Acids, Bases and Salts

A substance that tastes sour in water, turns blue litmus red, and neutralises the
bases is known as an acid. If a substance’s aqueous solution tastes bitter, turns red
litmus blue, or neutralises acids, it’s called a base. Salt is a neutral material that has
no effect on litmus in an aqueous solution.

Classification of Matter
On the basis of
a) Composition – elements, compounds and mixtures
b) State – solids, liquids and gases
c) Solubility – suspensions, colloids and solutions

Types of mixtures – homogeneous and heterogeneous

Types of compounds – covalent and ionic

What Is an Acid and a Base?

Ionisable and Non-Ionisable Compounds

An ionisable compound, when dissolved in water or in its molten state, dissociates
into ions almost entirely. Examples: NaCl, HCl, KOH, etc.
A non-ionisable compound does not dissociate into ions when dissolved in water or
in its molten state. Examples: glucose, acetone, etc.

Acids and Bases

An acid is any hydrogen-containing substance that is capable of donating a proton
(hydrogen ion) to another substance. A base is a molecule or ion able to accept a
hydrogen ion from an acid. Acidic substances are usually identified by their sour
taste.

For more information on Acids and Bases, watch the below video

Arrhenius’ Theory of Acids and Bases

 Arrhenius acid – when dissolved in water, dissociates to give H + (aq) or H3O+ ion.
Arrhenius base – when dissolved in water, dissociates to give OH− ion.

Examples
Acids

 Hydrochloric acid (HCl)

 Sulphuric acid (H SO )
2 4

 Nitric acid (HNO )

3

Bases

 Sodium hydroxide (NaOH)

 Potassium hydroxide (KOH)
 Calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH) ) 2

Bronsted Lowry Theory

A Bronsted acid is an H+ (aq) ion donor.
A Bronsted base is an H+ (aq) ion acceptor.

Example

In the reaction: HCl (aq) + NH3 (aq) → NH+4(aq) + Cl− (aq)

HCl – Bronsted acid and Cl− : its conjugate acid
NH3 – Bronsted base and NH+4 : its conjugate acid

Physical Test
Given are two possible physical tests to identify an acid or a base.

a. Taste
An acid tastes sour, whereas a base tastes bitter.
The method of taste is not advised, as an acid or a base could be contaminated or
corrosive.

Example: The flavours of curd, lemon juice, orange juice, and vinegar are all sour.
Because they contain acids, these compounds have a sour flavour. Baking soda has a
sour flavour. It’s an example of a foundation.
b. Effect on Indicators by Acids and Bases
An indicator is a chemical substance which shows a change in its physical properties,
mainly colour or odour, when brought in contact with an acid or a base.
Below mentioned are commonly used indicators and the different colours they
exhibit:

a) Litmus
In a neutral solution – purple
In an acidic solution – red
In a basic solution – blue

Litmus is also available as strips of paper in two variants – red litmus and blue
litmus.
An acid turns a moist blue litmus paper to red.
A base turns a moist red litmus paper to blue.

b) Methyl orange
In a neutral solution – orange
In an acidic solution – red
In a basic solution – yellow

c) Phenolphthalein
In a neutral solution – colourless
In an acidic solution – remains colourless
In a basic solution – pink

Acid-Base Reactions
A neutralisation reaction occurs when an acid reacts with a base. Salt and water are
the end products of this reaction. An acid–base neutralisation reaction is formulated
as a double-replacement reaction in this standard approach.

Reactions of Acids and Bases

a) Reaction of acids and bases with metals

Acids, in general, react with metals to produce salt and hydrogen gas. Bases, in
general, do not react with metals and do not produce hydrogen gas.
Acid + active metal → salt + hydrogen + heat

2HCl + Mg → MgCl2 + H2 (↑)

Hydrochloric acid + Magnesium → Magnesium chloride + Hydrogen

Base + metal → salt + hydrogen + heat

2NaOH + Zn → Na2ZnO2 + H2 (↑)

Sodium hydroxide + Zinc → Sodium zincate + Hydrogen

A more reactive metal displaces the less reactive metal from its base.

2Na + Mg (OH) 2 → 2NaOH + Mg

Sodium + Magnesium hydroxide → Sodium hydroxide + Magnesium

b) Reaction of acids with metal carbonates and bicarbonates

Acids produce carbon dioxide, as well as metal salts and water, when they react with
metal carbonates or metal bicarbonates. Sodium chloride, carbon dioxide, and water
are formed when sodium carbonate interacts with hydrochloric acid. Allowing carbon
dioxide gas to travel through lime water turns it milky.

Acid + metal carbonate or bicarbonate → salt + water + carbon dioxide.

2HCl + CaCO3 → CaCl2 + H2O + CO2

H2SO4 + Mg (HCO3)2 → MgSO4 + 2H2O + 2CO2

Effervescence indicates the liberation of CO2 gas.

c) Reaction of Acid with Base

1. Reaction of metal oxides and hydroxides with acids
Metal oxides or metal hydroxides are basic in nature.
Acid + base → salt + water + heat

H2SO4 + MgO → MgSO4 + H2O

2HCl + Mg (OH) 2 → MgCl2 + 2H2O

2. Reaction of non-metal oxides with bases

Non-metal oxides are acidic in nature

Base + Nonmetal oxide → salt + water + heat
 2NaOH + CO2→ Na2CO3 + H2O

3. Reaction of acids and base

A very common acid is hydrochloric acid. The reaction between strong acid, says
hydrochloric acid and strong base say sodium hydroxide, forms salt and water. The
complete chemical equation is shown below.

HCl (strong acid) + NaOH (strong base) → NaCl (salt) + H2O (water)

To know more about the Properties of Acids and Bases, visit here.

Water

Acids and Bases in Water

When added to water, acids and bases dissociate into their respective ions and help
in conducting electricity.

Difference between a Base and an Alkali

Base:

 Bases undergo a neutralisation reaction with acids.

 They are comprised of metal oxides, metal hydroxides, metal carbonates and metal
bicarbonates.
 Most of them are insoluble in water.
Alkali:

 An alkali is an aqueous solution of a base, (mainly metallic hydroxides).

 It dissolves in water and dissociates to give OH ion.
−

 All alkalis are bases, but not all bases are alkalis.

Hydronium Ion
Hydronium ion is formed when a hydrogen ion accepts a lone pair of electrons from
the oxygen atom of a water molecule, forming a coordinate covalent bond.
Dilution
Dilution is the process of reducing the concentration of a solution by adding more
solvent (usually water) to it.
It is a highly exothermic process.
To dilute acid, the acid must be added to water and not the other way round.

Strength of Acids and Bases

Strong acid or base: When all molecules of a given amount of an acid or a base
dissociate completely in water to furnish their respective ions, H +(aq) for acid and
OH−(aq) for base).
Weak acid or base: When only a few of the molecules of a given amount of an acid or
a base dissociate in water to furnish their respective ions, H+(aq) for acid and OH−

(aq) for base).

Dilute acid: contains less number of H+(aq) ions per unit volume.
Concentrated acid: contains more number of H+(aq) ions per unit volume.
Universal Indicator
A universal indicator has a pH range from 0 to 14 that indicates the acidity or
alkalinity of a solution.
A neutral solution has pH=7

pH
pH=−log10[H+]
In pure water, [H+]=[OH−]=10−7 mol/L. Hence, the pH of pure water is 7.
The pH scale ranges from 0 to 14.
If pH < 7 → acidic solution
If pH > 7→ basic solution
pH scale

Importance of pH in Everyday Life

1. pH sensitivity of plants and animals

Plants and animals are sensitive to pH. Crucial life processes such as digestion of
food, functions of enzymes and hormones happen at a certain pH value.

2. pH of a soil
The pH of a soil optimal for the growth of plants or crops is 6.5 to 7.0.

3. pH in the digestive system

The process of digestion happens at a specific pH in our stomach which is 1.5 to 4.
The pH of the interaction of enzymes, while food is being digested, is influenced by
HCl in our stomach.

4. pH in tooth decay
Tooth decay happens when the teeth are exposed to an acidic environment of pH
5.5 and below.

5. pH of self-defence by animals and plants

Acidic substances are used by animals and plants as a self-defence mechanism. For
example, bee and plants like nettle secrete a highly acidic substance for self-
defence. These secreted acidic substances have a specific pH.

To know more about pH, visit here.

Manufacture of Acids and Bases

Manufacture of acids and bases

a) Nonmetal oxide + water → acid
SO2(g) + H2O(l) → H2SO3(aq)
SO3(g) + H2O(l) → H2SO4(aq)
4NO2(g) + 2H2O(l) + O2(g) → 4HNO3(aq)

Non-metal oxides are thus referred to as acid anhydrides.

b) Hydrogen + halogen → acid

H2(g) + Cl2(g) → 2HCl(g)

HCl(g) + H2O(l) → HCl(aq)

c) Metallic salt + conc. sulphuric acid → salt + more volatile acid

2NaCl(aq) + H2SO4(aq) → Na2SO4(aq) + 2HCl(aq)
2KNO3(aq) + H2SO4(aq) → K2SO4(aq) + 2HNO3(aq)

d) Metal + oxygen → metallic oxide (base)

4Na(s) + O2(g) → 2Na2O(s)
2Mg(s) + O2(g) → 2MgO(s)

e) Metal + water → base or alkali + hydrogen

Zn(s) + H2O(steam) → ZnO(s)+ H2(g)

f) Few metallic oxides + water → alkali

Na2O(s) + H2O(l) → 2NaOH(aq)

g) Ammonia + water → ammonium hydroxide

NH3(g) + H2O(l) → NH4OH(aq)

Salts

Salts
Salt is a combination of an anion of an acid and a cation of a base.

Examples – KCl, NaNO3 , CaSO4, etc.

Salts are usually prepared by the neutralisation reaction of an acid and a base.

Common Salt
Sodium Chloride (NaCl) is referred to as common salt because it’s used all over the
world for cooking.
Family of Salts
Salts having the same cation or anion belong to the same family. For example, NaCl,
KCl, LiCl.

pH of Salts
A salt of a strong acid and a strong base will be neutral in nature. pH = 7 (approx.).
A salt of a weak acid and a strong base will be basic in nature. pH > 7.
A salt of a strong acid and a weak base will be acidic in nature. pH < 7.
The pH of a salt of a weak acid and a weak base is determined by conducting a pH
test.

Chemicals from Common Salt

Sodium chloride is a common salt. NaCl is its molecular formula. The fundamental
element in our meals is sodium chloride. It is used in our food as a flavour enhancer
as well as a
preservative. From common salt, we may make the following four compounds.

1. Sodium hydroxide or lye or caustic soda

2. Baking soda or sodium hydrogen carbonate, or sodium bicarbonate
3. Washing soda or sodium carbonate decahydrate
4. Bleaching powder or calcium hypochlorite

Preparation of Sodium Hydroxide

The strong base sodium hydroxide is a common and useful one. Preparing a solution
of sodium hydroxide (NaOH) in water requires extra caution because the exothermic
reaction releases a lot of heat. It’s possible that the solution will spatter or boil.
Here’s how to manufacture a sodium hydroxide solution safely, as well as recipes for
a variety of NaOH strengths.

Chemical formula – NaOH

Also known as – caustic soda
Preparation (Chlor-alkali process):
Electrolysis of brine (solution of common salt, NaCl) is carried out.
At anode: Cl2 is released
At cathode: H2 is released
Sodium hydroxide remains in the solution.

Bleaching Powder
Bleaching powder is soluble in water and is used as a bleaching agent in textile
industries. It is also used as an oxidizing agent and a disinfectant in many
industries. It should also be noted that bleaching powder is synthesized by the
reacting chlorine gas on dry slaked lime i.e. Ca(OH)2.

Chemical formula – Ca(OCl)Cl or CaOCl2

Preparation – Ca(OH)2(aq)+Cl2(g)→CaOCl2(aq)+H2O(l)

On interaction with water – bleaching powder releases chlorine which is responsible

for bleaching action.

Uses of Bleaching Powder

 It is used for bleaching dirty clothes in the laundry, as a bleaching

agent for cotton and linen in the textile industry.
 It is a strong oxidizing agent, hence used as an oxidizer in many
industries.
 It is used as a disinfectant which is used for disinfecting water to
make potable water.
Baking Soda
Sodium bicarbonate, also known as baking soda or bicarbonate of soda, is a chemical
compound with the formula NaHCO3 and the IUPAC designation sodium hydrogen
carbonate. A sodium cation (Na+) and a bicarbonate anion (HCO3) combine to form
this salt. Sodium bicarbonate is a white, crystalline substance that is commonly
found as a fine powder. It tastes slightly salty and alkaline, like washing soda
(sodium carbonate).

Chemical name – Sodium hydrogen carbonate

Chemical formula – NaHCO3

Preparation (Solvay process):

a. Limestone is heated: CaCO3→CaO+CO2
b. CO2 is passed through a concentrated solution of sodium chloride and ammonia:
NaCl(aq)+NH3(g)+CO2(g)+H2O(l)→NaHCO3(aq)+NH4Cl(aq)

Uses:

 Reduces the acidity in the stomach

 Acts as an antacid which is used to treat stomach upset and
indigestion
 Used in the process of washing as a water softener

Washing Soda
Chemical name – Sodium hydrogen carbonate
Chemical formula – NaHCO3
Preparation (Solvay process) –
a. Limestone is heated: CaCO3 → CaO + CO2
b. CO2 is passed through a concentrated solution of sodium chloride and ammonia:
NaCl(aq) + NH3(g) + CO2(g) + H2O(l) → NaHCO3(aq) + NH4Cl(aq)

Uses
1. In the glass, soap and paper industries
2. Softening of water
3. Domestic cleaner
Crystals of Salts
Certain salts form crystals by combining with a definite proportion of water. The
water that combines with the salt is called water of crystallisation.

The process by which a solid form, in which the atoms or molecules are strongly
arranged into a structure known as a crystal, is known as crystallisation.
Precipitation from a solution, freezing, and, more rarely, direct deposition from a
gas are some of the ways crystals form.

Example:

Table salt (sodium chloride or halite crystals), sugar (sucrose), and snowflakes are
examples of common materials that form crystals. Many gemstones, such as quartz
and diamond, are crystals.

Plaster of Paris
Plaster of Paris is a widely used chemical compound that is extensively used in
sculpting materials and gauze bandages. Plaster of Paris is a white powdery
chemical compound that is hydrated calcium sulphate that is usually obtained by
calcining gypsum. While we have seen many applications of this material in our
everyday lives, if we try to understand its chemistry, we will find that it is a white
powdery chemical compound that is hydrated calcium sulphate that is usually
obtained by calcining gypsum. To put it another way, Plaster of Paris is often
manufactured of heated gypsum at a high temperature.

Gypsum plaster is another name for the plaster of Paris. Plaster of Paris is expressed
as CaSO4. ½ H2O in the chemical formula.

Gypsum, CaSO4.2H2O (s) on heating at 100°C (373K) gives CaSO4. ½ H2O and 3/2 H2O
CaSO4. ½ H2O is plaster of Paris.
CaSO4. ½ H2O means two formula units of CaSO4 share one molecule of water.
Uses – cast for healing fractures.

Frequently Asked Questions on Acids, Bases and Salts

Q1
When dissolved in water, Arrhenius base is a compound that ……….?
An Arrhenius base is a compound that increases the concentration of OH– ions that
are present when added to water.
Q2
Solution X has a pH value of 2, and another solution, Y, has a pH
value of 1. What can be inferred regarding the difference in
hydrogen ion concentration between them?
pH is a measure of hydrogen ion concentration in a solution. The higher the
hydrogen ion concentration, the lower the pH. Acids which give rise to more
hydrogen ions are more acidic than acids which give fewer hydrogen ions. Thus, the
lower the pH, the higher the acidic nature of the solution. Thus, Y has more
hydrogen ion concentration than X.
Q3
Dilute hydrochloric acid (HCl) reacts with metals to evolve __ gas
along with the formation of corresponding metal salt.
Acids react with metals to produce the respective metal salt along with hydrogen
gas. Therefore, when hydrochloric acid (HCl) reacts with metals, it evolves hydrogen
gas along with the formation of corresponding metal salt.

Chapter 3 Metals And Non-Metals

 Physical Properties
Any measurable property whose value describes a condition of a physical system is referred to a
s a physical property. A system’s physical properties can be utilised to characterise its transition
s between brief states.
Observables are a term used to describe physical qualities.

Physical Properties of Metals

● Hard and have a high tensile strength – Carbon is the only non-metal with very
high tensile strength.
● Solid at room temperature – One non-metal, bromine, is a liquid at room
temperature. The other non-metals are solids at room temperature, including carbon
and sulfur.
● Sonorous – Metals produce a typical ringing sound when hit by something.
● Good conductors of heat and electricity – Graphite is a good conductor of heat and
electricity.
● Malleable, i.e., can be beaten into thin sheets
● Ductile, i.e., can be drawn into thin wires
● High melting and boiling points (except Caesium (Cs) and Gallium (Ga)) – Graphite,
a form of carbon (a non-metal), has a high boiling point and exists in a solid state at
room temperature.
● Dense (except alkali metals). Osmium – highest density, and lithium – least density
● Lustrous – Metals have the quality of reflecting light from their surface and can be
polished, e.g., gold, silver and copper. Iodine and carbon are non-metals which are
lustrous. Note that carbon is lustrous only in certain forms like diamond and
graphite.
● Silver-grey in colour (except gold and copper) – Metals usually have a silver or
grey colour.

Non-Metals
Nonmetals are those elements which do not exhibit the properties of metals.

Physical Properties of Non-metals

 Occur as solids, liquids and gases at room temperature
 Brittle
 Non-malleable
 Non-ductile
 Non-sonorous
 Bad conductors of heat and electricity

Exceptions in Physical Properties

 Alkali metals (Na, K, Li) can be cut using a knife.
 Mercury is a liquid metal.
 Lead and mercury are poor conductors of heat.
 Mercury expands significantly for the slightest change in temperature.
 Gallium and caesium have very low melting points.
 Iodine is non-metal, but it has lustre.
 Graphite conducts electricity.
 Diamond conducts heat and has a very high melting point.

Examples of Non-metals
1. Hydrogen – Gas
2. Nitrogen – Gas
3. Oxygen – Gas
4. Fluorine – Gas
5. Chlorine – Gas
6. Bromine – Liquid
7. Iodine – Solid
8. Carbon – Solid
9. Sulphur – Solid
10. Phosphorous – Solid
11. Silicon – Solid

Chemical Properties

Chemical Properties of Metals

● Alkali metals (Li, Na, K, etc.) react vigorously with water and oxygen or air.
● Mg reacts with hot water.
● Al, Fe and Zn react with steam.
● Cu, Ag, Pt, and Au do not react with water or dilute acids.

Reaction of Metals with Oxygen (Burnt in Air)

A metal oxide is formed when metals are burned in the air and react with oxygen in the air.
Metal oxides are a type of basic material found in nature. They change the colour of red litmus
to blue. To avoid reactions with oxygen, moisture, and carbon dioxide in the air, sodium and
potassium metals are kept in kerosene oil.

Metal + Oxygen→ Metal oxide (basic)

● Na and K are kept immersed in kerosene oil as they react vigorously with air and catch fire.
4K(s)+O2(g)→2K2O(s) (vigorous reaction)
● Mg, Al, Zn, and Pb react slowly with air and form a protective layer that prevents corrosion.
2Mg(s)+O2(g)→2MgO(s) (Mg burns with white dazzling light)
4Al(s)+3O2(g)→2Al2O3(s)
● Silver, platinum and gold don’t burn or react with air.

Basic Oxides of Metals

Metal oxides are crystalline solids that contain a metal cation and an oxide anion. They typically
react with water to form bases or with acids to form salts. MO + H 2O → M(OH)2 (where M =
group 2 metal). Thus, these compounds are often called basic oxides.

Some metallic oxides get dissolved in water and form alkalis. Their aqueous solution turns red
litmus blue.

Na2O(s)+H2O(l)→2NaOH(aq)
K2O(s)+H2O(l)→2KOH(aq)

Amphoteric Oxides of Metals

Amphoteric oxides are metal oxides which react with both acids as well as bases to form salt
and water.
For example – Al2O3, ZnO, PbO, SnO
Al2O3(s)+6HCl(aq)→2AlCl3(aq)+3H2O(l)
Al2O3(s)+2NaOH(aq)→2NaAlO2(aq)+H2O(l)
ZnO(s)+2HCl(aq)→ZnCl2(aq)+H2O(l)
ZnO(s)+2NaOH(aq)→Na2ZnO2(aq)+H2O(l)

Reactivity Series
The reactivity series of metals, also known as the activity series, refers to the arrangement of
metals in the descending order of their reactivities.

The below table illustrates the reactivity of metals from high order to low order.

Roasting
Converts sulphide ores into oxides on heating strongly in the presence of excess air.
It also removes volatile impurities.
2ZnS(s)+3O2(g)+Heat→2ZnO(s)+2SO2(g)

Calcination
Converts carbonate and hydrated ores into oxides on heating strongly in the presence of
limited air. It also removes volatile impurities.
ZnCO3(s)+heat→ZnO(s)+CO2(g)
CaCO3(s)+heat→CaO(s)+CO2(g)
Al2O3.2H2O(s)+heat→2Al2O3(s)+2H2O(l)
2Fe2O3.3H2O(s)+heat→2Fe2O3(s)+3H2O(l)

Reaction of Metals with Water or Steam

Aluminium, iron, and zinc are metals that do not react with either cold or hot water. However,
when they come into contact with steam, they produce metal oxide and hydrogen. Lead,
copper, silver, and gold are metals that do not react with water.

Metal+Water→Metalhydroxide or Metaloxide+Hydrogen

2Na+2H2O(cold)→2NaOH+H2+heat
Ca+2H2O(cold)→Ca(OH)2+H2
Mg+2H2O(hot)→Mg(OH)2+H2
2Al+3H2O(steam)→Al2O3+3H2
Zn+H2O(steam)→ZnO+H2
3Fe+4H2O(steam)→Fe3O4+4H2

Reaction of Metals with Acid

When a metal is immersed in acid, it becomes smaller and smaller as the chemical process consumes it. Gas
bubbles can also be detected at the same moment. Hydrogen gas bubbles are formed as a result of the react
ion. Because hydrogen is combustible, this can be demonstrated with a burning splint.
Metal+diluteacid→Salt+Hydrogengas
2Na(s)+2HCl(dilute)→2NaCl(aq)+H2(g)
2K(s)+H2SO4(dilute)→K2SO4(aq)+H2(g)

Only Mg and Mn, react with very dilute nitric acid to liberate hydrogen gas.
Mg(s)+2HNO3(dilute)→Mg(NO3)2(aq)+H2(g)
Mn(s)+2HNO3(dilute)→Mn(NO3)2(aq)+H2(g)

Displacement Reaction
A more reactive element displaces a less reactive element from its compound or solution.

How Do Metals React with the Solution of Other Metal Salts

A more reactive metal can displace a less reactive metal from its salt solution in a displacement
reaction. Metal displacement reaction is a common name for this reaction. The reactivity of
 certain regularly used metals has been ordered in decreasing order. This is referred to as the
reactivity or activity series.

Metal A+Salt of metal B → Salt of metal A + Metal B

Fe(s)+CuSO4(aq)→FeSO4(aq)+Cu(s)
Cu(s)+2AgNO3(aq)→Cu(NO3)(aq)+2Ag(s)

 It’s a component of thermite welding. Aluminium displaces iron from its oxide in this
process.
 It is used in the production of steel. In which iron is displaced from its oxide by carbon.
 It is mostly utilised in metal extraction.

Reaction of Metals with Bases

The base has a bitter taste and a slippery texture. A base dissolved in water is called an alkali.
When chemically reacting with acids, such compounds produce salts. Bases are known to turn
blue on red litmus paper.

Base+metal → salt+hydrogen
2NaOH(aq)+Zn(s) → Na2ZnO2(aq)+H2(g)
2NaOH(aq)+2Al(s)+2H2O(l) → 2NaAlO2(aq)+2H2(g)

Extraction of Metals and Non-Metals

Applications of Displacement Reaction

Uses of displacement reaction

1. Extraction of metals
2. Manufacturing of steel
3. Thermite reaction: Al(s)+Fe2O3(s) → Al2O3+Fe(molten)

The thermite reaction is used in the welding of railway tracks, cracked machine
parts, etc.

Occurrence of Metals
Most elements, especially metals, occur in nature in a combined state with other
elements. All these compounds of metals are known as minerals. But out of them,
only a few are viable sources of that metal. Such sources are called ores.
Au, Pt – exists in the native or free state.

Extraction of Metals
The process of extracting metal ores buried deep underground is called Mining. The
metal ores are found in the earth’s crust in varying abundance. The extraction of
metals from ores is what allows us to use the minerals in the ground! The ores are
very different from the finished metals that we see in buildings and bridges. Ores
consist of the desired metal compound and the impurities and earthly substances
called Gangue.

Metals of high reactivity – Na, K, Mg, Al.

Metals of medium reactivity – Fe, Zn, Pb, Sn.
Metals of low reactivity – Cu, Ag, Hg
Enrichment of Ores
It means the removal of impurities or gangue from ore through various physical and
chemical processes. The technique used for a particular ore depends on the
difference in the properties of the ore and the gangue.

In chemistry, a gangue is an undesirable substance or impurity that surrounds the

mineral in an ore deposit, such as sand, rock, or any other material. When it comes
to mining, this mineral is very frequent.

Extracting Metals Low in Reactivity Series

By self-reduction- when the sulphide ores of less electropositive metals like Hg, Pb,
Cu etc., are heated in air, a part of the ore gets converted to oxide, which then
reacts with the remaining sulphide ore to give the crude metal and sulphur dioxide.
In this process, no external reducing agent is used.

1. 2HgS(Cinnabar)+3O2(g)+heat→2HgO(crude metal)+2SO2(g)
2HgO(s)+heat→2Hg(l)+O2(g)

2. Cu2S(Copper pyrite)+3O2(g)+heat→2Cu2O(s)+2SO2(g)
2Cu2O(s)+Cu2S(s)+heat→6Cu(crude metal)+SO2(g)

3. 2PbS(Galena)+3O2(g)+heat→2PbO(s)+2SO2(g)
PbS(s)+2PbO(s)→2Pb(crudemetal)+SO2(g)

Extracting Metals in the Middle of Reactivity Series

Calcination is a process in which ore is heated in the absence of air, or air might be
supplied in limited quantity. Roasting involves heating ore lower than its melting
point in the presence of air or oxygen. Calcination involves the thermal
decomposition of carbonate ores.

Smelting – it involves heating the roasted or calcined ore (metal oxide) to a high
temperature with a suitable reducing agent. The crude metal is obtained in its
molten state.
Fe2O3+3C(coke)→2Fe+3CO2

Aluminothermic reaction – also known as the Goldschmidt reaction, is a highly

exothermic reaction in which metal oxides, usually of Fe and Cr, are heated to a high
temperature with aluminium.
Fe2O3+2Al→Al2O3+2Fe+heat
Cr2O3+2Al→Al2O3+2Cr+heat

Extraction of Metals Towards the Top of the Reactivity Series

Electrolytic reduction:

1. Down’s process: Molten NaCl is electrolysed in a special apparatus.

At the cathode (reduction):

Na+(molten)+e−→Na(s)
Metal is deposited.

At the anode (oxidation):

2Cl−(molten)→Cl2(g)+2e–
Chlorine gas is liberated.

2. Hall’s process: A mixture of molten alumina and a fluoride solvent, usually cryolite
(Na3AlF6), is electrolysed.

At the cathode (reduction):

2Al3++6e–→ 2Al(s)
Metal is deposited.

At the anode (oxidation):

6O2– → 3O2(g)+12e–
Oxygen gas is liberated.

The metals at the top of the reactivity series are highly reactive. They cannot be
obtained from their compounds by heating with carbon, because these metals have
more affinity for oxygen than carbon. Hence, for the extraction of such metals
electrolytic reduction method is used.

Refining of Metals
Refining of metals – removing impurities or gangue from crude metal. It is the last
step in metallurgy and is based on the difference between the properties of metal
and gangue.

Electrolytic Refining
Metals like copper, zinc, nickel, silver, tin, gold etc., are refined electrolytically.
Anode: impure or crude metal
Cathode: a thin strip of pure metal
Electrolyte: aqueous solution of metal salt

From anode (oxidation): metal ions are released into the solution
At cathode (reduction): the equivalent amount of metal from the solution is
deposited
Impurities deposit at the bottom of the anode.

How Do Metals and Non-Metals React?

Metals lose valence electron(s) and form cations.
Non-metals gain those electrons in their valence shell and form anions.
The cation and the anion are attracted to each other by strong electrostatic force,
thus forming an ionic bond.
For example: In calcium chloride, the ionic bond is formed by opposite-charged
calcium and chloride ions.
The calcium atom loses 2 electrons and attains the electronic configuration of the
nearest noble gas (Ar). By doing so, it gains a net charge of +2.
The two Chlorine atoms take one electron each, thus gaining a charge of -1 (each)
and attain the electronic configuration of the nearest noble gas (Ar).

Ionic Compounds
Ionic compounds are neutral compounds that are made up of positively charged
cations and negatively charged anions. Binary ionic compounds (ionic compounds
 containing only two types of elements) are named by first writing the name of the
cation, then the name of the anion.

The electrostatic attractions between the opposite-charged ions hold the compound
together.
Example: MgCl2, CaO, MgO, NaCl etc.

Properties of Ionic Compound

Ionic compounds

1. Are usually crystalline solids (made of ions).

2. Have high melting and boiling points.
3. Conduct electricity when in aqueous solution and when melted.
4. Are mostly soluble in water and polar solvents.

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Physical Nature
Ionic solids usually exist in regular, well-defined crystal structures.

Electric Conduction of Ionic Compounds

Ionic compounds conduct electricity in the molten or aqueous state when ions
become free and act as charge carriers.
In solid form, ions are strongly held by electrostatic forces of attraction and are not
free to move; hence do not conduct electricity.
For example, ionic compounds such as NaCl do not conduct electricity when solid,
but when dissolved in water or in a molten state, they will conduct electricity.

Melting and Boiling Points of Ionic Compounds

In ionic compounds, the strong electrostatic forces between ions require a high
amount of energy to break. Thus, the melting point and boiling point of an ionic
compound are usually very high.
Solubility of Ionic Compounds

Most ionic compounds are soluble in water due to the separation of ions by water.
This occurs due to the polar nature of water.
For example, NaCl is a 3-D salt crystal composed of Na+ and Cl− ions bound together
through electrostatic forces of attraction. When a crystal of NaCl comes into contact
with water, the partially positive-charged ends of water molecules interact with the
Cl− ions, while the negatively charged end of the water molecules interacts with the
Na+ ions. This ion-dipole interaction between ions and water molecules assists in the
breaking of the strong electrostatic forces of attraction within the crystal and,
ultimately, in the solubility of the crystal.

Corrosion

Alloys
Alloys are homogeneous mixtures of a metal with other metals or nonmetals. Alloy
formation enhances the desirable properties of the material, such as hardness,
tensile strength and resistance to corrosion.

Examples of a few alloys:

Brass: copper and zinc
Bronze: copper and tin
 Solder: lead and tin
Amalgam: mercury and other metal

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Corrosion
Gradual deterioration of a material, usually a metal, by the action of moisture, air or
chemicals in the surrounding environment.
Rusting:
4Fe(s)+3O2(from air)+xH2O(moisture)→2Fe2O3. xH2O(rust)

Corrosion of copper:
Cu(s)+H2O(moisture)+CO2(from air)→CuCO3.Cu(OH)2(green)

Corrosion of silver:
Ag(s)+H2S(from air)→Ag2S(black)+H2(g)

Prevention of Corrosion
Prevention:
1. Coating with paints or oil or grease: The application of paint or oil or grease on
metal surfaces keep out air and moisture.

2. Alloying: Alloyed metal is more resistant to corrosion. Example: stainless steel.

3. Galvanization: This is a process of coating molten zinc on iron articles. Zinc forms
a protective layer and prevents corrosion.

4. Electroplating: It is a method of coating one metal with another by the use of an

electric current. This method not only lends protection but also enhances the
metallic appearance.
Examples: silver plating, and nickel plating.

5. Sacrificial protection: Magnesium is more reactive than iron. When it is coated on

articles made of iron or steel, it acts as the cathode undergoes a reaction (sacrifice)
instead of iron and protects the articles.

Frequently Asked Questions on Metals and Non-Metals

Q1
A student performs an experiment in which he dipped a copper coil
into the silver nitrate solution. What will be observed from this
experiment?
A grey-coloured layer of silver appears on the surface of the copper coil.
Q2
A student performs an experiment of burning magnesium ribbon in
the air. A chemical reaction takes place, and as a result, a white
powder X forms along with a bright white light. The aqueous
solution of changes the colour of litmus paper to?
Oxides of metals like magnesium are basic in nature. Therefore, the aqueous
solution will change the red litmus to blue.
Q3
The atomic number of two elements, A and B, are 12 and 8,
respectively. What type of compound is formed when they
combine?
The compound formed is AB which is ionic in nature. As we know, an ionic compound
is a chemical compound in which ions are held together by electrostatic force. The
electronic configuration of two elements, A and B, are 2, 8, 2 and 2, 6, respectively.
From their electronic configuration, we see that A (magnesium) is a metal and B
(oxygen) is a non-metal; thereby, A loses its valence electrons and forms a cation,
while B accepts those electrons and forms an anion. These oppositely charged ions
are drawn closer due to electrostatic forces, and an ionic compound (MgO) is
formed.
 Carbon and its Compounds Notes

Chapter 4 Carbon and Its Compounds

Chemical substances containing carbon are referred to as carbon compounds. Except

for hydrogen, there are more carbon compounds than any other chemical element.
Compounds of carbon with double bonds and triple bonds are called unsaturated
compounds, while those with carbon-carbon single bonds are called saturated
compounds.

Covalent Bonding

Difficulty of Carbon to Form a Stable Ion

To achieve the electronic configuration of the nearest noble gas, He, if the carbon
atom loses four of its valence electrons, a huge amount of energy is involved. C 4+ ion
hence formed, will be highly unstable due to the presence of six protons and two
electrons.

If the carbon atom gains four electrons to achieve the nearest electronic
configuration of the noble gas, Ne, C4− ion will be formed. But again, a huge amount
of energy is required. Moreover, in C4+ ions it is difficult for 6 protons to hold 10
electrons. Hence, to satisfy its tetravalency, carbon shares all four of its valence
electrons and forms covalent bonds.

Ionic Bond
Ionic bonding involves the transfer of valence electron/s, primarily between a metal
and a nonmetal. The electrostatic attractions between the oppositely charged ions
 hold the compound together.
Ionic compounds:

1. Are usually crystalline solids (made of ions)

2. Have high melting and boiling points
3. Conduct electricity when melted
4. Are mostly soluble in water and polar solvents
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Covalent Bond
A covalent bond is formed when pairs of electrons are shared between two atoms. It
is primarily formed between two same nonmetallic atoms or between nonmetallic
atoms with similar electronegativity.

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Lewis Dot Structure

Lewis structures are also known as Lewis dot structures or electron dot structures.
These are basically diagrams with the element’s symbol in the centre. The dots
around it represent the valence electrons of the element.

Lewis structures of elements with atomic numbers 5-8

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Covalent Bonding in H2, N2 and O2
Formation of a single bond in a hydrogen molecule:
Each hydrogen atom has a single electron in the valence shell. It requires one more
to acquire the nearest noble gas configuration (He).
Therefore, both the atoms share one electron each and form a single bond.

Formation of a double bond in an oxygen molecule:

Each oxygen atom has six electrons in the valence shell (2, 6). It requires two
electrons to acquire the nearest noble gas configuration (Ne).
Therefore, both the atoms share two electrons each and form a double bond.

Formation of a triple bond in a nitrogen molecule:

Each nitrogen atom has five electrons in the valence shell (2, 5). It requires three
electrons to acquire the nearest noble gas configuration (Ne).
Therefore, both atoms share three electrons each and form a triple bond.
Single, Double and Triple Bonds and Their Strengths
A single bond is formed between two atoms when two electrons are shared between
them, i.e., one electron from each participating atom.
It is depicted by a single line between the two atoms.

A double bond is formed between two atoms when four electrons are shared
between them, i.e., one pair of electrons from each participating atom. It is depicted
by double lines between the two atoms.

A triple bond is formed between two atoms when six electrons are shared between
them, i.e., two pairs of electrons from each participating atom. It is depicted by
triple lines between the two atoms.

Bond strength:
– The bond strength of a bond is determined by the amount of energy required to
break a bond.
– The order of bond strengths when it comes to multiple bonds is: Triple
bond>double bond>single bond
– This is to signify that the energy required to break three bonds is higher than that
for two bonds or a single bond.

Bond length:
– Bond length is determined by the distance between nuclei of the two atoms in a
bond.
– The order of bond length for multiple bonds is: Triple bond<double bond<single
bond
The distance between the nuclei of two atoms is least when they are triple bonded.

Covalent Bonding of N, O with H and Polarity

 In ammonia (NH3), the three hydrogen atoms share one electron each with the
nitrogen atom and form three covalent bonds.

 Ammonia has one lone pair.

 All three N-H covalent bonds are polar in nature.
 N atom is more electronegative than the H atom. Thus, the shared pair of electrons lies
more towards N atom.
 This causes the N atom to acquire a slight negative charge and H atom a slight positive
charge.

In water (H2O), the two hydrogen atoms share one electron each with the oxygen
atom and form two covalent bonds.
 Water has two lone pairs.
 The two O-H covalent bonds are polar in nature.
 The O atom is more electronegative than the H atom. Thus, the shared pair of electrons lies
more towards O atom.
 This causes the O atom to acquire a slight negative charge and H atom a slight positive
charge.

Covalent Bonding in Carbon

A methane molecule (CH4) is formed when four electrons of carbon are shared with
four hydrogen atoms, as shown below.
Friendly Carbon

Why Carbon Can Form so Many Compounds

Catenation occurs most readily with carbon due to its small size, electronic
configuration and unique strength of carbon-carbon bonds. Tetravalency, catenation,
and the tendency to form multiple bonds with other atoms account for the formation
of innumerable carbon compounds.

Catenation
Catenation is the self-linking property of an element by which an atom forms
covalent bonds with the other atoms of the same element to form straight or
branched chains and rings of different sizes. It is shown by carbon, sulphur and
silicon.

S8
In its native state, sulphur shows catenation of up to 8 atoms in the form of
S8 molecule. It has a puckered ring structure.

Versatile Nature of Carbon

 Tetravalency and Catenation The fact that carbon can form single, double, and triple
bonds demonstrate its versatility. It can also form chains, branching chains, and
rings when joined to other carbon atoms.

Hydrogen, oxygen, carbon, and a few additional elements make up organic

molecules. Organic compounds, on the other hand, are significantly more numerous
than inorganic compounds that do not form bonds.

Carbon is a chemical element with the atomic number 6 and the symbol C. It’s a
versatile element that can be found in a wide variety of chemical combinations.
Carbon’s versatility is best appreciated through properties like tetravalency and
catenation.

 Tetravalency: Carbon has a valency of four, so it is capable of bonding with four other atoms
of carbon or atoms of some other mono-valent element.
 Catenation: The property of a carbon element due to which its atom can join one another to
form long carbon chains is called catenation.

Mp, Bp and Electrical Conductivity

Covalent compounds:

1. Are molecular compounds

2. Are gases, liquids or solids
3. Have weak intermolecular forces
4. Have low melting and boiling points
5. Are poor electrical conductors in all phases
6. Are mostly soluble in nonpolar liquids

Allotropes of Carbon
– The phenomenon of the existence of the same element in different physical forms
with similar chemical properties is known as allotropy.
– Some elements like carbon, sulphur, phosphorus, etc., exhibit this phenomenon.
– Crystalline allotropes of carbon include diamond, graphite and, fullerene.
– Amorphous allotropes of carbon include coal, coke, charcoal, lamp black and gas
carbon.

Diamond
 Diamond has a regular tetrahedral geometry. This is because each carbon is
connected to four neighbouring carbon atoms via single covalent bonds, resulting in
a single unit of a crystal. These crystal units lie in different planes and are
connected to each other, resulting in a rigid three-dimensional cubic pattern of the
diamond.

Diamond:

1. Has a high density of 3.5g/cc.

2. Has a very high refractive index of 2.5.
3. Is a good conductor of heat.
4. Is a poor conductor of electricity.
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Graphite
In graphite, each carbon atom is bonded covalently to three other carbon atoms,
leaving each carbon atom with one free valency. This arrangement results in
hexagonal rings in a single plane, and such rings are stacked over each other
through weak Van der Waals forces.

Graphite:

1. Has a density of 2.25 g/cc.

2. Has a soft and slippery feel.
3. Is a good conductor of electricity.
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C60
C60, also known as Buckminsterfullerene, is the very popular and stable form of the
known fullerenes.
It is the most common naturally occurring fullerene and can be found in small
quantities in soot.
It consists of 60 carbon atoms arranged in 12 pentagons and 20 hexagons, like in a
soccer ball.

Chains, Branches and Rings

Saturated and Unsaturated Hydrocarbons
Saturated hydrocarbons: These hydrocarbons have all carbon-carbon single bonds.
These are known as alkanes. General formula = CnH2n+2 where n = 1, 2, 3, 4.…..
Unsaturated hydrocarbons: These hydrocarbons have at least one carbon-carbon
double or triple bond.
Hydrocarbons with at least one carbon-carbon double bond are called alkenes.
General formula = CnH2n where n = 2, 3, 4…..
Hydrocarbons with at least one carbon-carbon triple bond are called
alkynes. General formula = CnH2n−2 where n = 2, 3, 4…..

Chains, Rings and Branches

Carbon chains may be in the form of straight chains, branched chains or rings.

In cyclic compounds, atoms are connected to form a ring.

Structural Isomers
Compounds with the same molecular formula and different physical or chemical
properties are known as isomers and the phenomenon is known as isomerism.
The isomers that differ in the structural arrangement of atoms in their molecules are
called structural isomers and the phenomenon is known as structural isomerism.

Benzene
Benzene is the simplest organic, aromatic hydrocarbon.
Physical properties: colourless liquid, pungent odour, flammable, volatile.
Structure:
Cyclic in nature with chemical formula C6H6, i.e., each carbon atom in benzene is
arranged in a six-membered ring and is bonded to only one hydrogen atom.
It includes 3 double bonds, which are separated by a single bond.
Hence, this arrangement is recognized to have conjugated double bonds and two
stable resonance structures exist for the ring.

Functional Groups and Nomenclature

Functional Groups
An atom or a group of atoms which, when present in a compound, gives specific
physical and chemical properties to it regardless of the length and nature of the
carbon chain is called a functional group.

Classification of Functional Groups

Main Functional Groups:

(i) Hydroxyl group (-OH): All organic compounds containing -OH group are known as
alcohols. For example, Methanol (CH3OH), Ethanol (CH3−CH2−OH), etc.

(ii) Aldehyde group (-CHO): All organic compounds containing -CHO group are known
as aldehydes. For example, Methanal (HCHO), Ethanal (CH3CHO), etc.
(iii) Ketone group (-C=O): All organic compounds containing (-C=O) group flanked by
two alkyl groups are known as ketones. For example, Propanone (CH3COCH3),
Butanone (CH3COCH2CH3), etc.

(iv) Carboxyl group (-COOH): All organic acids contain a carboxyl group (-COOH).
Hence, they are also called carboxylic acids.
For example, Ethanoic acid (CH3COOH), Propanoic acid (CH3CH2COOH), etc.

(v) Halogen group (F, CI, Br, I): The alkanes in which one or more than one hydrogen
atom is substituted by- X (F, CI, Br or I) are known as haloalkanes. For
example, Chloromethane (CH3Cl), Bromomethane (CH3Br), etc.

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Homologous Series
Homologous series constitutes organic compounds with the same general formula,
and similar chemical characteristics but different physical properties. The adjacent
members differ in their molecular formula by −CH2.

Examples of homologous series

Methane, ethane, propane, butane, etc. are all part of the alkane homologous series.
The general formula of this series is CnH2n+2.
Methane (CH4), Ethane (CH3CH3), Propane (CH3CH2CH3), Butane (CH3CH2CH2CH3).
It can be noticed that there is a difference of −CH2 unit between each successive
compound.

Nomenclature of Carbon Compounds

The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) decided on some
rules for naming carbon compounds. This was done to maintain uniformity
throughout the world. Names which are given on this basis are popularly known as
IUPAC names.

Physical Properties
The members of any particular family have almost identical chemical properties due
to the same functional group. Their physical properties, such as melting point,
boiling point, density, etc., show a regular gradation with the increase in molecular
mass.

Chemical Properties
A chemical property is a property that describes a substance’s ability to undergo a
specific chemical change. We look for a chemical shift to identify a chemical
attribute. A chemical change always results in the formation of one or more types of
matter that are distinct from the matter that existed before the change.

Combustion Reactions
Combustion means the burning of carbon or carbon-containing compounds in the
presence of air or oxygen to produce carbon dioxide, heat and light.

2CH3OH + 3O2 → 4H2O + 2CO2

For example,

Naphthalene also undergoes combustion in the presence of oxygen to afford carbon

dioxide gas and water. The chemical equation for this reaction is as follows.

12O2 + C10H8 → 4H2O + 10CO2

Flame Characteristics
Saturated hydrocarbons give a clean flame, while unsaturated hydrocarbons give a
smoky flame. In the presence of limited oxygen, even saturated hydrocarbons give
smoky flame.

A black substance formed by combustion or separated from fuel during combustion,

rising in fine particles and adhering to the sides of the chimney or pipe conveying
the smoke especially: the fine powder consisting chiefly of carbon that colours
smoke called soot.

Oxidation
Oxidation is a chemical reaction that occurs in an atom or compound and results in
the loss of one or more electrons.
Addition
The reactions in which two molecules react to form a single product having all the
atoms of the combining molecules are called addition reactions.
The hydrogenation reaction is an example of the addition reaction. In this reaction,
hydrogen is added to a double bond or a triple bond in the presence of a catalyst like
nickel, palladium or platinum.

Substitution
The reaction in which an atom or group of atoms in a molecule is replaced or
substituted by different atoms or groups of atoms is called a substitution reaction.
In alkanes, hydrogen atoms are replaced by other elements.

CH4+Cl2+Sunlight → CH3Cl+HCl

Ethanol and Ethanoic Acid

Ethanol
(i) Ethanol, C2H5OH is a colourless liquid having a pleasant smell.
(ii) It boils at 351 K.
(iii) It is miscible with water in all proportions.
(iv) It is a nonconductor of electricity (it does not contain ions)
(v) It is neutral to litmus.

Uses:

1. As an antifreeze in radiators of vehicles in cold countries.

2. As a solvent in the manufacture of paints, dyes, medicines, soaps and synthetic
rubber.
3. As a solvent to prepare the tincture of iodine.

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How Do Alcohols Affect Human Beings?

(i) If ethanol is mixed with CH3OH and consumed, it causes serious poisoning and
loss of eyesight.
(ii) It causes addiction, and damages the liver if taken in excess.
(iii) High consumption of ethanol may even cause death.

Reactions of Ethanol with Sodium

Ethanol reacts with sodium to produce hydrogen gas and sodium ethoxide. This
reaction supports the acidic character of ethanol.
2C2H5OH+2Na → 2C2H5ONa+H2(↑)

Elimination Reaction
An elimination reaction is a type of reaction in which two substituents are removed
from a molecule. These reactions play an important role in the preparation of
alkenes.

Dehydration Reaction
Ethanol reacts with concentrated sulphuric acid at 443 K to produce ethylene. This
reaction is known as dehydration of ethanol because, in this reaction, a water
molecule is removed from the ethanol molecule.

CH3CH2OH → CH2=CH2+H2O

(reaction taking place in the presence of Conc.H2SO4)

Ethanoic Acid or Acetic Acid

(i) Molecular formula: CH3COOH
(ii) It dissolves in water, alcohol and ether.
(iii) It often freezes during winter in a cold climate, and therefore, it is named
glacial acetic acid.
Esterification
When a carboxylic acid is refluxed with alcohol in the presence of a small quantity of
conc.H2SO4, a sweet-smelling ester is formed. This reaction of ester formation is
called esterification.

When ethanol reacts with ethanoic acid in the presence of conc.H2SO4, ethyl
ethanoate and water are formed.
CH3COOH+C2H5OH → CH3COOC2H5+H2O

(reaction taking place in the presence of Conc.H2SO4)

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Saponification
A soap is a sodium or potassium salt of long-chain carboxylic acids (fatty acid). The
soap molecule is generally represented as RCOONa, where R = non-ionic
hydrocarbon group and −COO−Na+ ionic group. When oil or fat of vegetable or
animal origin is treated with a concentrated sodium or potassium hydroxide solution,
hydrolysis of fat takes place; soap and glycerol are formed. This alkaline hydrolysis
of oils and fats is commonly known as saponification.
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Reaction of Ethanoic Acid with Metals and Bases

Ethanoic acid (Acetic acid) reacts with metals like sodium, zinc and magnesium to
liberate hydrogen gas.
2CH3COOH+2Na→2CH3COONa+H2(↑)

It reacts with a solution of sodium hydroxide to form sodium ethanoate and water.
CH3COOH+NaOH→CH3COONa+H2O

Reaction of Ethanoic Acid with Carbonates and Bicarbonates

Carboxylic acids react with carbonates and bicarbonates with the evolution of
CO2 gas. For example, when ethanoic acid (acetic acid) reacts with sodium
carbonate and sodium bicarbonate, CO2 gas is evolved.
2CH3COOH+Na2CO3→2CH3COONa+H2O+CO2
CH3COOH+NaHCO3→CH3COONa+H2O+CO2

Soaps and Detergents

Cleansing Action of Soap

When soap is added to water, the soap molecules uniquely orient themselves to
form spherical shape micelles.
The non-polar hydrophobic part or tail of the soap molecules attracts the dirt or oil
part of the fabric, while the polar hydrophilic part or head,(−COO−Na+, remains
attracted to water molecules.

The agitation or scrubbing of the fabric helps the micelles to carry the oil or dirt
particles and detach them from the fibres of the fabric.
Hard Water
Hard water contains salts of calcium and magnesium, principally as bicarbonates,
chlorides, and sulphates. When soap is added to hard water, calcium and magnesium
ions of hard water react with soap forming insoluble curdy white precipitates of
calcium and magnesium salts of fatty acids.

2C17H35COONa+MgCl2 → (C17H35COO)2Mg+2NaCl
2C17H35COONa+CaCl2 → (C17H35COO)2Ca+2NaCl

These precipitates stick to the fabric being washed and hence, interfere with the
cleaning ability of the soap. Therefore, a lot of soap is wasted if the water is hard.

Frequently Asked Questions on CBSE Class 10 Chemistry

Notes Chapter 4 Carbon and its Compounds
Q1

What is a micelle?
Micelle is an aggregate of molecules in a colloidal solution (those formed in
detergents).
Q2

What are the types of covalent bonds?

1. Single covalent bond 2. Double covalent bond 3. Triple covalent bond
Q3

What are allotropes?

Different structural modifications of the element lead to the formation of allotropes
of that particular element. For ex., carbon.