Here are the basic parts of a sentence in grammar, with a simple explanation

of each:

1. Subject

 The subject of a sentence is who or what the sentence is about. It’s

usually a noun or a pronoun.

 Example: "The dog is barking."

o Subject: "The dog" (who or what is doing the action)

 Note: The subject can also be a group of words or a phrase (e.g., "My
best friend" or "The book on the shelf").

2. Verb

 The verb expresses the action the subject is doing or the state the
subject is in. It’s one of the most important parts of the sentence.

 Example: "She runs every morning."

o Verb: "runs" (what the subject is doing)

3. Noun

 A noun is a person, place, thing, or idea. It can function as the subject

or object in a sentence.

 Example: "The cat slept on the couch."

o Noun: "cat" (the subject)

o Noun: "couch" (the object of the preposition "on")

4. Pronoun

 A pronoun is a word used in place of a noun to avoid repetition.

 Example: "John loves his dog. He takes care of it every day."

o Pronoun: "He" (replaces "John")

o Pronoun: "it" (replaces "dog")

5. Adjective

 An adjective is a word that describes or modifies a noun. It gives more

detail about the noun’s qualities or characteristics.

 Example: "The small dog barked loudly."

 o Adjective: "small" (describes the noun "dog")

6. Adverb

 An adverb is a word that modifies a verb, adjective, or another adverb.

It often answers questions like "how?", "when?", "where?", or "to what
extent?"

 Example: "She sings beautifully."

o Adverb: "beautifully" (modifies the verb "sings" to explain how

she sings)

7. Object

 The object is a noun or pronoun that receives the action of the verb. It
often answers the question "What?" or "Whom?"

 Example: "I threw the ball."

o Object: "ball" (what was thrown)

8. Preposition

 A preposition shows the relationship between a noun or pronoun and

another word in the sentence, often indicating direction, location, or
time.

 Example: "The cat is under the table."

o Preposition: "under" (shows the relationship between "cat" and

"table")

9. Conjunction

 A conjunction is a word that connects words, phrases, or clauses.

Common conjunctions include "and," "but," "or," "because," and
"although."

 Example: "She is tired, but she will keep working."

o Conjunction: "but" (connects two clauses)

10. Interjection

 An interjection is a word or phrase that expresses strong feeling or

sudden emotion. It can stand alone.

 Example: "Wow! That was amazing."

 o Interjection: "Wow" (expresses surprise or excitement)

Basic Sentence Structure

In a simple sentence, you'll typically have at least these two components:

 Subject + Verb: "The dog barks."

 Subject + Verb + Object: "She ate lunch."

Additional elements, like adjectives, adverbs, or prepositions, can add detail

and complexity to the sentence.

By combining these parts correctly, you can create clear and effective
sentences!

When revising sentences or choosing which sentence is better, it's important

to follow some basic sentence grammar structure rules. Here are some key
guidelines that focus on periods (and general sentence structure) to help you
choose the correct sentence:

1. Complete Sentences

 A complete sentence has a subject (who or what the sentence is about)

and a predicate (what the subject does or is).

 Every complete sentence needs a period at the end, unless it’s a

question (then use a question mark) or an exclamation (then use an
exclamation point).

 Example:

o Correct: "The dog barked loudly."

o Incorrect: "Barked loudly."

2. Avoiding Comma Splices

 A comma splice occurs when you join two independent clauses

(complete sentences) with just a comma, without using a conjunction
or semicolon.

 Correct: "I went to the store, and I bought some milk."

 Incorrect: "I went to the store, I bought some milk."

 o Solution: You can either use a period, semicolon, or a conjunction
to fix it:

 "I went to the store. I bought some milk."

 "I went to the store; I bought some milk."

 "I went to the store and bought some milk."

3. Use a Period Between Independent Clauses

 When separating two independent clauses (complete thoughts), you

can use a period to make them two sentences.

 Example:

o Correct: "The sun was setting. It was getting cold."

o Incorrect: "The sun was setting, it was getting cold."

4. Avoid Sentence Fragments

 A sentence fragment occurs when a sentence is incomplete. This often

happens when a dependent clause (which can’t stand alone) is treated
like a complete sentence.

 Example:

o Incorrect: "Although I was tired."

o Correct: "Although I was tired, I went for a walk."

5. End Each Sentence Properly

 Every declarative sentence (statement) ends with a period.

 Example:

o Correct: "She studied hard for the test."

o Incorrect: "She studied hard for the test"

6. Use a Period After Abbreviations

 Many abbreviations end with a period (e.g., "Mr.," "Dr.," "etc.").

 Example: "Dr. Smith is our neighbor."

7. Separating Ideas
  When you have two related ideas, and one can stand alone as a
sentence, separate them with a period for clarity.

 Example:

o Correct: "He was tired. He went to bed early."

o Incorrect: "He was tired he went to bed early."

8. Avoid Overuse of Periods in Complex Sentences

 In complex sentences with one independent clause and one or more

dependent clauses, use a period only to separate independent clauses.

 Example:

o Correct: "Because it was raining, we stayed inside."

o Incorrect: "Because it was raining. We stayed inside."

These simple rules will help you with sentence revision and choosing the
better sentence, particularly focusing on the correct use of periods. Periods
help separate complete ideas clearly, so make sure each sentence follows
these basic structures!

What is a Predicate?

In grammar, a predicate is the part of a sentence that tells us what the

subject does or what happens to the subject. The predicate typically contains
the verb (action or state of being) and can also include objects,
complements, and modifiers that complete the meaning of the action.

Example of a sentence with a subject and predicate:

 "The dog barked loudly."

o Subject: "The dog" (who or what the sentence is about)

o Predicate: "barked loudly" (what the dog did, including the verb
"barked" and the adverb "loudly" that modifies the verb)

In simple terms:

 The subject is who or what the sentence is about.

 The predicate is what the subject does or is.

Rules for Using Verbs

Verbs are a core part of the predicate, and using them correctly is essential
for proper sentence structure. Here are key rules to follow when working with
verbs:

1. Subject-Verb Agreement

 Singular subjects require singular verbs, and plural subjects require

plural verbs.

o Singular: "The dog runs fast."

o Plural: "The dogs run fast."

 Be careful with tricky subjects:

o Collective nouns (e.g., "team," "group") are usually treated as

singular.

 Example: "The team wins every game."

o Indefinite pronouns like "everyone," "someone," and "each" are

singular.

 Example: "Each of the students is happy."

2. Tense Consistency

 Keep your verb tenses consistent within sentences and across related
sentences unless there’s a reason to change.

o Incorrect: "She was walking to the store and buys groceries."

o Correct: "She was walking to the store and bought groceries."

 If you start in the past tense, keep it in the past tense, and if you start
in the present tense, stay in the present tense unless the situation
requires a shift in time.

3. Verb Forms

 Pay attention to the correct form of the verb based on tense (past,
present, or future).

o Present tense: "She writes every day."

o Past tense: "She wrote yesterday."

 o Future tense: "She will write tomorrow."

 Irregular verbs don’t follow regular rules for past tense formation (e.g.,
“run” becomes “ran,” not “runned”).

o Example: "He ran to the store" (not "runned").

4. Verb Consistency with Compound Subjects

 When two subjects are joined by "and," they usually require a plural
verb.

o Correct: "My brother and sister are coming over."

 When two subjects are joined by "or" or "nor," the verb agrees with the
subject closest to it.

o Correct: "Either the teacher or the students are responsible."

o Correct: "Either the students or the teacher is responsible."

5. Helping (Auxiliary) Verbs

 Helping verbs work with the main verb to create different tenses,
moods, and voices. Common helping verbs include "is," "are," "was,"
"were," "have," "has," "will," and "can."

o Example: "She has finished her homework."

o Example: "He will be going to the store."

6. Action vs. Linking Verbs

 Action verbs describe something the subject is doing. They show

physical or mental action.

o Example: "She runs every morning."

 Linking verbs connect the subject to more information about it, usually
a subject complement that describes or identifies the subject.

o Common linking verbs include "am," "is," "are," "was," "were,"

"seem," "become," and "appear."

o Example: "The cake was delicious." (Here, "was" connects the

subject "cake" to its description "delicious.")

7. Modal Verbs
  Modal verbs are auxiliary verbs that express necessity, possibility,
permission, or ability. Common modals include "can," "could," "may,"
"might," "should," "would," "must," and "shall."

o Example: "I can swim."

o Example: "She must study for the test."

8. Verb Forms in Complex Sentences

 When a sentence has more than one verb, ensure that each verb
agrees with its subject. This can be tricky with complex or compound
sentences, but always check that each subject matches its verb.

o Example: "She sings beautifully, and he plays the guitar."

o Incorrect: "She sings beautifully, and he play the guitar."

9. Phrasal Verbs

 Phrasal verbs are combinations of verbs and prepositions or adverbs

that take on a new meaning (e.g., "give up," "look after," "run into").

o Example: "I ran into an old friend at the store."

 Phrasal verbs often follow a different pattern than regular verbs, and
it’s essential to know their meaning because they can be confusing.

Summary:

 Predicate is everything in the sentence except the subject, often

centered around the verb and what follows it.

 Verbs need to agree with the subject in number and tense, be used
correctly in form, and match the structure of the sentence (action vs.
linking, for example).

 Consistency in verb tense and subject-verb agreement is crucial, as

well as using helping verbs, modals, and correct verb forms to convey
accurate meaning.

1. Periods & Semicolons

  Periods and semicolons can both separate full sentences.

 Both can be used before words like "however" or "therefore" to link two
sentences.

 Example:

o Incorrect: "Barbara McClintock...1983, she won the award."

o Correct: "Barbara McClintock...1983. She won the award."

2. Colons & Dashes

 Colons (:) and dashes (–) introduce lists, explanations, or examples.

 They need to follow a full sentence.

 After them, you can use either a full sentence or just a list/fragment.

 Example:

o Incorrect: "London is home to a variety of: museums, castles, and

shops."

o Correct: "London has three main attractions: museums, castles,

and shops."

3. Commas + FANBOYS

 Use a comma before FANBOYS (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so) when
joining two full sentences.

 A comma splice (e.g., "London is old, it has modern parts") is incorrect.

 Correct alternatives: Use a period or semicolon.

 If the second part of the sentence doesn't need a subject, skip the
comma.

o Example: "London is old but has modern buildings."

4. Commas & Dependent Clauses

 A dependent clause (like “because it’s old”) can’t be a complete

sentence on its own.

 If a dependent clause comes first in a sentence, put a comma after it.

o Example: "Because London is old, it has many historic buildings."

5. Transitional Words & Phrases

  Transition words connect ideas. Choose the one that best fits the
meaning of the sentence.

o Common ones include "however," "therefore," and "in addition."

 Avoid using two transitions that mean the same thing.

 Example: Don’t use “therefore” and “consequently” together.

6. Non-Essential Information

 Extra information that’s not needed for the main idea of the sentence
can be removed without changing the meaning.

 This extra info needs commas, dashes, or parentheses around it.

o Example with commas: "London, which is old, has modern parts."

o Example with dashes: "London—known for its history—has

modern parts."

7. Commas with Names & Titles

 Use commas around names or titles only if they’re not essential to the
sentence.

o Essential: "The professor Vikram Iyer spoke about engineering."

o Non-essential: "The engineering professor, Vikram Iyer, spoke

about the subject."

8. Additional Comma Uses & Misuses

 Commas are used for lists (e.g., “apples, oranges, and bananas”).

 Don’t use commas before prepositions or between subjects and verbs.

o Incorrect: "The dog, ran fast."

o Correct: "The dog ran fast."

9. Apostrophes (Plural vs. Possessive)

 Use apostrophes to show possession.

o Singular: “The dog’s toy” (one dog).

o Plural: “The dogs’ toys” (multiple dogs).

 Don’t use apostrophes with possessive pronouns like "its," "their," or

"whose."
10. Pronouns & Nouns

 Pronouns (he, she, it, they) must match the noun they replace
(singular/plural).

 "Who" is for people, "which" is for things.

o Example: “She is the one who helped.”

 Use “whom” after prepositions (e.g., “To whom did you speak?”).

11. Subject-Verb Agreement

 Singular subjects take singular verbs; plural subjects take plural verbs.

o Example: "The cat runs fast." vs. "The cats run fast."

 Watch out for tricky subjects like collective nouns (“team”) which are
treated as singular.

12. Verb Tense

 Stay consistent with your verb tense throughout a sentence.

o Example: "She went to the store and bought some bread."

 Use the correct tense for the situation (past, present, or future).

o Example: "She has been to the store" (present perfect).

13. Parallel Structure & Word Pairs

 Keep things consistent in lists (e.g., all verbs or all nouns).

o Correct: "I like running, biking, and swimming."

o Incorrect: "I like running, biking, and to swim."

 Use word pairs correctly (e.g., "either...or," "not only...but also").

14. Dangling Modifiers

 Make sure the noun being described comes right after the modifier.

o Incorrect: "Running to the store, the rain started."

o Correct: "Running to the store, I got caught in the rain."

15. Faulty Comparisons

 Compare things of the same type (people with people, things with
things).
 o Correct: "My cat is smaller than my dog."

o Incorrect: "My cat is smaller than the dog’s tail."

 Use "than" for comparisons, not "then."

16. Question Marks

 Use a question mark only when asking a direct question.

o Example: "Do you like pizza?"

 For indirect questions, just use a period.

o Incorrect: "I wonder how many people are coming?"

o Correct: "I wonder how many people are coming."

These simplified rules are designed to help you focus on the key points for
the TSIA2, making sure you understand and apply basic grammar concepts
effectively!