ENVIRONMENTAL

ENGINEERING
 CHAPTER-3
WATER TREATMENT
Water Pollution
• Water Pollution can be defined as alteration in physical, chemical, or
biological characteristics of water through natural or human activities and
making it unsuitable for its designated use.

• Fresh Water present on the earth surface is put to many uses. It is used for
drinking, domestic and municipal uses, agricultural, irrigation, industries,
navigation, recreation. The used water becomes polluted or contaminated
and is called wastewater.
Unit Operations

• Unit operations and Unit processes water treatment plants utilize

many treatment processes to produce water of a desired quality.

• These processes fall into two broad divisions:-

A) Unit operations: (UO)

• Removal of contaminants is achieved by physical forces such as

gravity and screening.

B) Unit processes (UP)

• Removal is achieved by chemical and biological reactions.

TREATMENT SCHEME

Aeration
Screen
Surface
water
Coagulation/ Flocculation Sedimentation
Flash mixing
Filtration Disinfection Storage Distribution

Surface Water Treatment Plant

TREATMENT SCHEME

Ground
Water
Disinfection Storage Distribution
well
Ground Water Treatment Plant
WATER TREATMENT PROCESSES

• For the surface water following are the treatment processes that are generally
adopted.
• Screening
• This is adopted to remove all the floating matter from surface waters. It is
generally provided at the intake point.
• Aeration
• This is adopted to remove objectionable taste and odour and also to remove
dissolved gases such as carbon-dioxide, hydrogen supplied, etc.. The iron &
manganese present in water are also oxidized to some extent.
WATER TREATMENT PROCESSES
• The purpose of sedimentation is to remove the suspended impurities. With the
help of plain sedimentation, silt, sand, etc., can be removed. However with the
help of sedimentation with coagulants, very fine suspended particles and some
bacteria can be removed.
• The process of filtration forms the most important stage in purification of water.
Filtration removes very fine suspended impurities and colloidal impurities that
may have escaped the sedimentation tanks. In addition the micro-organisms
present in water are largely removed.
• It is carried out to eliminate or reduce to a safe minimum limit, the remaining
micro-organisms, and to prevent the contamination of water during its transit
from the treatment plant and to the place of consumption.
WATER TREATMENT PROCESSES
• Screening

• Coagulation

• Aeration

• Flocculation

• Sedimentation

• Filtration

• Disinfection or Chlorination
SCREENS
• Restrict the entry of suspended solids such as garbage in the water treatment
plant.

• Prevent pump, pipe and equipment from clogging or damage.

• Launched a water course for the next process.

COARSE SCREEN

• To filter materials such as the larger floating garbage and twigs.

FINE SCREEN

• To remove floating materials such as smaller water plants, leaves and so forth.
SCREENS
AERATION
• It is the type of treatment given for removing colours, odours, and taste from
water.
• Under this process of aeration, water is brought in intimate contact with air,
so as to absorb oxygen and to remove carbon-dioxide gas.
Objectives of aeration
• To remove colour, odour and taste,
• Remove dissolved gases- CO2, H2S
• To kill bacteria up to some extent
• To oxidize iron & manganese present in water.
• To have less corrosion to pipes
TYPES OF AERATORS

1. Free fall or gravity aerator

• Cascade aerator

• Inclined apron aerator

• Slat tray aerator

• Gravel bed aerator

2. Spray aerators

3. Air diffusers

4. Mechanical aerators
COAGULATION AND FLOCCULATION
• The primary purpose of the coagulation/flocculation process is the
removal of turbidity from the water.

• Turbidity is a cloudy appearance of water caused by small

particles suspended therein.
COAGULATION AND FLOCCULATION
• In the flash mixer, coagulant chemicals are added to the water and the
water is mixed quickly and violently.
• The purpose of flash mixing is to evenly distribute the chemicals through
the water. Flash mixing typically lasts a minute or less.
• If the water is mixed for less than thirty seconds, then the chemicals will
not be properly mixed into the water.
• However, if the water is mixed for more than sixty seconds, then the mixer
blades will shear the newly forming floc back into small particles.
COAGULATION AND FLOCCULATION
• After flash mixing, coagulation occurs. During coagulation, the coagulant
chemicals neutralize the electrical charges of the fine particles in the water,
allowing the particles to come closer together and form large lumps.
• The step is flocculation. During flocculation, a process of gentle mixing brings
the fine particles formed by coagulation into contact with each other.
• Flocculation typically lasts for about thirty to forty-five minutes.
• The water is then moved into a quiet sedimentation basin to settle out the
solids.
Factors affecting coagulation
1. Types of coagulant
2. Quantity or dose of coagulant

3. Characteristics of water such as

• Type and quantity of suspended matter

• Temperature of water

• pH of water

4. time, turbulence and method of mixing

Coagulants

• Mainly aluminum and iron salts

1. Aluminum sulfate
2. Chlorinated copperas
3. Ferrous sulfate and lime
4. Magnesium carbonate and lime
5. Sodium Aluminate
Aluminum salts are cheaper but iron salts are more effective over wider pH
range
Comparison of Alum and Iron salt
1. Iron salts forms heavy floc as compare to alum, hence more Solids are
removed
2. Time of reaction and floc formation is less for iron salts
3. Iron salts can work efficiently over wider pH range
4. Iron salts can remove taste and odour
5. Less mud ball formation as compared to alum
Mixing Devices
A. Centrifugal Pump
B. Compressed Air Agitation
C. Narrow Mixing Channel With Plume
D. Mixing With Baffle Walls
E. Mixing With Mechanical Devices
Types of Settling
• Type:- I Discrete Settling: This corresponds to the sedimentation of
discrete particles in a suspension of low solid concentration. This is also
known as free settling since the particle have tendency to flocculate or
coalesce upon contact with each other.
• Type-II Hindered Settling: This type of settling refers to rather dilute
suspension of particles that coalesce or flocculate during sedimentation
process. Due to flocculation, particles increase in mass and settle at a
faster rate.
Types of Settling
Type-III : Zone Settling- This type of settling refer to flocculent suspension of
intermediate concentration. Inter particle forces hold the particle to-gather and mass
of particle subside as a whole.

Type IV: Compression Settling -This refers to flocculent suspension of so high

concentration that particles actually comes in contact with each other resulting in
formation of a structure. Further settling can occur only by compression of the
structure brought about due to weight of particles which are constantly being added
to the structure.
Types of Sedimentation tanks
1. Based on methods of operation
a. Fill and draw type tank
b. Continuous flow type tank

2. Based on flow
a. Horizontal flow tank
b. Vertical flow tank- upflow-radial

3. Based on shape
a. Circular tank
b. Rectangular tank
c. Hopper bottom tank
Fill and Draw type - Continuous
• As the name indicates the sedimentation tank is first filled with incoming
water, and is allowed to rest for a certain time, under this quiescent condition
the suspended particles settle down at the bottom of the tank.
• Generally a detention time of 24 hrs is allowed.
• This method is obsolete and not in use in recent times
• Continuous
• In this type of tank water after entering through the inlet, keeps on moving
continuously with small uniform velocity.
• Before the water reaches outlet, the suspended particles settles at the
bottom, and the clear water is collected from the outlet.
Horizontal –Vertical flow
• These tanks generally in rectangular shape.
• They have more length twice its width.
• Because they need to flow more distance to settle all suspended particles.
• The maximum permissible velocity in this case is 0.3m/sec.

• The vertical flow type sedimentations tanks are generally in circular shape and
flow takes place in vertical direction.
• They may be square or circular in plan and may have hopper bottoms.
• Hopper bottom is provided at the bottom of the tank to dispose the collected
sludge.
Circular -Rectangular
• Circular sedimentation tanks are preferred for continuous vertical flow type
sedimentation tanks.
• In this case influent is sent through central pipe of the tank and radial flow
takes place.
• Mechanical sludge scrappers are provided to collect the sludge.
• Circular tanks are uneconomical as compared to rectangular tanks but they
have high clarification efficiency.

• The flow takes place in horizontal direction that is length wise in rectangular
tanks.
• Sometimes baffle walls are provided for rectangular tank to prevent short
circuiting.
• They are also suitable for large capacity plants.
What is clariflocculation?
• Clariflocculation means “ SEDIMENTATION WITH FLOCCULATION IN A SINGLE
UNIT”.
• Unit comprises of two circular concentric tanks viz. inner tank where
flocculation is happening and outer tank where settling is happening.
CLARIFLOCCULATOR
• Water enters at the bottom of the central pier of the Clarriflocculator and flows
through the openings in the central pier into the Flocculation zone.
• After entering the Flocculation zone, the water flows into the clarifier zone.
• The incoming solids get distributed whereby the flocs can enter the clarifier zone
in the outer portion and the clarified water overflow takes place over the weirs.
• Clarified water is directed to the overflow launders, which lead clarified water to
Rapid Gravity Filters and to Clear Water sump based on the turbidity.
Filtration

• It is a solid-liquid separation process in which the liquid passes through a porous

medium to remove as much fine suspended solids as possible.

• Applications:

• In water treatment plants, a polishing step to remove small flocs and other
particles that are not removed in settling
Mechanisms Involved In Filtration

1. Mechanical Straining

• Simplest action during filtration.

• Suspended particles having size more than that of filter voids are arrested and
removed, when water passes through filter media.

• Takes place in few centimeters of depth of filter media.

Mechanisms Involved In Filtration
2. Sedimentation

• Finer particles are arrested by sedimentation.

• Continuous voids of filter media acts as ‘tube settler’ i.e. shallow depth

sedimentation tank.

• All colloids are removed by this action

Mechanisms Involved In Filtration
3. Biological Action
• After few days of working of filter, upper grains of sand layer becomes
coated with a reddish brown coloured sticky deposit.
• It consists of organic matter and Fe, Mg, Al and silica.
• Further after 2-3 weeks, a film consisting of algae and protozoa etc is
developed.
• This film is known as ‘dirty skin’ or ‘Schmutzdecke’.
• Organic impurities in water are used as food by this film, thus removing
the organic matter from water.
Mechanisms Involved In Filtration
4. Electrolytic Action
• Particulate matter is removed by electrostatic action.

• Charge on filter medium neutralizes charge on floc particles, thereby

permitting the floc to be removed.

• During back washing the electrostatically removed material is

removed and thus charge on filter material is replaced.
Types of Filter

1. Slow sand filter – 100-200 lit/m2/hr

2. Rapid sand filter

a) Gravity type – 3000 -6000 lit/m2/hr

b) Pressure type – 6000 – 15000 lit/m2/hr

Components of Slow sand filter

1. Enclosure tank

2. Filter media

3. Base material

4. Under-drainage

5. Appurtenances
1. Enclosure tank
• SSF is open basin, rectangular shape and built below finished ground level.

• Floor has Bed slope of 1:100 to 1:20 towards central drain

• Surface area (As) of tank varies from 50 to 1000 m2.

• Filtration rate – 100 to 200 lit/m2/hr.

• Depth – 2.5 to 4 m
2.Sand media
• Thickness of sand layer - 90 to 110 cm

• Effective size – 0.2 to 0.35 (Common value -0.3)

• Coefficient of uniformity – 2 to 3 (Common value - 2.5)

3. Gravel -Base Material
Layer Depth Size in mm

topmost 15 cm 3 to 6

Intermediate 15 cm 6 to 20

Intermediate 15 cm 20 to 40

Bottom 15 cm 40 to 65
4. Underdrainage system
• Base material and filter media are supported by under drainage
system.

• Under drainage system collects filtered water and delivers it to the

reservoir

• It consists of central manifold, laterals and orificees

5. Appurtenances
Devices are required for

i. Measuring head loss through filter media

ii. Controlling depth of water above filter media

iii. Maintaining constant rate of filtration through the filter

Slow Sand Filter
Slow Sand Filter Working
• As this layer (referred to as “Schmutzdecke”) develops, it becomes living quarters
of vast numbers of micro- organisms which break down organic material retained
from the water, converting it into water, carbon dioxide and other oxides.
• Most impurities, including bacteria and viruses, are removed from the raw water
as it passes through the filter skin and the layer of filter bed sand just below.
• When the micro-organisms become well established, the filter will work efficiently
and produce high quality effluent which is virtually free of disease carrying
organisms and biodegradable organic matter.
• They are suitable for treating waters with low colors, low turbidities and low
bacterial contents.
RAPID SAND FILTER
1. Enclosure tank

• Smaller in size, therefore can be placed under roof.

• Rectangular in shape and constructed of concrete or masonry.

• Depth – 2.5 to 3.5

• Surface area – 20 to 50 m2.

• L/B ratio – 1.25 to 1.35.

• Designed filtration rate are 3000 to 6000 lit/m2/hr

2. Sand media

• Should be free from dirt, organic matter and other SS.

• It should be hard and resistant.

• Depth of sand media – 0.6 to 0.9 m

• Effective size – 0.35 to 0.6 mm (Common value 0.45)

• Uniformity coefficient – 1.2 to 1.7 (Common value -1.5)

3. Gravel size
• To start with, a size gradation of 2 mm at top and 50 mm at bottom is

assumed.

• The required depth (l) in cm of a component of gravel layer of size d (mm)

can be computed by following equation

l = 2.54 . K . (log d)

K can be taken as 12 d = gravel size in mm

4. Under drainage

Objectives of under drainage system

1. To collect filtered water uniformly over the area of gravel bed

2. It provides uniform distribution of back wash water without disturbing or

upsetting gravel layer and filter media

5. Appurtenances

1. Wash water troughs

2. Air compressors

3. Rate control device - 6

Rapid Sand Filter-Working
Rapid Sand Filter - Working
• All valves are kept closed except valves A and B.
• Valve A is opened to permit water from clarifier
• Valve B is opened to carry filtered water to clear water sump
• Head of 2m over sand bed is maintained
• Designed filtration rate are 3000 to 6000 lit/m2/hr
• Filter run depends on quality of feed water
• Filter run may range between less than a day to several days
Rapid Sand Filter - Backwashing
• Objective of backwash is to remove accumulated particles on the surface and
within the filter medium
• Backwash is performed using wash water or air scouring
• Filter is back washed when head loss through it has reached the maximum
permissible.
• RSF are washed by sending air and water upwards through the bed by reverse
flow through the collector system.
• 2% - 4% filtered water is used for backwashing
Backwashing Process
1. Close influent valve A ,and Close effluent valve B
2. Open air valve F, so that air blows at rate of 1 to 1.5 m3 free air /min/m2 of bed area for @
2 to 3 min. this will break up the scum and loosen the dirt.
3. Close the air valve F and open the wash water valve E gradually to prevent the
dislodgement of finer gravel.
4. Open the wastewater valve D to carry wash water to drain. Continue backwashing till
wash water appears fairly clear.
5. Close the wash water valve E. Close the wastewater valve D. wait for some time till all
matter in bed settles down.
6. Open valve A slightly, open valve C for carrying filtered water to drains for few minutes.
7. Close the valve C and open valve B. Open valve A completely to resume normal filtration
Filter troubles

1. Cracking and clogging of filter bed

2. Formation of mud balls

3. Air binding

4. Sand Incrustation

5. Jetting and Sand boils

6. Sand leakage
Pressure Filter
• Pressure filters are of the same
construction as gravity-type filters but the
filter bed together with the filter bottom is
enclosed in a watertight steel pressure
vessel. The driving force for the filtration
process here is the water pressure applied
on the filter bed.
• Pressure applied is 3 to 7 kg/cm2
• Dia. For verticals – 2 to 2.5 m For
horizontals – 2.5 to 8 m
• Rate of filtration 6000 to 15000 lit/m2/hr
Disinfection Methods
1. Boiling
2. High pH (Excess lime)
3. Silver treatment
4. Potassium Permanganate
5. Chlorination
6. Ozonation
7. UV irradiation
8. Other halogens (Iodine and Bromine)
 Why chlorination
• Chlorine is widely used

• Effective at low concentration

• Cheap

• Forms residual if applied in sufficient dosages

• Chlorine is applied as: Gas (most common), Cl2

• Hypochlorite (Bleaching Powder) Ca(OCl)2

Chlorine demand
• When chlorine is added in water it reacts with organic and inorganic
impurities.

• The amount of chlorine utilized for disinfection is known as chlorine

demand, some additional chlorine is applied, which is chlorine dose

• The remaining chlorine will appear as available residual chlorine.

• Which serves as disinfectant to kill the pathogens during water

distribution
Forms of Chlorination
1. Plain Chlorination

2. Pre-Chlorination

3. Post Chlorination

4. Double of multiple Chlorination

5. Break point Chlorination

6. Super Chlorination

7. De-Chlorination
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