher conc solun
dilute solun conc solun

Hypotonic solun Hypertonic solun

t
Solvent solution
 Endo osmosis In this process movement of
solvent water molecule into the cell
Exo movement solvent water out
osmosis
of ofthecel

Quticpressure The pressure applied on the solution

side to stop the flow of solvent from

lower conc of the solution to higher conc through 8PM
OR
The extra pressure applied on the solution side to
stop the process of osmosis is called osmotic pressure
It is denoted
by it
TT C
TTαT
on combining and
TACT Temp
IT R
Molarityteas constant

Reesmosis The process in Which solvent molecule

flow from higher conc ofsolution to lower

concentration through 8p.m is called Reverse osmosis
condition than
Ifapplied pressure is greater
the osmotic
 p
ege Desalination ofwater

What the advantage of using Osmotic pressure

is

as compared to other colligative properties for the

determination molar 2
of masses of biomolecule
Ans It magnitude is large even
for dilute solution

It is measured at room temp and all

biomolecules are unstable above room temperature

Isotonic Tsolution Two solutions having same osmoti

pressure at const temp called IsotonicSol
No osmosis take place between these two solution
eg fluid inside the blood cell is equivalent to
0.9 Mlu Nacl Solun

Ilyperfection solution having higher osmotic

pressure than other solution
eg 11 Nacl is hypertonic with RBC
solution
Solution having lower osmotic
Hypotonic
impressure the other solution
0.5 Nacl is Hypotonic with RBC
age
 Agar T same hat do solun To Jo solun Hypertonic
Note
hoga uska conc Jyada our hypotonic ka conc Kam
Islige solvent water Hypotonic Hypertonic move Karegg

What happen when we place the blood cell in

water hypotonic solution Give reason

Ans Due to osmosis water molecule move in blood

cell As a result blood cell swell and may even burst

why meat is preserved for longer time by salting

Ans Due to osmosis water comes out from meat
so there is no water
meat microorganism
left in

unable to This help to store meat time

are
grow for longer

Blood cells are isotonic with 0.9 Nacl solun What

happen if we place blood cells in a solun shouting
1.2 Nall Solun
0.4 Nad Solum

Anse 1.2 Nacl solun is hypertonic with respect toblood

cells water will flow out the blood cell and
of
blood cell would shrink
 0.4 Nacl Solun is hypotonic with respect to
blood cell water will flow into cell and it would
swell

as the
Yeatts fffett i It is
defined
ratio of experimental value of
colligative property to the calculated value of colligativ
property

ff.ae iig iitp

typ
Namelmolayme
Abnormal molar mass

Total no
of mole of particle after dissociation

ftp.T sattFiisEiaIh
for dissociation 171
for association is

Midfield b Eeg ateterty

R.L.V.P it
PSoluepf.LI hittent
Elevation BP ΔTb ikbm
 of
point
Depression offreezing DI infm
Osmotic pressure IT ICRT

Catenated
i I in 1
fadisciation a

α degree of dissociation
ne no
of ion

It
federations i
In 1 B

n
Be degree of association dimenez
gg
Itami

Electrolyte non
Fe yolyte

Dissociation
A Association
weakelectrolytetti
Items flyte IEfHweIfeetoyte
non Electrolyte Urea glucose sucrose ethylene glycol etc
 The molar mass which
Addresses
is either lower or higher
than expected on normal value called Abnormal
molar mass
It's determined Experimentially

VPα R.LVPαi IT i
Note
BPai DTbαi

f Pat ΔTfαi

0 Elevation of B P of IMKA solution is nearly

double than 1M solution
sugar
Ans solution
for sugar 1 1
KU solution 2 KU kt 4 1
for 2

Tb i
DTB of IMAA Solun is double than 1M sugar Solyn