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Teaching Aptitude (Unit-1)

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 Final list| Our Qualified candidate 2020-21 | Geography with Ankit | 7983188839

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Syllabus for Teaching Aptitude

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 Why Questions on Teaching Aptitude?

Teaching aptitude is all about evaluating candidates who want to enter teaching
profession on the basis of their knowledge and skills. It refers to basic qualities
required to become a successful teacher.

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 Concept

• Teaching is a process in which one individual teaches or instruct another individual.

• Teaching can be both formal and informal.

 Informal Teaching – by family or in community, during initial years of life. It is

also called home schooling.

 Formal teaching is carried out by paid professionals called editors, teachers or

faculty.

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 Concept

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What is Teaching

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Teaching can be Direct or Indirect
• As the teachers use such methods as lecture, demonstration, etc and engages students in face – to
– face interaction, they are teaching them directly.
• Conversely, when they use active methods like role-play, project, assignment, inquiry or other
such activities, they are teaching them indirectly.
Teaching can be Vertical or Horizontal
• Depending on the objectives of teaching, teachers may lead students deep into the topic. This type
of teaching is known as vertical teaching.
• Conversely, if the teachers teach one topic and then move on to more and more topics, they are
resorting to horizontal
• teaching.
Teaching may be Planned or Unplanned
• Traditionally, teachers plan for instruction before they go to the classroom for teaching.
• However, with the coming of active leaning methods, no strict planning is possible as one is not
clear in advance what could be the possible way of organizing teaching learning activities.

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 Objectives of Teaching
The general objectives of teaching are:

• To bring desired changes in students‘ attitude

• To shape behaviour and conduct
• Acquisition of knowledge
• To improve the learning skills of students
• Formation of belief
• To become a social & efficient member of society

 There are two main classification of objectives. One classification is given by Bloom,
whereas another classification is given by Gagne and Briggs.

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 Objectives/ of Teaching
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 Bloom‘s Classification
• Bloom's taxonomy is a set of three hierarchical models used for classification of
educational learning objectives into levels of complexity and specificity.

• According to this classification, instructional objectives fall under one of the following
three categories:
1. Cognitive domain
2. Affective domain
3. Psychomotor domain

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 Bloom‘s Classification
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Cognitive domain (knowledge-based)

Example: Name three common varieties of apple.

Example: Summarize the identifying characteristics of a Golden

Delicious apple and a Granny Smith apple.

Example: Would apples prevent scurvy, a disease caused by a

deficiency in vitamin C?

Example: Compare and contrast four ways of serving foods made with
apples and examine which ones have the highest health benefits.

Example: Convert an "unhealthy" recipe for apple pie to a "healthy"

recipe by replacing your choice of ingredients. Argue for the health
benefits of using the ingredients you chose versus the original ones

Example:
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 Cognitive domain (knowledge-based)

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 Affective domain (emotion-based)
Skills in the affective domain describe the way people react emotionally and their ability to
feel other living things' pain or joy. Affective objectives typically target the awareness and growth
in attitudes, emotion, and feelings.
Affective domain deals with attitude, motivation, willingness to participate, valuing what is
being learned and ultimately incorporating the values of discipline into a way of life. It asks for
better student participation. It includes the following levels:

(a) Receiving: Willingness to listen.

(b) Responding: Willingness to participate.

(c) Valuing: Willingness to be involved.

(d) Organizing: Willingness to be an advocate of an idea.

(e) Characterization: Willingness to change one‘s behaviour or way of life.

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Affective domain (emotion-based)

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 Psychomotor domain (action-based)
It is mainly concerned with the acquisition of technical skills. Following are the five different
levels of instructional objectives in psychomotor domain.

(a) Imitation: It includes demonstration of a skill by a skilled person and the learner tries to
follow the same.

(b) Manipulation: A learner tries to experiment various aspects, like manipulating machinery,
equipment, etc.

(c) Precision: Accuracy in performing various acts increases with practice.

(d) Articulation: Achieving a desired level of efficiency and effectiveness through practice.

(e) Naturalization: Skill is internalized and an individual is able to adapt, modify or design new
techniques, methods or procedures according to the requirements of a situation.
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 Gagne and Briggs Classification of Teaching and
Instructional Objectives
According to this classification, the learning outcomes fall under one of the following categories.

1. Intellectual skills: These skills are crucial for dealing with the environment. They include concept
learning, rule learning and problem solving.

2. Cognitive strategies: These include methods and techniques for one‘s own learning,
remembering and thinking skills.

3. Verbal information: It refers to organized bodies of knowledge that an individual acquires.

4. Motor skills: They are basically about motions carried out when the brain, nervous system and
muscles work together.

5. Attitudes: They refer to an internal state of an individual.

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 Characteristic Features of Teaching

• It has different levels of teaching.

• It takes place in a dynamic environment.
• It is closely related to education, learning, instruction and training.
• It is essentially an intellectual activity.
• It is an art as well as science.
• It tends towards self-organization.
• It is a social service.
• It includes lengthy period of study and training.
• It has high degree of autonomy.
• It is a continuous process.
• Teaching is a profession.
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 Levels of Teaching
Teaching takes place at three levels progressively— memory level of teaching,
understanding level of teaching, and reflective level of teaching.

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 Memory Level of Teaching (MLT)

• Herbart is the main proponent of memory level of teaching.

• It is the initial stage of teaching.

• It induces the habit of rote memorization of facts and bites of information.

• The teaching–learning process is basically ‗Stimulus–Response‘ (S–R) here.

• It enables the learner to retain and also to reproduce the learnt material whenever required.

• The evaluation system mainly includes oral, written, and essay-type examination.

• Good memory includes rapidity in learning, stability of retention, rapidity in recalling, and ability
to bring only desirable contents to the conscious level.
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Memory Level of Teaching (MLT)

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 Understanding Level of Teaching (ULT)
• Morrison is the main proponent of understanding level of teaching.

• It is „memory plus insight‟ as it goes beyond just memorizing of facts. It focuses on

mastery of the subject.

• It makes pupils understand the generalizations, principles, and facts.

• It provides more and more opportunities for the students to develop the ‗intellectual
behaviour‘.

• It provides active role for both the pupil and the teacher for the assimilation of facts.

• The evaluation system mainly includes both essay and objective-type questions.
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Understanding Level of Teaching (ULT)

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 Reflective Level of Teaching (RLT)
• Hunt is the main proponent of reflective level of teaching.

• It is the highest level of teaching and includes both ULT and MLT.

• It is problem-centric approach of teaching.

• The students are assumed to adopt some sort of research approach to solve the problem.

• Classroom environment is to be sufficiently „open and independent‘. The learners are

motivated and active.

• The aim is to develop the reflective power of learners so that they can solve problems of their lives
by reasoning, logic, and imagination, and lead successful and happy lives.

• The pupil occupies the primary place and teacher assumes the secondary place.
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• Essay-type test is used for evaluation. Attitude,
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Reflective Level of Teaching (RLT)

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 Variables in Teaching

• Teaching environment consists of

interaction among three variables,
namely, independent, dependent, and
intervening variables.

 Dependent variables - As students

depend upon teachers for learning,
students are assumed to be dependent
variables.
 Independent variables - Teachers are
in a position to manipulate the behaviours
of students, and hence, teachers are
considered as independent variables.
 Intervening variables - Teaching
methods, teaching aids, and motivational
techniques which also facilitate the
teaching–learning process are termed as
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 Basic requirements

Maxims of Teaching Principles of Teaching

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 Effective Teaching Practices

Maxims of Teaching
• A maxim is a ground rule or
fundamental principle that has
evolved over a period of time.
• It is a guide for future action or
behaviour.

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 Maxims of Teaching
1. From simple to complex: The teacher should start
with simple things and ideas, and these can be done
with day-to-day examples, if possible. Then
gradually, a teacher can move towards concepts and
technical terms. This creates interest among
learners to acquire new knowledge. This is helpful in
better retention.

2. From known to unknown: This is related to first

maxim. Retention is always better if new knowledge
can be linked with the known one.
3. From indefinite to definite: The teacher should
help to transform indefinite knowledge into definite
one and aim to clarify the doubts of students.

4. From concrete to abstract: The mental

development of students happens better with the
concrete objects, they become familiar with and
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5. From particular to general: The students should
be presented with examples first and then general
laws and their derivations can be explained to them.
The experiments and demonstrations serve this
purpose.

6. From psychological to logical: During initial

stages, psychological order is more important,
whereas for grown-up learners, logical order is
emphasized more.

7. From analysis to synthesis: Initially, the students

have little or vague knowledge about the topics.
Analysis means dividing problems into its
constituent parts, and then, these are studied.
Synthesis means to understand by connecting the
knowledge acquired through analysing the parts. A
teacher should use analytic–synthetic method.

8. From whole to part: Gestalt psychologists have

proved that we first see the whole object and then
its parts. For example, we first perceive the tree and
then its trunk, branches, leaves, etc. Thus, the
introduction or overview of the topics is important.
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9. Follow nature: It means to regulate the
education of a pupil according to his nature.

10. Training of senses: Senses such as sight,

hearing, taste, smell, and touch are gateways to
knowledge. It is better if all or maximum of
these senses can be applied in teaching.
Montessori and Froebel are the main
proponents of this maxim.

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 Principles of Teaching
• Teaching methods are based on two types of
principles:
General principles/
Psychological principles/

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General principles/

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 Microteaching/
• Microteaching is a teacher training technique for learning teaching skills.

• It employs real teaching situation for developing teaching skills and helps to get
deeper knowledge regarding the art of teaching.

• This Stanford technique involves the steps of ‗plan, teach, observe, re-plan, re-teach,
and re-observe‘.

• Most of the pre-service teacher education programs widely use microteaching, and it
is a proven method to attain gross improvement in the instructional experiences.

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Question - 1

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Question - 2

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Question - 3

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Question - 4

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Question - 5

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Question - 1

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Question - 2

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Question - 3

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Question - 4

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Question - 5

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Question - 6

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 How Learning Take Place

Learning happens naturally while we are experiencing the world around us with our
senses  Our short-term memory filters and processes those experiences and
assigns meaning to the sensory information it receives  Some of that information is
transferred to our long-term memory, i.e., the repository of everything we know and
have experienced in our lives  When we need that knowledge, we recall it by the use of
memory and references.

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 How Learning Take Place

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 What is Learning?
• A few definitions offered by psychologists are given below.

1. Gates: Learning is modification of behaviour through experience. (

)
2. Skinner: Learning is a process of progressive behaviour adaptation. (
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3. Crow and Crow: Learning involves the acquisition of habits, knowledge, and
attitude. ( )
•Learning is the way through which human beings acquire new skills, knowledge,
attitudes, and values.

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 Steps in Learning Process
• Reception: Gaining attention by making some abrupt changes in stimulus or
stimuli.
• Expectancy: Informing learners of the objective and what they will be able to do
after learning.
• Retrieval to working memory: Stimulating recall of prior knowledge.
• Selective perception: Displaying contents with distinct features.
• Semantic encoding: Learning guidance.
• Responding: Asking learner to perform.
• Reinforcement: Providing feedback to the learner.
• Retrieval and reinforcement: Additional performance by learner; it entails
feedback also.
• Generalization: More practice of varied problems so as to increase retention.
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Learning Theories

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 Behaviourist ( ) School of Thought
This school focused mainly upon observable •
and measureable aspects. To them, learning is
nothing but a stimulus response
reinforcement process. When learners
respond to the reinforced stimulus, their
responses would get strengthened. Thus
learning is a response strengthening process. •

For example, when a teacher asks student a

question in the Accountancy and student
responds correctly, then s/he rewards the
student by saying ‗excellent‘ or ‗very good‘.
This acts as reinforcement to the student‘s
response, which gets strengthened.
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 The behaviourists have put forward three main laws of
learning:

(a) Law of Effect: The Law of Effect stresses

the importance of the effect of a response.
Satisfying results reinforce the response
while annoying results weaken it. Reward
and punishment are, therefore, important
ingredients of learning.
(b) Law of Readiness: The law of readiness
indicates the student‘s willingness to
make S-R connection.
(c) Law of Exercise: The law of exercise
relates to strengthening the connection
through practice.

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 Cognitivist School of Thought:

• Developed by Jean Piaget and contributed to

by Bloom, Bruner and Ausubel.
• This theory propounds that people are not
―programmed animals” that merely
respond to environmental stimuli; they are
rational beings whose actions are a
consequence of thinking and a learner
constructs cognitive pathways to understand
and respond physically to experiences.
• Cognitivists believed that every subject has a
structure. When information is presented in
an organized manner through lecture or
demonstration, learners would acquire
knowledge and skills. To them learning is the
acquisition, assimilation and accommodation
of knowledge and skills in the cognitive
structure.
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Constructivism was propounded by John Dewey, •
Jean Piaget, Jerome Bruner, Lev Vygotsky, and
others. •

It is based on the idea that learning is a

constructive process where people actively
construct or create their own understanding or
subjective representations of objective reality of
the world and link what they already know from
their past experiences with new information and
experiences to construct their own meaning. So,
the learner is viewed as information constructor.

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 Connectivism
• Connectivism is a contemporary learning
theory which focuses on 21st Century
Skills and gives more autonomy to
students in the way they choose to learn.

• This theory is based upon the idea that

people process information by forming
connections and interacting.

• It suggests that people no longer stop

learning after formal education; rather,
they continue to increase their knowledge
base through technology-enabled access
to a huge reservoir of information,
experience new themes and acquire new
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 Learning Methods

Imitation

Observation: In case we want to learn about

the social behavior of our leaders or boss or
teacher, we need to go to their office or habitat,
etc. There we observe them closely and take
details of the things observed.

Experience: Learning is based on and follows

from experience. After we undergo some
experience and reflect over it, with the help of a
few questions, we will learn a lot out of it by
seeking answers to them.

Self Learning: also called

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Teaching: The students listen to the lecture
and as a result, they learn.

Instruction: Instruction is usually concerned

with physical settings rather than cognitive
skills. Usually the system involve demonstration
with supporting explanation. As a result, the
learners acquire knowledge and skills.

Trial and Error: When an individual is facing

a problem, and is not sure of which option is the
most appropriate, he may opt for the one that he
thinks is the right one. If it is found that it does
not work, he may go for another. This process
continues until he arrives at the right solution.
In this process of trial and error, he learns a lot.
This may happen in subjects such as
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Reflection: The reflective has a tendency to
consider and deliberate the alternative solutions
to problems. Conversely, an impulsive person
tends to respond spontaneously without
deliberation, especially in case of uncertain
situations.

Experimentation: When a person is in doubt,

relying on intuition and guessing may not be
wise. To get to know the reality, we have to
resort to experimentation.

Questioning: In theory the perfect convergent

(closed-ended) question would have only one
answer and the perfect divergent (open ended)
question would have infinite answers. Questions
can be Factual, Explanatory, Analysing,
Hypothetical, Decisional and so on.
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 Learning Characteristics

• Learning is Unitary
• Learning is a complex whole
• Learning may be planned or may be unplanned.
• Learning can be active as well as passive.
• Learning is usually individual, but it can also be collectively generated in groups.
• Learning is treated both as a process and as an outcome. Learning is life-long process.
• Learning may be incremental -it may add cumulatively to the prior learning or
transformation.
• Learning can be stimulated or triggered by any experience, failure, success, and
anything else.
• Learning outcomes may be undesirable as well as desirable.
• Learning has always a moral dimension.
• Learning is self active, creative and transferable.
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 Learning Environment

• Learning is the result of the interaction between individuals and environment in which those
operate. Learning environment may be defined as a composite of natural conditions,
circumstances and influences, and socio-cultural contexts in which an individual is situated.

• UNESCO‟s Classification (1984) of learning:

1. Formal Learning - highly structured, continuous interaction which are linked to some
objectives, leads to recognised qualification
2. Non-formal Learning - not structured, organised with flexibility, no certification
3. Informal Learning - incidental and individualized, not organized, formulated for the target
group, more individualized rather than broad-based and general in nature, Ex. - adult education
programmes, basic education programmes, literacy programmes, health awareness programme
etc.
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 Individual Differences in Learning
( )

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 Individual Differences in Learning
( )

• Learners have many common characteristics at various ages and stages, but they also
differ significantly in many ways. Teachers need to understand both the
commonalities and the differences in order to meet the students‘ needs as no two
individuals are alike. There are variations among learners with respect to their age,
cultural environment, past experiences, physical, mental and emotional make up,
goals, needs, etc.

• Furthermore, different learners have different learning styles and as heterogeneity is

increasing day by day, they may perceive, interpret and evaluate the same learning
event in different ways.

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Differences between Adult and Youth Learners

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Complete Preparation for NTA-UGC-
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Characteristics of Adolescence and Adult Learners
(Academic, Social, Emotional and Cognitive)

Learning is a fundamental, continuous, ongoing and a lifelong process.

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 Adolescence Learners
• Adolescence means ‗to emerge’ to achieve ‘identity’. It is a time for the
maturing of mind and behaviors. It is not an age, but a stage. It is divided
into three major stages:
•

1. Early adolescence: (10 to 12 years) growth in hands, feet and later in the limbs.
There is demand for independence and privacy, so chances of conflict.

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2. Middle adolescence: (12 to 16 years) there are further bodily and genetic
developments, specifically in girls. Girls develop into personal skills quicker, loyalty and
commitment matter more. The decisions of vocations and education are made. The
physical effect of pubertal development becomes incorporated into the self-image.

3. Late adolescence: (16 to19 years) and transformation towards adulthood. In

late adolescence, career decisions are finally traced. The child gradually returns to the
family, on a new footing.

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• World Health Organisation):
Hall)
Storm and Stress)

• WHO defines adolescence both in terms of age spanning the ages between 10 and 19
years. Hall describes adolescence as “storm and stress” period that reflects the
unsettling growth period in modern societies. This concept was recognized by
Margaret Mead also.

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Meaning of Adolescence from different perspectives

• Academically, adolescence is the time spent in high schools and early colleges.

• Psychologically it is a period of transition, during which cognitive, physical, personality

and social changes occur.

• Sociologically, it is a period that fills the gap between dependent childhoods to self-
sufficient adulthood.

• From medical point of view, adolescence begins with the growth and hormonal changes
with the growth of body.

• In India, the adolescent is dependent on his parents for many more years in comparison
to the West. The emotional dependence is also termed as „Delayed Adolescence‟ that
can go u pto 21 years and even up to 25 years.
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Meaning of Adolescence from different perspectives
•

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 Academic Achievements/
• Adolescents spend more waking time in school.

• Academic achievement during adolescence is predicted by interpersonal (parental

engagement), intrapersonal (intrinsic motivation), and institutional factors.

• Now-a-days children know more, learn more, and want more. This may lead to
arguments, friction and tears, all leading to a ‗cultural gap‘ from their parents.

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 Social Changes/
•

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 Social Changes/
• The cultural aspect of adolescence states two main aspects:
1. a rapidly widening life
2. an increasing overlapping between the roles of the child and adult.

• The adolescence is affected by the following:

1. There is search for self concept or self identity.
2. There is demand for more independence to make decisions.
3. They think more about right values and wrong values.
4. Peer pressure also increase.
5. They communicating in different ways – through internet, cell phones and social
media.
6. Feeling bad while facing conflicts, values, emotional tension and extreme attitudes.
7. Socialisation is affected during this stage.
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 Social Changes/
•

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• Juvenile delinquency - With industrialization, urbanization and individualization, the
incidents of Juvenile delinquency also increase.

• Homophily – the tendency for people to seek out or be attracted to those who are similar
to themselves. During ‗Homophily‘, an adolescence spends more time with friends. The
peer groups evolve from primarily single-sex to mixed-sex.

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 Emotional Changes/ Psychological Development

• Research indicates that emotions cannot be separated from the intellect (learning).
If the learner is stressed, over anxious he/she will not be able to learn.
• Adolescents face problems of morality and being much ambitious.
• They favour freedom and democratic life.
• They like permissive atmosphere so that parents and teachers to be lenient towards
them. They tend to be rebellious by nature.
• ‗Conscience formation‘ takes place during this stage.
• Adolescents possess a self-owned yearning for religion, God, worship, prayer and
spiritual values.
• Hall says that the major physical changes during this phase cause major psychological
changes.

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 Emotional Changes/ Psychological Development

•
•
•
•
•

•
•
•

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• The emotional changes with the unique combination of genes, brain, environment,
experiences, and culture shape development.
• There is more self-consciousness about physical appearance and changes.
• It is basically an ―invincible‖ stage of thinking and acting.

•
•
•

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 Cognitive Development/
• Cognitive development refers to the mental activities that enable an individual to adjust to
the environment while mental development refers to intelligence, thinking or imagination
about the environment.

• Cognitive development takes place at different paces at different stages of life.

Piaget mentioned the following stages for cognitive development:

1. Sensory period (0–2 years)

2. Pre-operational period (2–7 years)
3. Concrete operation period (7–11 years)
4. Formal operation period (11–15 years)

At the stage of formal operation, the child displays three new qualities: 1 i. systematic
analysis (with all possible solutions) of the problem ii. logical approach, and iii. ability
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• The main characteristics displayed here are:
1. Systematic analysis of a problem
2. Logical approach towards a solution of problem – to move away from rote learning.
3. Ability to use higher order structure to solve a problem
4. Systematic analysis of a problem
5. Moral maturity

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 Adult Learners
• Life is busy, adults are busy.
• They are actively engaged in the process of life. To take time out of this buy process,
adults may ask: How will this benefit me? What makes learning this worth the effort?

• Adulthood is mostly defined on the basis of age or cognitive maturity. While in India,
adulthood is defined between 15 to 35 years, UNESCO and Organisation for
Economic Cooperation and Development defines it between 24 to 65 years.

•
•

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 Adult Learning
• Adult education is based on a philosophy called ‗andragogy‘ that is art and science of
helping adults learn. The guiding principles of adult learning aim at bringing:

• 1. changes in what people know

• 2. changes in what can do
• 3. changes in what people think
• 4. changes in what people actually do.

•
•
•
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 characteristics of adult learners according to
Malcom Knowles
• Malcom Knowles has identified following characteristics of adult learners.
1. More autonomous and self-directed
2. Goal-oriented and practical
3. Relevancy-oriented and see a reason for learning something.
4. Adults must be shown respect. The adult trainers must acknowledge the
wealth of experiences that adult participants bring to the classroom.

•
•
•
•
•
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 Adult Learner‟s Characteristics
• With the maturity, the self concept of a person moves from being a dependent
personality towards one of being a self directed person.
• Adults are experiential learners. The person accumulates a growing wealth of
experience that is used to make sense of the environment. Adults may know more
than the teacher.
• With maturity, the readiness to learn becomes oriented to the development tasks of
social roles, but contents must be relevant and legitimate.
• With maturity, the time perspective moves from one of the postponed application to
one of the immediate application.
• Adults enjoy solving problems.
• Here, the motivation to learn is increasingly internal.
• Personality responsibility is significant.
• Adult learners want to meet the requirements of their lives.
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•

•
•

•
•
•
•
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Characteristics of Learning by an Adult
Learner

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Teaching and Learning factors

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 Teaching Factors/
• A teacher should have the following qualities:

1. Personal qualities like warmth, affectionate, sympathetic, democratic,

optimistic, dynamic, etc.
2. Professional competencies like command on the subject matter, effective
communication, proper use of teaching instructional facilities, classroom
management, evaluating students learning also.

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 Teaching skills
• From the training point of view, we classify teaching skills into three broad
categories. These are:

1. Core teaching skills (common for all subjects)

2. Specific teaching skills (for specific subject areas like language, Social
Science, Science, Maths, etc.)
3. Target group specific skills (for exceptional children).

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 Factors Affecting Teaching

• Teaching is an art and a skill; its acquisition depends upon so many factors, which are
briefed below:
1. Educational qualification of a teacher: It is generally assumed that highly
qualified teachers should teach higher classes and less qualified teachers should teach
lower classes.
2. Skills: Adequate skill set helps a teacher to do his or her job in more effective
manner. Some teaching skills may come with birth, but for many others, a
prospective teacher has to make conscious efforts.

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• 3. Experience of teacher: Teacher himself is a learner all the time. A good teacher
would always like to share his enhanced knowledge with the students, and the
experience also helps in better handling of student queries and classroom
management.
• 4. Classroom environment: A teacher has to take initiative in creating a
classroom environment that supports teaching–learning process.

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• 5. Economic factor: Teaching professionals always seek independence of thought.
If that is constrained by financial problems, the quality of teaching is affected. The
same applies to learner‘s situation as well.
• 6. Administrative policies of school, college or university: As discussed, a
teacher always seeks independence in handling classroom situations; however,
administration intends to bring standardization in teaching practices.

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• 7. Subject matter: Sometimes, when a teacher teaches a subject in which he is not
specialized, he cannot create any effect through his teaching, but the same teacher
can teach his specialized subject in a better way.
• 8. Parental expectations: Parental expectations may work as an intervening
variable. They may put stress on the learner and ultimately teaching may also get
affected.

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 Core Teaching Skills a/c to NCERT
• National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT) in its publication
Core Teaching Skills (1982) has laid stress on the following teaching skills:

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• Some factors as practised by teachers in classroom are as
follows:

1. A teacher having limited exposure and experience in teaching is prone to:

(a) follow textbook reading by the students
(b) transmit information through lecture
(c) dictate notes
(d) impart required information

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2. A teacher having professional training and reflective thinking is tempted to:
(a) adopt new ways to teach
(b) involve students in teaching
(c) generate new ideas through problem solving
(d) teach through group activities
(e) follow cooperative learning
(f) adopt interactive approach.

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 Metacore skills
• A master skill that magnifies and activates other skills. This is a type of skill that
enables you to learn and build new skills faster. It also allows you to improve and
develop other skills.
• Skills are temporary because they are learned and developed, and therefore can be
forgotten and refreshed. By contrast, a meta-skill is a permanent part of you that
enables you to achieve things. For example, while learning a language is a skill, the
ability you develop to learn languages, thus making it easier for you to learn several,
would be a meta-skill.
•

• Ex. - These can include teamwork, communication, conflict resolution and problem-
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• A teacher like a doctor, pilot, engineer or a counselor is supposed to possess the
repertoire of teaching skills so that s/he could perform his/her teaching well. These
are called as ‗Metacore Skills‘. These help during professional coaching. The more
variety of sub-skills is called as ‗Polycrest skills‘.

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 Learning Factors
• In effective learning, mostly we notice of these factors
1. more intensity of learning
2. more retention
3. Joyful learning
4. more scope of cognitive development
5. self-directed learning
6. self-motivation for further learning.

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• Keeping the above in consideration, the following factors become automatically
important:
1. Background of the learner (repertoire)
2. Nature of learning material (easy or difficult)
3. Environmental factors (space, physical condition and psychological
support)
4. Motivation (intrinsic and extrinsic)
5. Learning support (human-teachers and parents; electronic - audio, video
and computer)

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 Teacher Support Material

• The support materials aim to support teachers and students in achieving the learning
outcomes of any subject. The ideas and resources are neither prescriptive nor
exhaustive.
• Teachers and students can discover many other ways of reaching the learning
outcomes. They can relate to any book, practical sessions, some specific activities etc.

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• 1. Teacher solutions manual: They are designed to assist teachers in effective teaching
such as the solutions manual provide suggestions on how to teach a topic. They are kind of
comprehensive supplementary resources such as an end-to-end solution.
• 2. Lecture slides: While teachers develop their own instructional facilities to deliver a
lecture in the class, the lecture slides provide a firm base for instructors to build on.
• 3. Extra practice questions: Students always demand extra practice that authors of a
book can provide. The texts are bundled with extra exercise questions, case studies, and
other such materials used by teachers to frame homework, quizzes and tests.

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 Learning Environment

• Learning is the result of the interaction between individuals and environment in which those
operate. Learning environment may be defined as a composite of natural conditions,
circumstances and influences, and socio-cultural contexts in which an individual is situated.

• UNESCO‟s Classification (1984) of learning:

1. Formal Learning - highly structured, continuous interaction which are linked to some
objectives, leads to recognised qualification
2. Non-formal Learning - not structured, organised with flexibility, no certification
3. Informal Learning - incidental and individualized, not organized, formulated for the target
group, more individualized rather than broad-based and general in nature, Ex. - adult education
programmes, basic education programmes, literacy programmes, health awareness programme
etc.
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Complete Preparation for NTA-UGC-
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 Learning Environment and Institutions
• That can be autocratic, democratic, laissez faire and so on. Political, social, legal
environments can also be used here.
• The present trends in the management of institutions of higher education indicate changes in
many directions. may be implementation of democratic principles for better participatory
culture, delegation of power to the lower level executive bodies; faculty members
participation etc. There is increased focus on identifying objectives and planning for both
short-term and long-term perspective; and greater concern for the economics of institutional
operations.

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• The term institutional building is the process of internal development of an
institution as well its impact on the society.
• The functions of any university - teaching, research and extension activities - are
more important. The delegating and organising function, organization Development,
the directive function, the operative function, and the evaluative function are all
important for the management of an institution.
• The sharing of experiences, innovations, approaches and problems among
institutions, feed-back on various dimensions of teaching and, non-teaching activities
and generating ideas and suggestions to solve the main problems faced by the
institution.

•
•

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Instructional Facilities
or
Teaching Aids

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 What is Instructional Facilities
• They assist an instructor in the teaching–learning process
• They supplement teaching methods and are themselves not as self-supporting as
teaching methods.
• They follow the assumption that learning originates from senses‘ experience.
• The teaching instructional facilities include audiovisual instructional facilities. They
help in better learning, retention and recall, thinking and reasoning, activity, interest,
imagination, better assimilation and personal growth and development.
• Instructional facilities are also known as Teaching Learning Materials (TLMs).

•
•
•
•

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 Benefits of Instructional Facilities
• 1. Motivational Effect
• 2. Facilitates healthy classroom environment
• 3. Supplement Verbal instructions
• 4. Promotion of scientific temper
• 5. Complement verbal instructions
• 6. Development of higher faculties
• 7. Clear images
• 8. Vicarious experience
• 9. Opportunities to handle and manipulate
• 10. Variety
• 11. Based on teaching maxims
• 12. Reinforcement
• 13. Vividness
• 14. Catering to individual differences
• 15. Positive creativity
• 16. Flexibility in learning
• 17. Positive transfer of learning and training
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 Types of Teaching Aids

• According to the Technology, it can be divided into two

categories: hardware approach ( ) and software approach
( ).
• According to the senses involved, it can be divided into audio
aids, video aids, and audio–video aids.

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 According to the Educational Technology

• 1. Hardware approach: It mechanizes the process of teaching so that teachers are able to deal
with more students with less expenditure in educating them. Hardware includes computer,
epidiascope, overhead projector, radio, slide and film projector, teaching machines, television, etc.

• Software approach: Software approach is characterized by task analysis, writing precise

objectives, selection of appropriate learning strategies, immediate reinforcement of responses,
and constant evaluation. Newspapers, books, magazines, educational games, flash cards, etc. also
form a part of software approach.

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1. Audio aids: They are instructional devices through which message can only
be heard. Examples of audio aids include Language labs, radio sets, sound
distribution sets, etc.
2. Visual aids: Instructional devices through which the message can only be
seen are known as visual aids. Examples include posters, flashcards, charts,
bulletin boards, maps, models, photographs, etc

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3. Audio–visual aids: Audio–visual aids are those aids that help in completing
the triangular process of learning, that is, motivation, classification, and stimulation.
They are instructional devices in which the message can be heard and seen
simultaneously. Out of five senses, seeing at 87% and hearing at 7% are the major
ones to attract attention and increase learning. Examples of audio– visual aids
include television, video films, documentary films, etc.

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 Functions of Audio–visual Aids
When properly used, audio–visual aids contribute to one or more of the following
functions.
1. More clarity and understanding
2. Better attention, interest, and retention
3. It helps in faster and comprehensive learning
4. Better access
5. Save the instructor‘s time
6. Supplement the spoken words—by combining audio and visual stimuli

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 Limitations of Audio–visual Aids
1. Learners may form distorted impressions unless audio–visual aids are supplemented with required
explanations.
2. Teaching may be narrowed down to only a few big ideas, not giving the complete picture of a
subject.
3. There is the possible risk of spectatorism instead of the attitude of thoughtful enquiry. Some
extension workers acquire the mistaken idea that they have little to do when audio–visuals are
used.
4. Multimedia: It is a combination of more than one media, but it could include several forms of
media and audios, texts, still images, animations, graphics, videos, and films.

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 Types of Instructional Facilities According
to Projection or Show
1. Projected instructional facilities: Visual instructional devices that are shown with
a projector are called projected instructional facilities. Examples include slides,
filmstrip, silent films, cartoons, etc. These are projected through an opaque projector
(epidiascope) or an overhead projector.
2. Non-projected instructional facilities: Visual instructional devices that are
simply presented without any projection equipment are non-projected instructional
facilities. Examples include blackboard, chart, etc.

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• 1. Display instructional facilities: Visual instructional facilities that are
spread before the audience for viewing information and instruction. Examples are
posters, bulletin boards, models, exhibits, etc.
• 2. Presentation instructional facilities: Visuals instructional facilities are
presented or projected before the audience for viewing, explaining or presenting the
message of the visuals, so that the audience gets meaningful understanding of the
subject. Examples are flashcards, slides, filmstrips, etc.

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 Factors Influencing the Selection
of Teaching Aids

In order to get the most effective results, the following aspects are important:
1. Selection of appropriate aids
2. Suitable combination of the selected aids
3. Their use in proper sequence.

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• Audio–visual aids are used singly or in combination, thereby taking into
consideration the following factors:
1. Nature of audience: Printed media are meant for literate people, whereas exhibits,
pictures, and symbols are for less literate people.
2. Size of audience: A video show or whiteboard cannot be used effectively when the
number of participants exceeds 30; internet can be used for large audiences.
3. Teaching objective or expected nature of change: Select the audio–visual aids
based on the objective of extension teaching, that is, to bring about a change in (i)
thinking or knowledge, (ii) attitude or feeling, and (iii) actions or skills.
If you merely want to inform or to influence a large number of people slightly, use
mass media such as radio or television.

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•

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• 4. Nature of subject matter: In case new practice is simple and familiar, a news
article, a radio message, or a circular letter will be effective, whereas complex or
unfamiliar practices will require audio–visual aids.
• 5. Availability of aids: Despite the availability of the Internet two decades back, it
was not being used on a large scale. With availability of speed, due to better
technology, and cost effectiveness, more people are now using Internet-based
technologies as teaching aids.
• 6. Relative cost: Effective aids need not be necessarily costly. The amount
expended on audio–visual aids, in relation to the extent of effectiveness, is also an
important consideration in their selection and use.

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 Methods of Teaching
• Once the instructional objectives are specified, the next step is to select an
appropriate instructional method to achieve them. The teacher has a number of
methods at his disposal to select from. These methods are as follows:
• 1. Large group teaching methods/ Teacher centred methods
• 2. Small group teaching methods/ Mixed strategy
• 3. Individualized teaching methods/ Learner centred methods

•
•
•

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Complete Preparation for NTA-UGC-
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 Large Group Teaching Methods/ Teacher centred methods

• Lecture Method - Formal lecture helps in building up basic theoretical knowledge

that must be gained before practice or before participative sessions.
• Use - large audience, scarce teaching resources, or shortage of time resource
• the teacher is an active participant, the students are assumed to be passive listeners.
• Lectures can be either one-way or two-way.

•
•
•
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• Advantages
1. Economical as it can cover large audience in less time.
2. Stimulates further learning.
3. Flexibility of adapting the lecture according to time and equipment available.
• Limitations
1. Student may be a passive listener so teacher has to make conscious efforts to make it two-way communication.
2. Not very suitable for developing mental skills.
3. Stressful for the audience who does not have efficient skills on taking notes.

•
passive) two-way)
mental)
monotonous) stressful)
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• Team Teaching Method - Team teaching is an innovative approach in
teaching large groups in which two or more teachers are involved in
planning, executing, and evaluating the learning experiences of a group of
students.

• innovative)

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• Advantages
1. Sharing the best faculty by more students.
2. Optimum use of multiple teaching techniques and devices.
3. Improvement of teaching quality.
• Limitations
1. Finding teachers with special competencies is a difficult task.
2. More teachers are required for this method.
3. Not useful for teaching all subjects.
4. Requires much time for planning and scheduling.

•
competencies)

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• TV or Video Presentation - Television or video presentation is
an improved presentation of radio or audio presentation and it can
virtually bring the whole world inside the classroom.
• Screening of video presentation is followed by discussion or task.

• -

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• Advantages
1. Many important personalities and experts are brought to the classroom through video
presentation.
2. Specifically useful for adult learners.
3. Illustrated lectures and demonstrations can be supplemented by other teaching instructional
facilities, such as slides, models, specimens, etc.
4. Easily accessible for learners in remote areas.
5. Specifically useful for subjects, such as geography, astronomy, etc.
• Limitations
1. Less possibility for two-way communication.
2. There can be difficulty in adjusting to complicated schedules to telecast period.

illustrated lectures) demonstrations)

•
two-way communication)
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• Question Answer Method)
—

• Question Answer Method - This method is also called the Socratic

method, it has three main steps - question formulation, their presentation
and giving new knowledge through students. It is based on psychological
principles, the students become active during the question and answer
method. It is also useful in evaluating the knowledge of the students.

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• Review Strategy)
review strategy)
—

• Review Strategy The review of lecture method, discussion method,

group teaching method - all is called review strategy. This gives the
teacher an idea of ​the progress of classroom teaching—what has
happened, how much syllabus is left, what are the errors in teaching,
what improvements are needed in the teaching method, etc. This
method is more useful for higher classes. The review may be oral or in
writing.
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 Mixed Group Teaching Methods/
/Small Group Teaching Methods
• Group Discussion (GD) - Group discussion is one of the basic methods of teaching smaller
groups. It can be described as communication and interaction within a group around a topic, skill,
issue, or problem presented to the group by the trainer or moderator for discussion. Group
discussion can be any one of the following:
1. Planned: There is certainty about the conclusions and objectives. The discussionis guided by
the trainer in an appropriate sequence.
2. Partly Planned: Here, the concluding and opening statements are known, but the
discussions in-between is not directed or very loosely guided.
3. Unplanned: The topic presented for discussion is without any opening statement and the
discussion that follows is entirely spontaneous without any guidance from the trainer.

• basic method)
—

buzz session)
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• Advantages
1. Participation of all the group members.
2. Critical thinking can be developed as trainees are free to express their ideas and opinions.
3. Good for the development of oral, nonverbal, and written communication skills.
• Limitations
1. Time consuming when it is not very systematic.
2. Possibility of domination by a few participants on the basis of their better communication skills.
3. Leading a discussion requires a change of roles which may not be realized by the trainer.
4. Assessment of trainees is difficult and can be biased also.

trainees)

dominance)
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• Seminar - It is a type of group discussion where one trainee, or several, prepare a
paper on a given topic, issue, or problem, which is then presented to the whole group
for discussion and analysis. The main stages in seminar are preparation of paper,
presentation of paper, and discussion on it.

•
—

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• Advantages
1. This method gives more independence, which leads to development of presentation skills of the
participants.
2. It provides opportunity for the trainees to prepare and contribute to a particular topic
thoroughly.
3. It provides opportunity to the trainees towards practical group leadership and allows them to
use analytical skills, research on conclusions, solve a problem, etc.
• Limitations
1. It is time consuming and may cause stress to participants.
2. It needs a group of trainees with fairly high level of attainment.

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• Panel Discussion - A panel consists of a small group of six to eight persons. They
carry on a guided and informal discussion before an audience.

• Panel Discussion)

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• Advantages
1. Panel discussions, if well conducted, are usually more interesting to the audience than the
single-speaker forum.
2. Usually on socially relevant issues.
• Limitations
1. Bringing experts to a single forum can be difficult.
2. The audience is not actively involved.
•
single-speaker forum)

relevant)
•
single forum)

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• Brainstorming - Brainstorming is a creative group work in which group members
produce a large number of ideas quickly on a given topic or problem for subsequent
evaluation. In this method, anyone can exchange remarks with anyone except that the
participants are not allowed to criticize the ideas at the time when views are being
invited.
• Sometimes quantity of ideas is more important than quality. Spontaneity is the
hallmark of brainstorming sessions. Several rounds of brainstorming are conducted
till all the ideas are exhausted. Participants are then asked to evaluate all ideas and
list the best one.

• Brainstorming Method)

•
spontaneity)

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• Advantages
1. It encourages creativity that helps trainers to produce, think, and explore ideas.
2. Scope for larger participation.
3. It is economical as it does not require much preparation.
• Limitations
1. It is not a very systematic way of studying a subject.
2. There is possibility of some trainees being reluctant to participate.
•
creativity)

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• Project Method - This can be described as both a small group and an individualized
instruction. In this method, students are allowed to explore and experience their
environment through their senses and direct their own learning by their individual
interests.
• Very little is taught from the textbooks, and the emphasis is on experiential learning
rather than rote learning and memorization.

• Project Method) John Dewey) Kilpatric)

format)

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• Advantages
1. Students are likely to develop the habit of critical thinking.
2. They develop the habit of working in teams.
• Limitations
1. Continuous monitoring may be required.
2. Additional resources may be required.
•

team work)
•

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• Role Playing - Role playing has also been used to facilitate subject-matter learning
through the dramatization of literary and historical works and historical or current
events.
• In all these uses, role playing provides the student with a dramatic confrontation and
clarification of (1) his relations with others, (2) his information about and
expectations of the society, (3) his evaluation of himself and his life style, and (4) the
ways in which academic material may be relevant to his daily tasks.

• Role Playing)

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• Advantages
1. It is the semblance to real-life situations.
2. Interactive and interesting, it entails participation of every member of the group.
3. It gives immediate feedback.
4. It develops social, decision-making, problem solving, negotiating, and manipulating skills.
5. It is effective to change the attitude of the participants.
• Limitations
1. It has unpredictable outcomes.
2. Real-life situations are usually more complex.
3. It requires a considerable amount of resources.

feedback)

•
unpredictable)
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• Tutorials - Tutorial method is a method employed for teaching small groups for
developing skills for solving numerical problems, providing individual guidance, and
sorting personal problems. It is appropriate for taking care of individual differences.

• Tutorial Method)

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• Advantages
1. Focused attention
2. Generates more ideas
3. Better control over pace of teaching–learning process
• Limitations
1. It is difficult to find a suitable pace if the trainees vary greatly in ability.
2. It can be time consuming.

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• Demonstration Method - This method is based on the principle of learning by
doing and learning from concrete to abstract. The term demonstration means to
show. It is adopted in the classroom for the achievement of cognitive, affective, and
psychomotor objectives.
• Demonstration can be defined as a combination of verbal explanation coupled with a
live display of using apparatus for presenting important facts, ideas, or processes. It
may entail audio–visual explanation.

• cognitive), affective)
psychomotor)
• verbal) audio-visual)

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• Advantages
1. It is effective in explaining materials, objects, and ideas.
2. It is effective in explaining abstract concepts.
3. It is useful for achieving objectives in cognitive, psychomotor, and affective
domains as there is mental and physical participation of students.
• Limitation
1. Only few get opportunities to participate in the experimental process.
•

abstract)
cognitive), affective) psycho-motor)

•
1. experimental)

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Individualized Teaching Methods/ /Learner-centred
Methods

• The individualized methods of instruction can be defined as instructions designed to

meet the needs of an individual learner and to accommodate the differences
displayed between the learners.

• Learner-centred Methods)

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• Assignments - Assignments are given to students for a number of purposes, such as
for acquiring additional information, surveying, application of knowledge, and
solving numerical problems. Although the main role is of the learner, the teacher too
has a crucial role. The teacher has to plan the assignments and guide the student
regarding references for collecting relevant information.

• Assignment) - purpose)

copy)

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• Advantages
1. It helps students work independently.
2. It helps in sharpening the student‘s comprehension, analytical, and problem-solving abilities.
3. It helps in inculcation of creativity among the students.
• Limitation
1. Students may copy each others material unless the assignments are carefully planned.

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• Case Study - Unlike traditional lecture-based teaching where student participation in the
classroom is minimal, the case method is an active learning method that requires participation
and involvement from the student in the classroom.
• A case is usually a ―description of an actual situation, commonly involving a decision, a challenge,
an opportunity, a problem, or an issue faced by a person or persons in a social set up such as an
organization‖.
• students to gain hands-on experience of the real world and shifting the work focus from
professor to the student, the case-study method becomes an efficient tool for the creation of a
learner-centred education.

• Case Study)

•
legal
studies),

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• Advantages
1. It provides opportunity to the participants to analyse, critically examine, evaluate, and express
reasoned opinions.
2. It enhances decision-making and problemsolving skills.
3. It ensures active participation, which may lead to innovative solutions.
• Limitations
1. It requires training for the teachers to use this method.
2. It is not useful for all subjects and situations
•

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• Programmed Instruction - Programmed Instruction (PI) is a general term for a
highly structured system of learning, which is based on logical sequence of self-paced,
learning steps with feedback between each step. The learner gets immediate feedback
after each step.

• Programmed Instructions) highly

structured system) self-pace) logical steps)
feedback)

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• Advantages
1. There is regular feedback.
2. This ensures active participation of the learner, and it can be used for any subject.
• Limitation
1. Learner motivation may get diminished after sometime.

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• Simulation - Simulation means creating conditions that are quite similar to actual
conditions. Then the training is provided under those conditions. For example, the
training of pilots and astronauts takes place in conditions that are quite similar to
actual flight conditions. Simulation is specifically used for training purpose.

• Simulation Method)

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• Advantages
1. They are economical in the long run.
2. Safety aspects are taken care of.
• Limitation
1. It entails high initial investment in machinery equipment, etc.

•
• routine expenditure)

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• Personalized System of Instruction - Personalized System of Instruction (PSI)
can be used for all subject matters except where the students are to select the
contents. Learners must achieve mastery of a series of written mastery units, assisted
by teachers, proctors, and enriching lectures before proceeding to the final test. PSI
consists of five basic elements comprising (i) mastery learning, (ii) self-pacing, (iii)
stress on written material, (iv) proctors, and (v) lectures.
• It is best suited for contents that are usually conveyed through written material.

• Personalised System of Instruction)

proctor) (5)
•
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• Advantages
1. It is based on mastery learning.
2. It facilitates self-paced learning.
• Limitations
1. It is not suitable for rapidly changing course contents.
2. It is not suitable for psychomotor and affective domains.

•
course contents)
psychomotor) affective)
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• Computer-assisted Learning - Computer-assisted Learning (CAL) is concerned
with the use of a computer to mediate the flow of information in a learning process.
• A computer has the ability to process information very quickly, accurately and to
adapt and respond to the learner‘s need, difficulties, and progress, which is much
greater than that of a book or video tape.

• Computer Based Teaching) -

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• Advantages
1. It has more flexibility and better control in comparison to other methods.
2. It can be effectively used for drilling and practicing, simulation, and modelling.
• Limitation
1. It is impersonal and costly.

•
impersonal)

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• Open Learning - It is a flexible method of delivering the instruction, where the
learner has open access to learning resources of people, material, equipment, and
accommodation, although regular class attendances are not necessary. There are no
or minimal restrictions on admissions.
• The face-to-face interaction between teachers and students through tutorials should
form a part of open learning. For open learning, learning packages are to be
developed, making use of multimedia. Open learning instruction is, however, not
suitable for the rapidly changing nature of content as this involves time, expertise,
and resources.

• Open Learning) -

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• Advantage
1. It offers flexibility to learner.
• Limitations
1. It is not suitable for achieving psychomotor and affective learning objectives.
2. It requires time, expertise, and resources, and hence, not suitable for subjects of
rapidly changing nature.

•
flexibility)
•
affective) psychomotor)

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• Interactive Video - The interactive video approach to teaching can be employed to
achieve cognitive, psychomotor, and affective objectives. It allows the learner to
randomly access any piece of information and provide immediate feedback regarding
the consequences of their action. The essence of the interactive video experience is
video simulation with more number of video presentations of real images as possible.

• Interactive Video) -

randomly)

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• Advantage
1. Interactive video approach enhances the decision-making power of the individual.
• Limitation
1. This method is time consuming and requires resources and expertise.

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• Heuristic Method - This method was advocated by Professor Armstrong.
In this method, the student has to find out the answer to his/her own
problem by unaided efforts. Thus, the child becomes a discoverer of
knowledge by developing a spirit of inquiry. The main aim of teaching by
this method is not to provide much facts about science, mathematics,
grammar, etc. but to teach how knowledge of these can be obtained.

• Heuristic Method) -
Armstrong)
unaided)
spirit of inquiry)

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• Advantage
1. Self-learning approach
• Limitation
1. Not much focus on factual knowledge

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 Discovery Method

• Discovery Method There is another method similar to the heuristic

method, which we call the discovery method. It is mostly used for
knowledge of facts in social subjects. It is related to ancient events,
whereas the method of investigation is related to scientific subjects
and present.

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• Differentiated Instruction (DI) - Differentiated instruction is a dynamic,
proactive method of teaching. It means that the teacher plans and uses a variety of
ways to teach learning.
• It is a combination of whole group, small group, and individual instruction methods.
• In this method, qualitative aspects are given more weightage than quantitative
aspects. It uses multiple approaches to accommodate multiple intelligences. It is
student-centred, meaning that lessons are engaging, relevant, interesting, and active.
It is an organized and planned method of teaching.

• Differentiated Instruction) -
dynamic)

• combination)
•

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• Blended Learning: The term originated in USA. There is no clear single definition
available for it. Blended learning combines online learning with face-to-face learning.
It is also defined as the combination of multiple approaches to pedagogy or teaching,
for example, self-paced, collaborative or inquiry based study. The goal of blended
learning is to provide the most efficient and effective instruction experience by
combining delivery modalities.

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 Reflective Teaching/

• Reflective Teaching - Reflective teaching is a means of ‗looking at what you do in the

classroom, thinking about why you do it, and thinking about if it works, a process of
self-observation and self-evaluation‘.
• The purpose of doing it is to improve the quality of teaching. In general, reflection
involves ‗working towards a better understanding of the problems and ways of solving
it‘. The steps involved in reflective teaching cover ‗suggestions, problems, hypothesis,
reasoning and testing‘.
• Ex. - Reflective teaching is also seen as the attitude of questioning the practice of
teacher‘s profession. The peer observation, written account of experiences, self-
reports, auto biographies, journal writing, collaborative diary keeping and recording
lessons, student‘s feedback, teacher‘s stories.
• It may be specifically helpful for pre-service teachers in their professional
development, where in a teacher act as adult learner and the facilitator in education
system. It also includes training, practice and feedback.
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 Reflective Teaching/
•

•
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 Dale‟s Cone of Experience/

• Dale‘s Cone of Experience is a model that incorporates several theories related to

instructional design and learning processes. During 1960s, Edgar Dale theorized that
learners retain more information by what they ‘do‘ as opposed to what is ‗heard‘,
‗read‘, or ‗observed‘. His research led to the development of the ‗Cone of Experience‘.
Today, this ‗learning by doing‘ has become known as ‗experiential learning‘ or
‗action learning‘.

• The cone charts the average retention rate for various methods of teaching.

• People learn best when they use perceptual learning styles and these learning styles
are sensory based.

• Dales‘ cone of experience is a tool to help instructors make decisions about resources
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 Dale‟s Cone of Experience/

•
•

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 Gagne‟s Teaching – Learning Process

• Robert Gagne (1916–2002) was an educational psychologist who pioneered the

science of instruction in the 1940s. His book ―The Conditions of Learning,‖ first
published in 1965, identified the mental conditions that are necessary for effective
learning. Gagne created a nine-step process that detailed each element required for
effective learning.

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 Steps in Learning Process
• Reception: Gaining attention by making some abrupt changes in stimulus or
stimuli.
• Expectancy: Informing learners of the objective and what they will be able to do
after learning.
• Retrieval to working memory: Stimulating recall of prior knowledge.
• Selective perception: Displaying contents with distinct features.
• Semantic encoding: Learning guidance.
• Responding: Asking learner to perform.
• Reinforcement: Providing feedback to the learner.
• Retrieval and reinforcement: Additional performance by learner; it entails
feedback also.
• Generalization: More practice of varied problems so as to increase retention.
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•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•

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Offline v/s Online methods

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Differences Between Offline Classroom and Online Classroom

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 Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs)

• MOOCs have become a popular avenue for diverse learners to upgrade their
knowledge and skills.
• Instructors who are new to creating MOOCs tend to focus on the use of technology
features to mimic their classroom actions. While it is necessary to be aware of the
technology affordances, it is more important to focus on the pedagogy of how to use
the MOO features effectively to foster student engagement and learning.

•
•

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•

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 SWAYAM
• It is an indigenous (Made in India) IT Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs) Platform for
providing best quality education that can be accessed by anyone, anytime and anywhere using the
IT system. It was launched by Government of India to achieve the three cardinal principles of
Education - access, equity and quality. Access means to take the best teaching learning even to the
most disadvantaged. It seeks to bridge the digital divide for the economically disadvantaged
students, at all levels. It is taught in classrooms from 9th class till post-graduation to be accessed
by anyone, anywhere at any time. The sessions are developed by best faculty and available free of
cost. There are more than 1,000 specially chosen faculty members.

• The courses hosted on SWAYAM are in 4 quadrants:

(a) Video tutorials covering a whole course – normally of 20 hours, each lecture not
exceeding 30 minutes.
(b) E-Content: added to the learning imparted through the video tutorials.
(c) Self Assessment: Quizzes/assignments that intersperse the course
(d) Discussion forum for posting queries

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•

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 Features of SWAYAM

(a) High quality learning experience using multimedia on anytime,

anywhere basis.
(b) One-stop web location for interactive e-content for all courses from School
to University level.
(c) State of the art system that allows easy access, monitoring and
certification.
(d) Peer group interaction and discussion forum to clarify doubts
(e) Hybrid model that adds to the quality of class room teaching.

• SWAYAM platform is indigenously developed by MHRD and AICTE with the help of
Microsoft and would be ultimately capable of hosting 2000 courses and 80000 hours
of learning: covering school, under-graduate, post-graduate, engineering, law and
other professional courses.

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•
•

•
•
•

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• Nine National Coordinators are:

1. AICTE - self paced and international courses

2. NPTEL - engineering
3. UGC - Non-technical PG education
4. CEC - UG education
5 & 6. NCERT & NIOS - school education
7. IGNOU - out of school students
8. IIMB - Management studies
9. NITTTR - Teacher Training programme

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 SWAYAM PRABHA/
• The SWAYAM PRABHA is a group of 32 DTH channels devoted to telecasting of
high-quality educational programmes on 24 × 7 basis using the GSAT-15 satellite.
• Every day, there will be new content for at least (4) hours which would be repeated 5
more times in a day, allowing the students to choose the time of their convenience.
The channels are uplinked from BISAG, Gandhinagar. The contents are provided by
NPTEL, IITs, UGC, CEC, IGNOU, NCERT and NIOS. The INFLIBNET Centre
maintains the web portal.

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• The DTH Channels shall cover the following:

1. Higher Education: Curriculum-based course

contents at post-graduate and under-graduate level
covering diverse disciplines such as arts, science,
commerce, performing arts, social sciences and
humanities, engineering, technology, law, medicine,
agriculture, etc. All courses would be certification-
ready in their detailed offering through SWAYAM, the
platform being developed for offering MOOCs courses.
2. School education (9-12 levels): These are
basic modules for teacher‘s training, teaching and
learning instructional facilities for our children to help
them understand the subjects in better manner. It also
helps learners to prepare themselves for various
competitive exams to get admissions into professional
degree courses.
3. Curriculum-based courses that can meet the
needs of life-long learners of Indian citizens in India
and abroad.
4. Assist students (class 11th and 12th) prepare
for competitive exams.
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 Teaching Support System

• Teacher Support System is basically a set of tools that helps to improve student
achievement by building newer capacities in the teachers. It can be taken as kind of
process as well, it influences the way decisions are made and what information is
passed on.
• This helps us to know that how teachers acquire new skills and increase student
achievement in areas they are underperforming.
• Though they are happening simultaneously, the movement has taken place from
traditional to modern to ICT (Information and Communication Technology) based
education. It happens with help from technology also. Traditional can be somewhat
compared with orthodox education also.

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 Traditional and Modern Methods
• Let‘s first differentiate between traditional and modern approaches:
1. Traditional is basically teacher centred instruction that reflects
educational essentialism and education perennialism.
Modern is students‘ centric approach that reflects educational progressivism.

2. In traditional approach, memorization of facts, objective information;

correct knowledge is paramount.
In modern approach, understanding the facts, Application of facts, Analysis,
Evaluation, Innovation; Critical thinking is paramount

3. Traditional approach aims at high test scores, grades and ultimately

degrees. Subjects are individual and independent.
Modern approach aims at Learning, retention, accumulation of valuable knowledge &
skills. Subjects are integrated and multidisciplinary.
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4. In traditional methods, students matched by age, ability etc, while modern
and possibly also by ability.
In modern approach, students match by interest or ability for each project or subject.
It can be multiage also.

5. Traditional method has direct instruction and lectures, seatwork. Here,

students learn through listening and observation. The teacher relies on textbooks,
lectures, and individual written assignments etc.
In modern teaching, practicality, discoveries, group activities are the main pillars.
Focus is on Internet, library and outside experts.

6. In traditional approach, presentation and testing methods favor students

who have prior exposure to the material or exposure in multiple contexts.
In Modern approach, context learning integrates personal knowledge within the
school environment.

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 ICT Based Teaching

• ICT based teaching support is an approach to facilitate and enhance learning through, and based
on, both computer and communication technology. It refers to the use of computer-based
electronic technologies of internet, e-mail, websites and CD-ROMS to deliver, facilitate and
enhance both formal and informal learning and knowledge sharing from any place at any time.
The communication devices can also include digital television, personal digital assistants (PDAs)
and mobile phones.
• ICT based learning is also called Computer-Based Training (CBT). Generally, CBT and e-learning
are treated as synonyms, but CBT is the older term dating from the 1980s.
• The term ICT evolved from CBT along with the maturation of the internet, CDs and DVDs. It
includes Internet-based Learning, Web-based Learning and Online Learning.
• ICT is significant in many ways. It enables flexible learning where just-in-time, effective and
efficient learning. The pace is determined by the learner.
• ICT facilitates collaborative internet and web-based learning opportunities to the learners.
• ICT supports distance learning with wide area networks (WAN) and by creating multimedia CD-
ROMs or websites.

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• In ICT teaching methods, there is advantage of having hyperlinking. There are
interactive parts that illustrate difficult things. Here doing some exercises is also
possible; It allows a wider range of learning experiences, such as there is educational
animation to online learners. It also imparts e-training through

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 Evaluation system/
• There is a direct relationship among the four important factors of the educational system, such as
objective, curriculum, method and evaluation.
• —

• Evaluation is a systematic process of collecting, analysing and interpreting information to

determine the extent to which instructional objectives are being achieved.
•

• Evaluation is a continuous process, it forms an integral part of the total system of education, and
is intimately related to educational objectives. It exercises a great influence on pupil‘s study habits
and the teacher‘s method of instruction and this helps not only to measure educational
achievement but also to improve it.
•
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1. Comprehensiveness: It must try to assess all aspects of a child‘s development.
Thus, different techniques might be used by the teachers to evaluate the performance of the
child.
: assess)
performance)

2. Continuous: Evaluation is a continuous process in education. It is not just an

examination but a part of the evaluation process. There is no fixed time limit for the
completion of evaluation work, but it is a continuous process. CBSE‘s Continuous and
Comprehensive Evaluation (CCE) is based on the above two parameters. CCE helps in
improving the student‘s performance by identifying his or her learning difficulties at
regular time intervals right from the beginning of the academic session and employing
suitable remedial measures for enhancing their learning performance.

: continuous)
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Difference between Measurement, Assessment and Evaluation
• Measurement is the quantitative description of one‘s performance. For example, a
student scored 92 in Mathematics

• Assessment is the second step of evaluating student‘s performance. The description

that a student stood first in the class represents the concept of assessment. It makes
student‘s performance more meaningful.

• When we add value to the assessment of student performance, we carry out

evaluation of their performance. If in case of a student, we find that she has
‗improved significantly in half-yearly examination‘ in comparison to her performance
in the earlier examinations then ―improved significantly‖ is the value we added.

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 Functions of Evaluation
• 1. Feedback: To assess strengths and weaknesses.
• 2. Motivation: The mere realization that you would be evaluated propels a
student to work hard.
• 3. Better guidance: Crucial for the growth of pupils.
• 4. Remediation: It helps in locating the areas that require remedial measures.
• 5. Facilitates planning: It helps the teacher in planning, organizing and
implementing learning activities.
• 6. Revision of curriculum.
• 7. Inter-institutional comparison.
• 8. Educational decision-making: It relates to selection, classification,
placement, promotion, etc.
• 9. Submission of progress report to parents.
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 Types of Evaluation/
• A good evaluation device is one which secures valid evidence regarding the desired
change of behaviour.

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 Quantitative Techniques/
1. Written examination: It is also known as paper pencil test. In this
technique, the answers are to be written as per the instruction of questions.

2. Oral examination: They supplement the written examination. Examples

are test of reading ability, and pronunciation and viva voce is also an example.

3. Practical examination: These tests are necessary to test experimental and

manipulative skills of a learner, particularly in subjects, such as science, technology,
agriculture, craft, and music.
1.

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 Type of Evaluation on the Basis of Phase of
Instruction
• 1. Placement evaluation: The key word which is used for placement
assessment is the ‗entry behaviour‘. It determines the knowledge and skills the
students possess, which are necessary at the beginning of instruction in a given
subject area.

• 2. Formative evaluation: It is also known as internal valuation, it is done

during the programme before its completion. It focuses on the process. It is
conducted more than once depending upon the length of activity. This evaluation
provides the student with feedback regarding his or her success or failure in attaining
the instructional objectives. For a teacher, formative evaluation provides information
for making instructions and remedies more effective. The examples of formative
evaluation are unit end tests, monthly test, quarterly tests, etc.

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• 3. Diagnostic evaluation: While the formative evaluation determines the
extent to which students accomplish the learning targets, the diagnostic evaluation
goes a step further and tries to provide an explanation for the possible causes for
problems in learning. Thus, diagnostic tests are more comprehensive and detailed.

• 4. Summative evaluation (external evaluation): As the name indicates, it is

done at the end or completion of the course. It determines the extent to which the
objectives of instruction have been achieved and is used for assigning course grades.
Summative evaluation generally includes oral reports, projects, term papers and
teacher-made achievement tests

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 Types of Evaluation Tests on the Basis of
Purpose/उद्दे श्य के आधार ऩर मूलयाांकन ऩरीक्षणों के प्रकार
• Diagnostic Test - These tests help us in identifying ‗area of learning‘ in which a
learner may need a remedial course and they provide us a profile of what the learner
knows and does not know. A diagnostic test may consist of a battery of a number of
sub-tests to cover sub areas.
• Aptitude Test - Aptitude tests basically serve a predictive function, they help us in
identifying potential talents and desirable characteristics which are essential for one
to be competent to perform a specific task. These tests are generally used while
selecting people for special courses.

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• Achievement Test - As the name indicates, such tests aim to measure the extent
to which the objectives of a course have been achieved. The usual end-of-course
exam may be taken as a typical example of an achievement test.

• Proficiency Tests - These tests aim to assess the general ability of a person at a
given time. Their scope is governed by a reasonable exception of what abilities
learners of a given status (say, matriculates or graduates) should possess.

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• The word ‗grade‘ is derived from the Latin word Gradus which means ‗step.‘ In
educational measurement, grading involves the use of a set of symbols to
communicate the level of achievement of the students.

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 Types of Grading
1. Direct grading: In direct grading, the performance exhibited by an individual is
assessed in qualitative terms and the impression so obtained by the examiner is directly expressed
in terms of letter grades. The advantage of direct grading is that it minimizes the inter-examiner
variability. Moreover, it is easier to use in comparison to indirect grading. Direct grading lacks
transparency.

2. Indirect grading: In this method, the performance of an examinee is first assessed in

terms of marks and subsequently transformed into letter grades by using different modes. This
transformation may be carried out in terms of both ‗absolute grading‘ and ‗relative grading‘ as
discussed below.

(a) Absolute grading: Absolute grading is a conventional technique of evaluation. It is based on a pre-
determined standard that becomes a reference point for assessment of students‘ performance. It involves direct
conversion of marks into grades, irrespective of the distribution of marks in a subject. For example, the
categorization of students into five groups, namely, distinction (75% and above), first division (60% and less than
75%), second division (45% and less than 60%), third division (33% and less than 45%) and unsatisfactory (Below
33%).
(b) Relative grading: Relative grading is generally used in public examination. In this system, grade of a
student is decided not by her performance alone rather than performance of the group. This type of grading is
popularly known as ‗grading on the curve.‘
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 Computer Based Testing (CBT)
• CBT seems to be catalyst for changes in pedagogical methods. It brings about a transformation in
learning, pedagogy and curricula in educational institutions.

• Benefits of Computer-Based Testing (CBT)

1. More frequent testing opportunities
2. Data rich results
3. Increasing candidate reach
4. Streamlined logistics

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• There are two types of CBT which include:
1. Linear test: This involves a full-length examination in which the computer
selects different questions for individuals without considering their Performance
level.
2. Adaptive test: Here the computer selects the range of questions based on
individuals performance level. These questions are taken from a very large pool of
possible questions categorized by content and difficulty.

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• Each step in CBT is carried out in sequence and accordance to one after the other. The previous stage is
always completed before moving to the next stage of the life cycle.

1. Requirements analysis and definition

2. System and software design
3. Implementation and unit testing
4. Integration and system testing
5. Operation and maintenance

• In India, CBT has been started for number of exams such as by IBPS for banking exams and currently by
National Testing Agency (NTA) to conduct exams for UGC, NEET, GPAT, GMA etc.

•
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 Types of Evaluation According to nature of reference

• Criterion-referenced evaluation:

Glasar (1963) first used this term, ‗Criterion-reference test‘ to describe the learner‘s
achievement on a performance continuum.

Consider the following statements:

(a) Amit scored 95 or 95% marks in Mathematics.
(b) The typing speed of Davinder is 58 words per minute.

A criterion-referenced test is used to ascertain an individual‘s status with respect to a

defined achievement domain. In the above statements, there is no reference to the
performance of other members of the group. Thus, criterion referenced evaluation
determines an individual‘s status with reference to well-defined criterion behaviour.

The purpose of criterion-referenced evaluation or test is to assess the objectives and that‘s
why it is termed as objective based test.
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• Norm referenced evaluation: A norm-referenced test is used to ascertain an
individual‘s status with respect to the performance of other individuals on that test. It
is normally used in competitive exams.

• Consider the following statements:

(i) Amit stood third in Mathematics test.
(ii) Rajesh scored 98 percentile that means only 2% candidates scored better
than him.

In the above statements, the person‘s performance is compared to others of their

group and the relative standing position of the person in his/her group is mentioned.
We compare an individual‘s performance with similar information about the
performance of others.

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• Reflective Prompts
Reflective prompts is a technique in which the teacher provides a set of flexible
questions to the students that prompt them to reflect on their own learning.

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 Choice Based Credit System (CBCS)
• Majority of Indian higher education institutions have been following marks or
percentage based evaluation system, which obstructs the flexibility for the students to
study the subjects/courses of their choice and their mobility to different institutions.

• With choice based credit system (CBCS) students, depending upon their interests and
aims, can choose interdisciplinary, intra-disciplinary and skill-based courses.

• It is an internationally acknowledged System.

• The choice based credit system not only offers opportunities and avenues to learn
core subjects but also exploring additional avenues of learning beyond the core
subjects for holistic development of an individual.

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 Advantages of the choice based credit system

1. Shift in focus from the teacher-centric to student centric education.

2. Student may undertake as many credits as they can cope with (without repeating all courses in a
given semester if they fail in one/more courses).

3. CBCS allows students to choose inter-disciplinary, intra-disciplinary courses, skill oriented papers
(even from other disciplines according to their learning needs, interests and aptitude) and more flexibility for
students).

4. CBCS makes education broad-based and at par with global standards. One can take credits by
combining unique combinations. For example, Physics with Economics, Microbiology with Chemistry or
Environment Science etc.

5. CBCS offers flexibility for students to study at different times and at different institutions to
complete one course (ease mobility of students).

6. Credits earned at one institution can be transferred.

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Outline of Choice Based Credit
System

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1. Core course: A course, which should compulsorily be studied by a candidate as a core requirement is
termed as a Core course.
2. Elective course: Generally a course which can be chosen from a pool of courses and which may be very
specific or specialized or advanced or supportive to the discipline/subject of study or which provides an
extended scope or which enables an exposure to some other discipline/subject/domain or nurtures the
candidate‘s proficiency/skill is called an Elective Course.
3. Discipline Specific Elective (DSE) Course: Elective courses may be offered by the main discipline/
subject of study is referred to as Discipline Specific Elective. The University/Institute may also offer discipline
related Elective courses of interdisciplinary nature (to be offered by main discipline/ subject of study).
4. Dissertation/Project: An elective course designed to acquire special/advanced knowledge, with an
advisory support by a teacher/faculty member is called dissertation/project.
5. Generic Elective (GE) Course: An elective course chosen generally from an unrelated discipline/subject,
with an intention to seek exposure is called a Generic Elective.

6. Ability Enhancement Courses (AEC): This may be of two kinds: Ability Enhancement Compulsory
Courses (AECC) and Skill Enhancement Courses (SEC). ―AECC‖ courses are the courses based upon the
content that leads to Knowledge enhancement; Skill Enhancement Courses (SEC): These courses may be
chosen from a pool of courses designed to provide value-based and/or skill-based knowledge.

• Central/State Universities have lot of flexibility in deciding common minimum syllabi of the core papers and
at least follow common minimum curriculum
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Innovation in Evaluation

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