KS3 Biology

Unit 6
Plant reproduction

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How do different types of plants reproduce?

to spread out over a wide area.

disperse (v)
dispersal (n) Seeds from the sycamore tree are dispersed using the wind.
Dispersal of pollen and seeds in flowering plants is important.

to be fully grown or developed.

mature (adj.)
maturity (n) A mature oak tree can be up to 40 metres tall.
Humans reach sexual maturity between the ages of 10-17.

Prior knowledge Qs
1. What are the names of the 2 human sex cells?
2. What is a gamete?
3. What happens during fertilisation?
4. Where is the sperm cell produced?
5. What is sexual intercourse?
6. Where is the egg cell produced?
7. Where is the egg cell fertilised?
8. What is produced when an egg cell is fertilised?
9. What is the difference between an embryo and a foetus?
10. Where does the embryo’s / foetus’s food come from?

Sexual reproduction
Humans reproduce sexually as there are 2 parents involved that produce gametes.
The male produces sperm which fertilises the egg produced by the female following
sexual intercourse. This forms a zygote that grows in the uterus of the female, first
becoming an embryo and then a foetus. The nutrition needed and the waste produced
for this growth is exchanged with the female’s blood via the placenta. A baby is then
born and, following puberty and reaching sexual maturity, can then sexually
reproduce themselves. This is known as a life cycle.

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Other animals have life cycles very much like this, with a few variations such as not
giving birth to live offspring (birds, reptiles, amphibians) or external fertilisation (fish,
amphibians.

Plants reproduce quite differently, both to animals and also to each other. Most are
able to reproduce sexually (with 2 parents) or asexually (1 parent). Plants can be
roughly categorised into 2 types of sexual reproduction; seed producing plants such
as flowering plants, trees and conifers and non-seed producing plants such as ferns
and mosses.

Non-seed producing plants

Sexual reproduction in ferns looks very different to animal sexual reproduction. Adult
ferns produce spores that are dispersed by wind or water. Dispersal is an important
process during plant reproduction as plants cannot move. It spreads the offspring of
the plant out away from the parent so they do not compete with each other. The
spores grow into a special reproductive fern plant known as a heart (due to its shape).

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The heart plants produce both male (sperm) and female (egg) gametes. This means it
is possible for sperm to fertilise an egg from the same heart plant or from different
heart plants.

The more desirable outcome involves 2 different heart plants where the sperm move
through the water in the soil (they have a flagellum just like human sperm!) and
fertilise an egg from a different heart plant. In both cases, the fertilised egg is known
as a zygote and a new adult fern grows out of the heart plant using nutrition supplied
by the heart plant until the new adult fern is capable of photosynthesis. When it is
fully grown, it produces spores and the fern life cycle continues.

Comprehension Qs
11. What are the names of the 2 fern gametes?
12. Where are these gametes produced?
13. Where does fertilisation take place?
14. Describe how sexual reproduction takes place in the fern life cycle.
15. What is formed when the male fern gamete fertilises a female fern gamete?
16. What part of the fern life cycle involves dispersal?

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17. Why is dispersal important?
18. Where does the nutrition come from to allow the fern zygote to grow into a new
adult fern plant?

Seed producing plants

Flowering plants are also capable of sexual reproduction either within one flowering
plant or between 2 different flowering plants. This is because the reproductive organ
of the plant, the flower, produces pollen, containing the male gamete, and ovules
(female gamete). Like ferns, it is possible for the male gamete to fertilise the female
gamete of the same plant.

Sexual reproduction occurs when pollen from one flower is dispersed to another flower
of the same type. Unlike human and fern sperm, pollen cannot move itself and so
needs either wind, water or animals to disperse it. When the pollen reaches another
flower, we say the flower has been pollinated. The ovule is then fertilised by the male
gamete producing a zygote that eventually develops into an embryo contained within
a seed. The seed is then dispersed using similar methods to that of pollen. It then
germinates and grows into a seedling using the nutrition contained within the seed.
Once the first leaves form, the seedling can then photosynthesise and it grows into a
new adult flowering plant.

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Comprehension Qs
19. Where are the male and female gametes produced in a flowering plant?
20. What is pollen?
21. What is pollination?
22. What part of the flowering plant life cycle involves dispersal?
23. Where does the nutrition come from to allow the flowering plant embryo to grown
into a new flowering plant?
24. Describe how sexual reproduction takes place in a flowering plant life cycle.

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Comparisons

Purposeful practice
Write sentences comparing the life cycles of humans and flowering plants that use
the following terms:
25. Both
26. While
27. Whereas
28. Even though
29. Although
Write sentences comparing the life cycles of ferns and flowering plants that use the
following terms:
30. Both
31. While
32. Whereas
33. Even though
34. Although

Use these suggestions of comparison topics to help with your sentences if needed:
 Where nutrition for growth comes from
 Where gametes come from
 What the gametes are
 What the dispersal methods are
 Where fertilisation takes place
 What type of reproduction is possible

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What is the structure of the flowering plant reproductive system?

cut up an organism / organ in order to study its internal parts.

dissect (v)
dissection (n) dissecting a flower allows us to observe its internal structure.
a flower dissection is a good way to practise the skills needed.

add notes to a drawing giving explanation or comment.

annotate (v)
annotation (n) biological drawings are annotated with detail on appearance.
biological annotations should also include functions of parts.

The reproductive organ of a flowering plant is the flower itself. It contains both male
and female reproductive tissues.

Reproductive tissues
The male reproductive element is the stamen. This consists of the anther and the
filament. The anther produces the pollen that contains the male gamete. The filament
attaches the anther to the flower and holds the anther so that the pollen is exposed to
the wind or animals for easier dispersal.

The female reproductive element is the pistil or carpel. This consists of the stigma,
style and ovary. The stigma produces a sticky substance that helps to trap pollen
during pollination. The style connects the stigma to the ovary, allowing the male
gamete to be transported from the stigma to the ovary. The ovary produces the
female gametes, the ovules, and is where the seeds develop following fertilisation.

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Other tissues
The outer structures of the flower are the petals and the sepals. The sepals tend to be
green or brown in colour and protect the flower when it is developing as a bud. Once
the flower blooms, the petals are revealed. These are often brightly coloured to
attract animals to disperse the pollen for pollination. In flowering plants that use wind
or water to disperse pollen, the petals are often smaller, green or brown in colour or
even completely absent.

Flowers come in many shapes, sizes, colours and numbers but they all have broadly
the same structure.

Comprehension Qs
35. Which part(s) of the flower:
a. Produce pollen?
b. Develop seeds?
c. Are part of the male reproductive tissue?
d. Attract insects?
e. Trap pollen?
f. Are part of the female reproductive tissue?
g. Increase the chances of pollen dispersal?
h. Protect the developing flower?
i. Produce ovules?

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Flower dissection
Dissection is an important skill for a biologist. It allows them to see the internal
structure of whole organisms or organs. However, it is not just about cutting stuff up!
A good dissection is combined with careful observations and recorded using biological
drawing.

Method (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=X4oiZWugU6M&t=66s)

1. Observe the flower you have been given and identify the structures you have
learned about previously (use the diagram to help).
2. Using the forceps, carefully remove roughly half the sepals and petals so that
the male and female reproductive tissues are exposed.
3. Using a pencil and ruler, produce a labelled biological drawing of your flower.
4. Using the forceps, carefully remove the remaining sepals and petals.
5. Using the forceps, carefully remove all the stamens and place them on the
white tile.
6. Use the hand lens to observe the anthers and the pollen they contain.

You should now be left with just the carpel / pistil attached to the stem. We will now
dissect the carpel / pistil to observe the internal structure of the ovary.
Safety note – the dissection scissors are very sharp and pointed. Please use with
care and only carry them flat on a white tile.

7. Hold the style with the forceps.

8. Use the scissors to cut the stem as close to the ovary as possible without
damaging the ovary.
9. Use the scissors to cut up through the ovary so you are left with 2 halves.
10. Use the hand lens to observe the inside of the ovary. Try and locate any
ovules.
11. Using a pencil and a ruler, produce a labelled biological drawing of the
internal structure of the ovary.
12. Annotate your 2 biological drawings with details from your observations
e.g. colour, number, texture etc. and from your knowledge of flowers e.g.
functions of parts.

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What happens during flowering plant sexual reproduction?

to transfer pollen onto the stigma of a flower.

pollinate (v)
pollination (n) Some insects can pollinate flowers.
Pollination happens before fertilisation.

to cause an egg to become a zygote by joining the male and

fertilise (v) female gamete.
fertilisation (n) The male gamete fertilises the female gamete in the ovule.
Fertilisation happens after pollination.

Pollination
Sexual reproduction in plants consists of 2 key processes; pollination followed by
fertilisation. Pollination consists of pollen being transported from the stamen of one
flower to the stigma of another flower of the same type. This is called cross pollination
if the 2 flowers involved are on different individuals and self pollination if the 2 flowers
are on the same individual.

Fertilisation
The pollen grows a pollen tube down the style and into the ovary of the carpel / pistil.
2 cells travel down the pollen tube. The first cell is the male gamete and fertilises the
female gamete in one of the ovules. This forms a zygote that eventually develops into

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an embryo. The second cell is a food source for the developing embryo. The embryo
and food source together make a seed.

Comprehension Qs
36. What contains the male gamete?
37. What is the purpose of the 1st cell that travels down the pollen tube?
38. What contains the female gamete?
39. What is the function of the 2nd cell that travels down the pollen tube?
40. Where does the pollen tube grow from and to?
41. A pollen tube grows into the ovary. What happens next?
42. What does the zygote develop into?
43. What part of the flower does the pollen tube grow through?
44. What is formed when the male gamete fertilises the female gamete?
45. What 2 things are found in a seed?
46. Pollen sticks to the stigma of a flower. What happens next?
47. What is the difference between pollination and fertilisation?
48. What is the difference between self pollination and cross pollination?
49. Describe how the female gamete in an ovule is fertilised, producing a seed. Use
all of the key terms from the diagram above.
50. What are the similarities between fertilisation in flowering plants and humans?
51. What are the differences between fertilisation in flowering plants and humans?

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How are flowers specialised for pollination?

related to living organisms.

biotic (adj.)
Biotic pollination involves animals such as bees.

physical rather than biological or not related to living

organisms.
abiotic (adj.)
Abiotic pollination involves wind or water.

a smell that is pleasant to an organism.

scent (n)
Some flowers produce a scent to attract animals.

Flower power
The first flowering plants appeared around 100 million years ago. They are now the
most dominant type of plant on the planet with some 370,000 different types making
up approximately 95% of all vascular plants (plants with stems / trunks). The reason
for their success is how efficient and effective their sexual reproduction is.

Types of pollination
During animal reproduction, male and female gametes are brought together by the
male and female individuals themselves. As plants cannot move like animals they
must adopt a different method of transporting their gametes.

The female gametes remain inside the flowering plant and it is the male gamete
contained in the pollen that is transported. Different flowering plants have specialised
to use different methods of transporting or dispersing their pollen. There are 2
categories; abiotic pollinated plants use non-living methods such as wind or water and
biotic pollinated plants use organisms such as insects or other animals. These
organisms are known as pollinators.

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Examples of flowering plants that are abiotically pollinated include oak trees, pine
trees, wheat, barley and grasses. Examples of flowering plants that are biotically
pollinated are daisies, clover, magnolia and strawberry.

The flowers of the flowering plants in these 2 categories all have the same basic
structure we have learned previously. However, each category has its own
specialisations that increase the probability of pollination and, therefore, reproduction
occurring. The more successful specialisations result in more successful reproduction
and therefore a greater number of offspring with these specialisations.

Prior knowledge Qs
50. Draw and label a flower.
51. Which part(s) of the flower:
a. Produce pollen?
b. Develop seeds?
c. Are part of the male reproductive tissue?
d. Attract insects?
e. Trap pollen?
f. Are part of the female reproductive tissue?
g. Increase the chances of pollen dispersal?
h. Protect the developing flower?
i. Produce ovules?
52. What does it mean if a flowering plant is pollinated by an abiotic method? Give
examples of these methods.
53. What does it mean if a flowering plant is pollinated by a biotic method? Give
examples of these methods.

Flower specialisations
Biotic pollinated flowers have specialisations that attract and accommodate
pollinators. They tend to be brightly coloured and produce nectar (often sweet) and /
or scent. This lures the pollinators into entering the flower. They are large enough so
that pollinators can fit inside and the stamen are positioned in the flower so that they
rub against the pollinators. The pollen itself is large and spiky / sticky so that it easily
attaches to the pollinator. The stigma releases a sticky substance that helps trap
pollen attached to pollinators.

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It requires a lot of energy to produce these complex flowers with their nectars, scents
and large pollen so this means biotic pollinated flowers do not produce very much
pollen. They rely on the pollinators visiting flowers of the same type to ensure
pollination is successful more often than it is not.

Abiotic pollinated flowers have no need for complex flowers. Instead, the flowers are
often small and dull or green in colour. It can often be difficult to spot the flowers on
the plants because of this. Whilst the petals are small, the stamen are very long,
hanging outside of the flower to catch the wind. The stamen produces huge quantities
of small pollen that floats easily in the wind. The pollen is often smooth or even
inflated with air spaces to help it travel long distances in the air. To increase the
probability of catching the pollen, the stigma are also long and feathery. Most pollen
does not pollinate another flower but, because of the large numbers of pollen, enough
do to make this strategy successful.

The main differences between the flowers of abiotic and biotic pollinated flowering
plants are summarised in the table and diagram below:

Abiotic pollinated Biotic pollinated

Stamens Long and exposed Short and enclosed

Long and exposed Short and enclosed

Stigma
Feathery Sticky

Petals Dull, usually green Brightly coloured

Nectar Absent Present

Small Large
Pollen Smooth Sticky / spiky
Inflated

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Pollen observation
Method
1. Observe the prepared slide of pollen from various different flowering plants.
2. Produce a biological drawing of an example of pollen from a biotic and abiotic
pollinated flowering plant.
3. Annotate your drawings with details of specialisations.
4. Below is an image of a slide containing mixed pollen taken using a scanning
electron microscope. Produce your biological drawings from this image if you are
unable to get a clear image using the microscope.

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Structure – property – function

Worked example Faded example

How does having brightly coloured How does having a feathery stigma
petals make a flower specialised for make a flower specialised for
pollination? pollination?

Brightly coloured petals make a flower Feathery stigma make a flower

specialised for biotic pollination. specialised for __________ pollination.
This is because they attract insects / This is because…
animals to the flower to either
disperse pollen or pollinate the flower.

Questions with a * are testing your knowledge of past topics.

54. How does having sticky pollen make a flower specialised for pollination?
55. How does having stigma enclosed within the flower make the flower specialised
for pollination?
56. *How does having air spaces make the leaf specialised for exchange?
57. How does having long, exposed stamens make a flower specialised for
pollination?
58. *How does being thin make the leaf specialised for photosynthesis?
59. How does producing nectar make a flower specialised for pollination?
60. *How does having a root hair make the root hair cell specialised for exchange?
61. How does having small pollen make a flower specialised for pollination?

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Why are pollinators so important?

an animal that transports pollen from one flower to another,

resulting in pollination
pollinator (n)
Bees are one of the most important pollinators in the world.

a chemical used to kill pests that damage crops

pesticide (n)
Pesticides are sprayed onto crops.

Examples of pollinators
Often, when we think of an example of a pollinator, we think of an insect such as a
bee. And it is true that around 95% of all pollinators are insects. However, there are
still around 1500 examples of pollinators that are not insects. These include birds,
bats, squirrels, lizards and even monkeys.

A pollinator is an animal that moves pollen from the male anther of a flower to the
female stigma of a flower. The pollinator is not doing this for the benefit of the plant.
The nectar and / or pollen from the flower will be an important food source.

Many pollinators have a specific relationship with a single type of biotic pollinated
flowering plant. This means the pollinator normally only visits one type of flowering
plant and that same flowering plant is only normally visited by that pollinator. The
benefit of this relationship to the pollinator is a reliable source of food containing the
right quantities of nutrients. The benefit of this relationship to the flowering plant is
that it increases the probability of pollen being transferred to a flowering plant of the
same type. Good examples of this specific relationship are:
 the clover (plant) and bumblebee (pollinator) – see the school playing field!
 the fig (plant) and fig wasp (pollinator) – see 4 – 8 min of episode 2 of BBC’s A
Perfect Planet (https://www.bbc.co.uk/iplayer/episode/p08xc2x7/a-perfect-
planet-series-1-2-the-sun)

Comprehension Qs
62. What happens during pollination?

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63. What is a pollinator?
64. What is the benefit to a pollinator of having a specific relationship with a
flowering plant?
65. What is the benefit to a flowering plant of having a specific relationship with a
pollinator?
66. How is a biotic pollinated flower specialised to attract pollinators?
67. Suggest a disadvantage for the flowering plant of having a specific relationship
with a pollinator.

A keystone organism
We have seen how organisms can depend on each other as a source of food. Bees eat
the nectar and pollen produced by flowering plants and use this to grow, reproduce
and increase the bee population.

But our knowledge of pollination means that we know the relationship also works in
reverse. The bees help pollinate the flowering plants, enabling reproduction and an
increase in flowering plant populations.

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This makes bees a vital part of an ecosystem, for the animals that eat them and, also,
for the flowering plants they pollinate and the animals that eat these flowering plants.
We call these important organisms keystone organisms.

Keystone organisms were first described in 1969 by the ecologist Robert T. Paine.
Paine coined the term in an experiment where he removed a predator, a starfish, from
a tidal ecosystem. He then recorded the changes in the populations of the species in
the ecosystem over a period of 5 years (4 min – 8 min - https://youtu.be/hRGg5it5FMI).

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After 5 years, only 1 species of mussel remained. The predatory starfish acted as a
control on the numbers of their prey such as limpets, barnacles and muscles. Without
them, the populations of their prey increased quickly, consuming all the algae and
allowing the mussels to take up all the space. The number of different types of
organism occupying the ecosystem decreased from 16 to just 1.

Keystone organisms are commonly predators, acting in the same way as the starfish
described above by controlling the prey population and allowing other organisms to
flourish as a result. Other examples include the gray wolf controlling the elk
population in Yellowstone National Park and the sea otter controlling the sea urchin
population off the coast of California and Alaska.

Non-predator examples of keystone organisms include the Eurasian beaver, which

produces a wide range of habitats from flooding caused by its building of dams and
the wildebeest that help to prevent destruction of trees by forest fires by heavily
grazing the grass of the Serengeti.

In each of these examples, the keystone organism does not just impact the organisms
that it feeds on or that feed on it, it impacts the whole ecosystem. Almost all the
organisms in an ecosystem depend on the keystone organism in some way.

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Comprehension Qs
68. How is a keystone organism different to other organisms in an ecosystem?
69. What are 3 examples of keystone organisms?
70. Why are bees considered to be a keystone organism?

Pollinators and farming (https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p00nz1q4)

Because of these highly specific pollinator relationships, many flowering plants are
dependent on a small number of pollinators for reproduction. This includes many
plants humans use for food (crops) such as fruit (e.g. apples, pears, strawberries,
melons), coffee and cocoa (chocolate). Without the pollinators, particularly bees,
these crops would either be much more expensive or unavailable. Unfortunately,
modern farming techniques are having a negative effect on pollinator populations.
Pesticides used to remove pests that damage crops also kill bees. As bees are a
keystone organism, the impact of their loss on the ecosystem is much larger than
normal.

Comprehension Qs
71. Why are bees important to flowering plants?
72. Why are bees important to humans?

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73. What are humans doing that is decreasing the number of bees?
74. Using the food web, what effect would the loss of bees have on the population of
dragonflies?
75. Why?
76. What effect would the loss of bees have on the population of flowering plants?
77. Why?
78. What effect would the loss of bees have on the population of butterflies?
79. Why?
80. What effect would the loss of bees have on the population of plantains?
81. Why?

Application Qs
The following questions are an opportunity for you to apply your knowledge from
previous topics to a new context.

Bees are flying insects. Flying is a very energy-demanding activity and bees have
large flight muscles for their size.
82. What specialisations would you expect the bee flight muscle cells to have and
why?

Bees don’t have lungs but instead a network of

tubes called tracheoles as a gas exchange
surface. The tracheoles branch throughout their
body so that every cell of the bee is in contact
with one. These tracheoles have openings on the
skin of the bee called spiracles. Air can be moved
in and out of the tracheoles through the spiracles
by the bee rhythmically pulsing its body.

83. One gas that is exchanged between the tracheoles and cells is oxygen. Name
another gas that would be exchanged.
84. Describe 2 ways that the bee’s gas exchange surface increases the rate of
diffusion of these gases.
85. Why is it important that the bee can move air in and out of the tracheoles?

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The diet of bees is made up almost entirely of nectar and pollen from flowering plants.
Nectar is often sweet, containing lots of carbohydrates in the form of sugar. Pollen has
a high concentration of protein.
86. Why does the diet of a bee need to include a large quantity of carbohydrates and
protein?
87. Why does a flowering plant need lots of leaves in order to produce nectar in the
flowers?

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How are seeds dispersed?

a balance between 2 desirable outcomes

trade-off (n)
There is a trade-off between the number of offspring an
organism produces and the survival rate of these offspring.

a gnawing mammal that has constantly growing incisor teeth

rodent (n)
Rats, mice, squirrels and hamsters are all examples of
rodents.

After pollination and fertilisation, the seeds develop inside the ovary of the flower. In
order to produce a new plant, these seeds need to reach a suitable environment in
which to germinate and grow into a seedling.

The most likely place for a suitable environment is where the parent plant is growing.
If the parent plant has survived and reproduced, the conditions must be good.
However, for a seed to germinate and grow here, it will have to compete with its
parent plant (and possibly other seedlings) for water, minerals and light.

To avoid this competition, the seeds could be dispersed over a long distance, far away
from the parent plant and other seedlings. However, this risks the seeds being
dispersed to an unsuitable environment where the seed cannot germinate.

Comprehension Qs
88. Describe how a seed is produced following pollination.
89. Why is it important that seeds are not dispersed too closely to the parent plant?
90. Why is it important that seeds are not dispersed too far away from the parent
plant?

Seed specialisations (https://youtu.be/eHQXBCJhuZ0)

There is a trade-off between how far the seeds are dispersed and the quality of the
conditions that the seeds reach. On top of this, plants are unable to move and, like
the dispersal of pollen for pollination, flowering plants rely on abiotic and biotic factors

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to disperse their seeds. These factors mean that seeds have a huge range of different
specialisations.

Abiotic (wind) dispersed seeds

Abiotic dispersed seeds are dispersed by wind or water. Wind dispersed seeds can be
very small and light, like those of orchids, have structures that help them float or fly
through the air, like the single winged seeds of the sycamore, or a combination of the
two, like the parachute seeds of dandelions. The largest wind dispersed seed comes
from the tropical climbing plant Alsomitra at around 15 cm in length
(https://youtu.be/2rX--Y5gCnE)!

Wind dispersed seeds (l-r): sycamore, dandelion, Alsomitra

Abiotic (water dispersed) seeds

The range of water dispersed seeds is similarly broad. Most water dispersed seeds are
able to float. For example, palm trees produce large, hollow seeds (coconuts) that can
float and survive for a long time in seawater. The prize for the most interesting use of
water for seed dispersal goes to wild oats (a type of grass). Its seeds have long
bristles called awns that twist and untwist as they absorb water and then dry out.
When the seed is on the ground, this twist and untwisting of the awns causes the seed
to “walk” along the ground (https://youtu.be/NlUparIDfzE)!

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Water dispersed seeds (l-r): palm (coconut), wild oats

Biotic (on animals) dispersed seeds

Biotic dispersed seeds (those dispersed by animals) can also be split into 2 categories:
seeds that are dispersed on animals and seeds that are dispersed in animals. Those
seeds dispersed on animals tend to have spikes / hooks / burrs. A famous example of
this is the seeds of the burdock plant. George de Mestral, a Swiss engineer, based his
invention of Velcro on the seeds as they have burrs with hooks on the end that easily
attach to the fur of mammals. When the fur is lost or the animal scratches, the seeds
are dropped in a new location.

Animal dispersed seeds using burrs (l-r) burdock seed (with Velcro), catchweed
(sometimes called sticky weed)

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Biotic (in animals) dispersed seeds
Fruits
Those seeds that are dispersed in animals tend to be surrounded by fruit that is eaten
by animals. The seeds are tough enough to not be damaged by the digestive system
of the animal and pass out in the animals droppings. These seeds gain an additional
bonus of being dispersed with some natural fertiliser! All of the fruits we eat use this
method of dispersal; apples, pears, tomatoes, blackberries, grapes etc. We often think
of fruit as being sweet and that this would attract the animals to disperse the seeds
but this is not always the case. Durian, an Indonesian plant, produces large fruits
whose scent has been described as a mixture of rotting meat, garlic and body odour!
Despite this, the seeds of the durian are dispersed by many animals including
elephants, rhinos, orangutans and deer.

Animal dispersed seeds using fruit (l-r): apple, grape, durian

Grains
Other animal dispersed seeds have no fruit but rely on being extremely strong. Grains
such as barley, wheat and oats are eaten by rodents, including rats and mice. The
outer cases of grains are very difficult to break and eat so the rodents have to collect
them and take them back to their burrows to safely spend time eating them.
However, not all of the grains are eaten and instead have been dispersed and
germinate.

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Animal dispersed seeds as grains (l-r): barley, wheat, millet
Biotic seed dispersal is another example of a trade-off, as the seeds must be tough
enough to survive being eaten by animals but not too tough so as to prevent
germination occurring.

Comprehension Qs
91. What are the likely features of a seed that is dispersed by water?
92. Why is it important that biotic dispersed seeds are tough?
93. What are the likely features of a seed that is dispersed on an animal?
94. What similarities are there between a flower that is biotic pollinated and a seed
that is biotic dispersed?
95. Why it important that biotic dispersed seeds are not too tough?
96. What similarities are there between pollen that is wind pollinated and a seed that
is wind dispersed?

Application Qs
97. Using ideas about density, explain why coconuts are able to be dispersed by
water.
98. Using ideas about forces, explain why the seeds of Alsomitra are flat (see pg 26
for an image of the seed).
99. Millet is a seed that is dispersed by mice. Explain why millet seeds need to be
tough but not too tough.
100. Like they have with pollinators, many flowering plants have specific relationships
with the animals that disperse their seeds. Suggest the benefits to both the
flowering plant and the animal of this specific relationship.
A biologist collected data on the survival rate of seeds dispersed from a parent tree.

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101. Explain why the survival rate of seeds increases as the distance from the parent
tree increases.
102. The biologist collected more data and found that the survival rate of seeds 45
metres away from the parent tree was 20%. Suggest a reason why.
After studying the seeds carefully, the biologist produced this biological drawing:

103. How do you think this seed is dispersed?

104. What is the evidence for your answer to the previous question?

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Why are seeds so important?

temporarily inactive
dormant (adj.)
dormancy (n) Seeds stay dormant until conditions are just right for
germination.
Dormancy is an important specialisation of seeds.

to the advantage of something

favourable (adj.)
Favourable conditions for seed germination are plenty of
water, oxygen and the right temperature.

the mass of crops from a growing season

harvest (n)
harvest (v) A good harvest is important to ensure there is enough food.
Farmers harvest crops in lots of different ways.

Germination (https://www.nikonsmallworld.com/galleries/2021-small-world-in-
motion-competition/10-day-time-lapse-of-lobelia-pendula-seed-development)

Once a seed is dispersed it must reach suitable conditions in order to germinate.

Germination is the process by which a root and shoot grow from the seed and requires
3 conditions to be suitable; water, oxygen and temperature. If these conditions are
not suitable, the seed may remain dormant.

Dormancy is a very useful specialisation for a seed as it allows the plant to avoid
unfavourable conditions. They can remain this way for a very long time and still be
able to germinate when the conditions change. The longest period of seed dormancy
followed by a successful germination is a Judean date palm seed found in the ruins of
a palace in Israel that was dated at over 2,000 years old!

Seeds can remain dormant because the cells of the embryo inside dry out. This is why
water is required for germination as it rehydrates the embryo’s cells. Oxygen and the
correct temperature are required because, to grow roots and shoots, the embryo
needs to aerobically respire.

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Many people believe that seeds also require light to germinate. This is wrong.
Although mature plants need light in to photosynthesise and produce food, seeds
contain enough food to allow germination and the early growth of leaves on the
seedling. The leaves can then begin to photosynthesise and provide food.

Comprehension Qs
105. What happens when a seed germinates?
106. Why do mature plants require light?
107. What is the food produced from photosynthesis used for?
108. What 3 conditions are needed for a seed to germinate?
109. Why don’t seeds need to photosynthesise?
110. Why might a seed remain dormant?
111. How is a seed able to be dormant?

Seeds as food
The combination of dormancy and food store make seeds an excellent source of food
for humans. Seeds contain a mixture of carbohydrates, proteins and lipids making
them a highly nutritious food. Vegetarians and vegans are often advised to eat lots of
seeds to replace the missing nutrients from not eating meat, fish and eggs. Common
examples of seeds used for food are wheat, rice and barley (high in carbohydrate) and
peas, peanuts and pumpkin seeds (high in lipids and protein). It is thought that the
learning to use fire by ancient humans some 1 million years ago allowed the cooking
and consuming of seeds. With seeds being so nutritious, it may have allowed these
ancient humans to evolve larger brains over time.

As long as seeds are kept in cool and dry conditions, they remain dormant and can be
stored for a long time. This is useful for food storage but is also useful for growing
crops. Seeds from the best crops can be kept, stored and used each year to ensure
the best possible harvests every year.

Comprehension Qs
112. What are the following nutrients used for in the body:
a. carbohydrates?
b. proteins?
c. fats?

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113. Why is dormancy a useful specialisation of seeds in terms of using them for food?
114. Why are vegetarians encouraged to eat lots of seeds?

Seed dissection
1. Collect a seed that has been soaked in
water for 12 hours. Dry the seed with a
paper towel.
2. Make a drawing of the outside of this seed.
Label the micropyle (this will be a small
hole that you can see on the outside of the
seed) and the testa (the tough outer coat of
the seed).
3. Carefully peel the testa from the seed, then
use a scalpel to carefully cut the seed in
half. Make sure you cut the seed in the
correct orientation, from top to bottom. You
are trying to separate the two sides of the seed.
4. Identify which side of the seed contains the embryo.
5. Observe the embryo with the hand lens. Identify the epicotyl (embryonic leaf)
and the radicle (embryonic root) of the embryo.
6. Draw a second diagram of the inside structures of the seed. Label the epicotyl
(embryonic leaf), embryo, radicle (embryonic root) and cotyledon (food store).
7. Test the cotyledon with iodine solution. Iodine solution changes colour from
orange to blue / black in the presence of starch.
8. Annotate your second drawing with the result of the iodine solution test and what
it means.

Comprehension Qs
115. What did you expect to find inside the seed before you dissected it?
116. How was this different to what you observed during the dissection?
117. What role do you think the micropyle plays in seed germination?
118. What do you think the cotyledon contains and what is its function?
119. If you were to plant just the embryo that you removed from the seed, in soil, do
you think it would grow and develop into a plant?
120. How did you ensure that you performed the dissection safely?

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Writing in Science is an important skill to develop. It helps you show your
understanding of scientific concepts and, from this, answer extended response
questions in assessments. You will regularly complete extended response questions
that use a command structure.

To support you in completing these questions fluently, we are going to use the
following strategy:

 Work out the meaning of the question.

 Select useful non-scientific vocabulary.
 Retrieve and organise relevant scientific knowledge in a graphic organiser.

121. Explain why flowering plants should be considered keystone organisms in their
ecosystems. Use ideas about producers, photosynthesis, pollination and seed
dispersal in your answer.

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