1. Discuss the function of the skeleton.

2. Describe the classifications of bones.

3. Trace the embryonic growth of bones
4. Describe the factors affecting bone growth and
maintenance.
5. Identify the different bones.
6. Describe the different types of joints.#
 The skeletal system consists of bones and other
structures that make up the joints of the skeleton.

The types of tissue present are bone tissue,

cartilage, and fibrous connective tissue, which
forms the ligaments that connect bone to bone.
 Provides a
framework that
supports the body; Protects some
the muscles that are internal organs from
attached to bones mechanical injury;
move the skeleton. the rib cage protects
the heart and lungs,
for example.
 Provides a storage site for
excess calcium. Calcium
may be removed from
Contains and bone to maintain a normal
protects the red blood calcium level, which
is essential for blood
bone marrow, the clotting and proper
primary functioning of muscles
hemopoietic (blood- and nerves.
forming) tissue.
• Also called Hard or Cortical Bone
• forms the extremely hard outside
layer of bones
• gives bone its smooth, dense,
solid appearance
• It accounts for about 80 percent
of the total bone mass of the
adult skeleton
• Also called Cancellous or
Trabecular Bone
• fills part or all of the interior of
many bones
• spongy bone is porous like a
sponge, containing an irregular
network of spaces
• has a greater surface area than
cortical bone but makes up only
20 percent of bone mass
• Bone marrow is a soft connective tissue that is found inside a cavity,
called the marrow cavity.
• There are two types of marrow in adults, yellow bone marrow, which consists
mostly of fat, and red bone marrow.
• All marrow is red in newborns, but by adulthood, much of the red marrow has
changed to yellow marrow.

• Periosteum is a tough, fibrous membrane that covers the outer

surface of bones.
• It provides a protective covering for cortical bone tissue.
• It is also the source of new bone cells.
• Osteoblasts are bone cells with a single nucleus that make and
mineralize bone matrix. They make a protein mixture that is
composed primarily of collagen and creates the organic part of the
matrix. They also release calcium and phosphate ions that
form mineral crystals within the matrix. In addition, they produce
hormones that also play a role in the mineralization of the matrix.
• Osteocytes are mainly inactive bone cells that form from osteoblasts
that have become entrapped within their own bone matrix.
Osteocytes help regulate the formation and breakdown of bone
tissue. They have multiple cell projections that are thought to be
involved in communication with other bone cells.
• Osteoclasts are bone cells with multiple nuclei that resorb bone
tissue and break down bone. They dissolve the minerals in bone and
release them into the blood.
• Osteogenic cells are undifferentiated stem cells. They are the only
bone cells that can divide. When they do, they differentiate and
develop into osteoblasts.
• A long bone is one that is cylindrical in shape, being longer than it is
wide.
• Long bones are found in the arms (humerus, ulna, radius) and legs
(femur, tibia, fibula), as well as in the fingers (metacarpals, phalanges)
and toes (metatarsals, phalanges).
• Long bones function as levers; they move when muscles contract.
• The shaft of a long bone is the diaphysis, and the ends are called
epiphyses.
• The diaphysis is made of compact bone and is hollow, forming a canal within
the shaft.
• A short bone is one that is cube-like in shape, being approximately
equal in length, width, and thickness.
• The only short bones in the human skeleton are in the carpals of the
wrists and the tarsals of the ankles.
• Short bones provide stability and support as well as some limited
motion.
• The term “flat bone” is somewhat of a misnomer because, although a
flat bone is typically thin, it is also often curved.
• Examples include the cranial (skull) bones, the scapulae (shoulder
blades), the sternum (breastbone), and the ribs.
• Flat bones serve as points of attachment for muscles and often
protect internal organs.
• An irregular bone is one that does not have any easily characterized
shape and therefore does not fit any other classification.
• These bones tend to have more complex shapes, like the vertebrae
that support the spinal cord and protect it from compressive forces.
• Many facial bones, particularly the ones containing sinuses, are
classified as irregular bones.
• A sesamoid bone is a small, round bone that, as the name suggests, is
shaped like a sesame seed.
• These bones form in tendons (the sheaths of tissue that connect
bones to muscles) where a great deal of pressure is generated in a
joint.
• The sesamoid bones protect tendons by helping them overcome
compressive forces.
• is the process of bone formation by osteoblasts
• begins approximately six weeks after fertilization in an embryo

• Two Types of Ossification

1. Intramembranous Ossification
2. Endochondral Ossification
• Intramembranous ossification is the process of bone development
from fibrous membranes.
• It is involved in the formation of the flat bones of the skull, the mandible, and
the clavicles.
• Ossification begins as mesenchymal cells form a template of the future bone.
• They then differentiate into osteoblasts at the ossification center.
• Osteoblasts secrete the extracellular matrix and deposit calcium, which
hardens the matrix.
• The non-mineralized portion of the bone or osteoid continues to form around
blood vessels, forming spongy bone.
• Connective tissue in the matrix differentiates into red bone marrow in the
fetus.
• The spongy bone is remodeled into a thin layer of compact bone on the
surface of the spongy bone.
• Endochondral ossification is the process of bone development from
hyaline cartilage.
• All of the bones of the body, except for the flat bones of the skull, mandible,
and clavicles, are formed through endochondral ossification.
• Each person has a genetic potential for height, that is, a maximum
height, with genes inherited from both parents.
• Many genes are involved, and their interactions are not well
understood.
• Some of these genes are probably those for the enzymes involved in
cartilage and bone production, for this is how bones grow.
• Nutrients are the raw materials of which bones are made. Calcium,
phosphorus, and protein become part of the bone matrix itself.
• Vitamin D is needed for the efficient absorption of calcium and
phosphorus by the small intestine.
• Vitamins A and C do not become part of bone but are necessary for
the process of bone matrix formation (ossification). Without these
and other nutrients, bones cannot grow properly.
• Children who are malnourished grow very slowly and may not reach
their genetic potential for height.
• endocrine glands produce hormones that stimulate specific effects in
certain cells.
• Exercise means bearing weight, which is just what bones are
specialized to do.
• Without this stress (which is normal), bones will lose calcium faster
than it is replaced.
• Exercise need not be strenuous; it can be as simple as the walking
involved in everyday activities.
• Bones that do not get this exercise, such as those of patients confined
to bed, will become thinner and more fragile.
• Foramen = a hole or opening
• Fossa = a depression
• Crest = a ridge or edge
• Meatus = a tunnel-like cavity
• Process = a projection
• Facet = a flat projection
• Condyle = a rounded projection
• Plate = a flat projection
• Tubercle = a round projection
• The skull is consist of 8 cranial bones and 14 facial bones
• The middle ear contains three tiny bones:
1. Hammer (malleus) — attached to the eardrum
2. Anvil (incus) — in the middle of the chain of bones
3. Stirrup (stapes) — attached to the membrane-covered opening that
connects the middle ear with the inner ear (oval window)
• The vibration of the eardrum triggers a chain of vibrations through
the bones. Because of differences in the size, shape and position of
the three bones, the force of the vibration increases by the time it
reaches the inner ear. This increase in force is necessary to transfer
the energy of the sound wave to the fluid of the inner ear.
• The vertebral
column (spinal
column or
backbone) is made
of individual bones
called vertebrae.
• The first vertebrae is
called the atlas
• Consist of the 12 pairs of ribs and the sternum or breastbone
• The sternum has three parts; upper manubrium, central body, and
lower xiphoid process
• The first seven pairs of ribs are called true ribs; the next three pairs
are called false ribs; and the last 2 pairs are called floating ribs
• A joint is the part of the body where two or more
bones meet to allow movement.

• Every bone in the body – except for the hyoid bone

in the throat – meets up with at least one other
bone at a joint.
• The shape of a joint depends on its function.

• A joint is also known as an articulation.

1. Immovable – the two or more bones
are in close contact, but no
movement can occur – for example,
the bones of the skull.
• The joints of the skull are called sutures.
2. Slightly movable – two or more
bones are held together so tightly
that only limited movement is
permitted – for example, the
vertebrae of the spine.
3. Freely movable – most joints within
the human body are this type.
• Motion is the purpose of the joint
a. Ball and socket joint – the rounded head of one bone sits
within the cup of another, such as the hip joint or
shoulder joint. Movement in all directions is allowed.
b. Saddle joint – this permits movement back and forth and
from side to side, but does not allow rotation, such as the
joint at the base of the thumb.
c. Hinge joint – the two bones open and close in one
direction only (along one plane) like a door, such as the
knee and elbow joints.
d. Condyloid joint – this permits movement without
rotation, such as in the jaw or finger joints.
e. Pivot joint – one bone swivels around the ring formed by
another bone, such as the joint between the first and
second vertebrae in the neck.
f. Gliding joint – or plane joint. Smooth surfaces slip over
one another, allowing limited movement, such as the
wrist joints.
• calcium helps build and maintain bones
• bones contain 99.5% of the total calcium

• good sources of calcium include:

• Reduced-fat or skim milk
• Low-fat plain or fruit yogurt
• Swiss cheese
• Calcium-fortified juice
• Calcium-fortified cereal
• Tofu
• vitamin D helps your body effectively absorb calcium

• good sources of vitamin D include:

• Vitamin D-fortified milk
• Egg yolks
• Fatty fish
With age, bone tissue tends to lose more calcium than
is replaced. Bone matrix becomes thinner, the bones
themselves more brittle, and fractures are more likely
to occur with mild trauma.

Erosion of the articular cartilages of joints is also a

common consequence of aging. Joints affected include
weight-bearing joints such as the knees, and active,
small joints such as those of the fingers.