Physical Geography
Lecture 9: Volcanic Landforms
Hot Spot:
● Hot spot volcanism is a unique type of volcanic activity that typically occurs within the
interior regions of lithospheric plates, rather than along the boundaries where tectonic
plates converge or diverge.
● Notable examples of hotspots include the Hawaiian, Yellowstone, and Réunion hotspots.
● A hot spot is a region within the Earth’s mantle from which heat rises through the
process of convection.
● This heat facilitates the melting of rock at the base of the lithosphere, where the brittle,
upper portion of the mantle meets the Earth’s crust.
● The melted rock, known as magma, often pushes through cracks in the crust to form
volcanoes.
Mantle Plume:
● This type of volcanism is driven by unusually hot regions in the mantle known asmantle
plumes.
PW Web/App:https://smart.link/7wwosivoicgd4
● Mantle plumes are columns of hot rock that rise from deep within the Earth's mantle,
originating at the core-mantle boundary.
● The accumulated heat at this boundary causes the surrounding rock to melt, forming a
plume that ascends through the mantle.
● Mantle plumes are often shaped like mushrooms, with a long, narrow conduit connecting
the plume's base to its expanding head.
● When a mantle plume reaches the base of the lithosphere, the head flattens out and melts
the surrounding rock, leading to volcanic eruptions at the surface.
● On continents, mantle plumes are responsible for extensive formations offlood basalts,
vast accumulations of basaltic lava that cover large areas.
● This process has created massive basaltic provinces, such as the Deccan Traps in India and
the Siberian Traps in Russia.
● One of the most significant flood basalt events occurred around 250 million years ago,
coinciding with a major mass extinction known as thePermian-Triassic extinction event.
● Mantle plumes provide a continuous supply of magma at fixed locations, which we refer to
ashot spots. As oceanic plates move over these hotspots, they create chains of volcanic
islands.
● A prime example is theHawaiian Islandsin the PacificOcean, which formed as the Pacific
Plate moved over a stationary hot spot.
● The islands are home to massive shield volcanoes, includingMauna LoaandMauna Kea,
which are built from successive lava flows that create their broad, gently sloping profiles.
● The two faults join to form an active divergent boundary that dissipates the tectonic
forces. The third “arm” becomes a failed rift, oraulacogen, that rapidly fills with
sediment.
● The best example of a triple junction in the world is provided by the three faults marked
by theRed Sea, the Gulf of Aden, and the inactive African Rift Valley.The rifting is
separating the Arabian Peninsula from the African continent and is thought to be related
to a mantle plume
Role of Mantle Plume in Plate Tectonics:
PW Web/App:https://smart.link/7wwosivoicgd4
● Mantle plumes transport primordial mantle material from below the zone of active
convectionthat produce time-progressive volcanic chains, break up continents and act as a
driving force for plate tectonics.
● The narrow conduits of deep-mantle material rise through the solid mantle before spreading
out laterally in the upper asthenosphere. From there, they cause the lithosphere to swell
and shear as the heat from the plume increases the temperature of the lower lithosphere.
● Mantle plumes are also thought to be the cause of volcanic centres known as hotspots
and probably have also caused flood basalts.When a plume head encounters the base of
the lithosphere, it is expected to flatten out against this barrier and to undergo widespread
decompression melting to form large volumes of basalt magma. It may then erupt onto the
surface.
● As the plume remains anchored at the core-mantle boundary and it does not shift position
over time, a string of volcanoes is created when the lithospheric plate moves above it.
● The formation of the Hawaiian Island and Emperor Seamount chain in the middle of the
Pacific Plate are caused by mantle plume.
● The eruption of continental flood basalts is often associated with continental rifting
and breakup.This has led to the hypothesis that mantleplumes contribute to continental
rifting and the formation of ocean basins. In the context of the alternative“Plate model”,
continental breakup is a process integral to plate tectonics, and massive volcanism occurs
as a natural consequence when it onsets.
Hotsprings and Geysers:
PW Web/App:https://smart.link/7wwosivoicgd4
Hot Springs:
● Hot springs form when groundwater is heated by geothermal energy from the Earth's
interior. This heat often comes from magma chambers or hot rocks located relatively
close to the Earth's surface.
● Water percolatesdownthroughcracksandporousrocks,whereitisheatedbygeothermal
energy. Convectioncurrentscaninfluencethemovementofgroundwater.Ashotmaterial
rises and transfers heat to surrounding rocks, it creates temperaturegradientsthatdrive
hydrothermal circulation.
○ Convective currents can also cause fracturing and faulting in the Earth's crust,
creating pathways forwatertodescend,becomeheated,andthenascendtoform
hot springs.
● As the hot water travels through rocks, it dissolves minerals, often leading to high
concentrations of dissolved salts andotherminerals.Whenthewaterreachesthesurface
and cools, these minerals can precipitate out, forming deposits like travertine or sinter.
● The temperature of hot springs can vary widely, from lukewarm to boiling. Some hot
springs are cool enough for people to bathe in, while others are extremely hot and
potentially dangerous.
Examples and Locations:
● Yellowstone National Park (USA): Known for its numerous hot springs, such as the
colourful Grand Prismatic Spring.
● Iceland:Famous for its geothermal activity, withmany hot springs like the Blue Lagoon.
● Japan: Home to thousands of onsen (hot springs), which are culturally significant and
popular for bathing.
Geysers:
● Like hot springs, geysers are powered by geothermal heat. The heatsourceistypicallya
body of magma or hot rock beneath the surface.
● Geysers have a unique underground structure that includes a reservoir and a constricted
conduit. The water in the reservoir isheated by geothermalenergy.
PW Web/App:https://smart.link/7wwosivoicgd4
● As the water in the reservoir heats up, it becomes superheated—hotter than its boiling
point but prevented from boiling by the pressure of the overlying water column.
● Whenthepressurebecomestoogreatorwhenasmallamountofwaterescapes,reducing
thepressureonthesuperheatedwater,thewatersuddenlyboils.Thisrapidboilingcreates
steam,causingaviolentexpansionthatforcesthewaterandsteamupthroughtheconduit
and out of the surface as a geyser eruption.
Characteristics of Eruptions:
● Intermittent Activity: Unlike hot springs, which flow continuously, geysers erupt
intermittently.Theintervalsbetweeneruptionscanvaryfromminutestoyears,depending
on the specific geyser.
● EruptionHeightandDuration:Geysereruptionscanvaryinheightfromafewmetersto
over 100 meters and can last from seconds to several minutes.
Examples and Locations:
● Old Faithful (Yellowstone National Park,USA):Oneofthemostfamousgeysersinthe
world, known for its relatively predictable eruptions.
● Strokkur (Iceland):A highly active geyser that eruptsevery few minutes.
● Geysers of El Tatio (Chile):One of the largest geyserfields in the world.
Geothermal Energy:
PW Web/App:https://smart.link/7wwosivoicgd4
● Geothermal energy is a form of renewable energythatisderivedfromthenaturalheat
stored within the Earth.
● This heat originates from the planet's core, the radioactive decay of minerals, and the
original formation of the planet.
● It is harnessed by tapping into geothermal reservoirs, which can be used for various
applications such as electricity generation, direct heating, and even industrial processes.
Benefits of Geothermal Energy:
Geothermal energy offers a wide range of benefits across various dimensions, including social,
economic, political, scientific, health,andenvironmentalaspects.Here'sanin-depthlookatthese
benefits:
Social Benefits:
● Job Creation: The development and operation of geothermal plants generateemployment
opportunities in construction, operation, and maintenance, fostering community
development.
● Education and Training: Geothermal projects often involve training and educating local
populations in technical skills, promoting knowledge transfer and capacity building.
● RuralElectrification:Geothermalenergycanprovideareliablepowersourceinremoteand
rural areas, improving access to electricity and enhancing the quality of life.
● Domestic Resource: Utilizing domestic geothermal resources reduces dependence on
imported fossil fuels, enhancing national energy security and stability.
Economic Benefits:
● Stable Energy Prices: Geothermal energy offers stable and predictable energy prices,
protecting consumers and businesses from volatile fossil fuel markets.
● Operational Efficiency: Geothermal plants have low operational and maintenance costs
compared to fossil fuel plants, resulting in long-term cost savings.
● Investment Attraction: The development of geothermal projects attracts investments,
stimulating local and national economies.
PW Web/App:https://smart.link/7wwosivoicgd4
● Tourism: Geothermal features, such as hot springs and geysers, can boost tourism,
contributing to local economies.
Political Benefits:
● ReducedImports:Byharnessingdomesticgeothermalresources,countriescanreducetheir
reliance on imported energy, enhancing political autonomy and reducing geopolitical risks.
● Energy Policy: Geothermal energy supports national and international commitments to
renewable energy targets and climate change mitigation.
● Technology Transfer: Geothermal projects can foster international collaboration and
technology transfer, strengthening diplomatic ties and promoting global cooperation on
sustainable energy development.
Health Benefits:
● ReducedEmissions:Geothermalenergyproducesminimalairpollutantscomparedtofossil
fuels, leading to improved air quality and reduced respiratory and cardiovascular diseases.
● Indoor Climate Control: Geothermal heat pumps provide efficient heatingandcoolingfor
buildings, enhancing indoor air quality and comfort.
● Lower Health Costs: By reducing air pollution and associated health issues, geothermal
energy contributes to lower healthcare costs and healthier communities.
Environmental Benefits
● Reduced Greenhouse Gases: Geothermal plants emit significantly fewergreenhousegases
than fossil fuel-based power plants, contributing to climate change mitigation.
● Sustainable Development: Geothermal energy supports sustainable development goals by
providing a clean, renewable, and reliable energy source.
● Minimal Land Use: Geothermal plants typically occupy less land compared to other
renewable energy sources, reducing habitat disruption and preserving biodiversity.
● ResourceManagement:Propermanagementofgeothermalresourcescanensurelong-term
sustainability and minimal environmental impact.
Challenges of Geothermal Energy in India
PW Web/App:https://smart.link/7wwosivoicgd4
While geothermal energy offers many benefits, there are several challenges that need to be
addressed:
● Plant Operational Risks: Geothermal plants can face operational halts due to technical
issues, resource depletion, or seismic activities, leading to unreliable energy supply.
● HighUpfrontCost:Theinitialcostsforgeothermalprojects,includingexploration,drilling,
and plant construction, are significantly high, which can be a deterrent for investors.
● GeographicalLimitations:Geothermalresourcesarenotuniformlydistributedandareoften
located in specific regions, limiting widespread adoption across the country.
● Lack of Technical Expertise: There is a shortage of skilled manpower and technical
expertise in geothermal energy in India. This gap needs to be filled through specialized
training and education programs.
● Regulatory Framework: The absence of a comprehensive regulatory framework for
geothermalenergyinIndiaposesachallenge.Therearenospecificregulationsorpoliciesto
govern geothermal exploration and exploitation.
● Speculative Investment: Accurate and detailed resourceassessmentislacking,leadingto
uncertainty and speculation by private players. Comprehensive geological surveys and
assessments are necessary to provide reliable data for investors.
● Groundwater Contamination: There is a risk of groundwater contamination from
geothermalfluids,whichmaycontainharmfulchemicalsandminerals.Propermanagement
and disposal of geothermal fluids are crucial to mitigate this risk.
However, these challenges need to be addressed through collaborative efforts, research and
innovation, financial incentives, etc. to promote geothermal energy as a viable and sustainable
alternative for India’s energy security.
PW Web/App:https://smart.link/7wwosivoicgd4
