Chapter 2
Basic Concepts of
Thermodynamics
Rudolf Clausius (1822-1888)
Clausius gave the two laws of thermodynamics and the
explanations of the nature of free heat and latent heat.
“... in the memoir of Clausius ... the science of thermodynamics
came into existence.” wrote J.W. Gibbs.
2–1 Systems and Control Volumes
System: A quantity of matter or a region in space chosen for study.
Surroundings: The mass or region outside the system
Boundary: The real or imaginary surface that separates the system
from its surroundings.
The boundary of a system can be fixed or movable.
Systems may be considered to be closed or open.
Closed system (Control mass): A fixed amount of mass, and no
mass can cross its boundary.
Open system (control volume): A properly selected region in
space.
It usually encloses a device that involves mass flow such as a
compressor, turbine, or nozzle. Both mass and energy can cross the
boundary of a control volume.
Control surface: The boundaries of a control volume. It can be
real or imaginary.
2–1 Systems and Control Volumes
Figure 2–1: System, Figure 2–2: Mass cannot cross Figure 2–3: A closed
surroundings, and the boundaries of a closed system with a moving
boundary. system, but energy can. boundary.
2–1 Systems and Control Volumes
Figure 2–4: A control volume can involve fixed, moving, real, and imaginary
boundaries.
2–1 Systems and Control Volumes
Figure 2–5: An open system (a control volume) with one inlet and one exit.
2–2 Properties of a System
Property: Any characteristic of a system. Figure 2–6: Criterion to
differentiate intensive and
Some familiar properties are pressure P, extensive properties.
temperature T, volume Ѵ, and mass m.
Properties are considered to be either
intensive or extensive.
Intensive properties: Those that are
independent of the mass of a system, such
as temperature, pressure, and density.
Extensive properties: Those whose
values depend on the size—or extent—of
the system.
Specific properties: Extensive properties
per unit mass.
(𝑣 =Ѵ/m) (e = E/m)
2–2 Properties of a System
Continuum
Matter is made up of atoms that are widely Figure 2–7: Despite the
spaced in the gas phase. Yet it is very relatively large gaps between
molecules, a gas can usually
convenient to disregard the atomic nature be treated as a continuum
of a substance and view it as a continuous, because of the very large
homogeneous matter with no holes, that is, number of molecules even in
a continuum. an extremely small volume.
The continuum idealization allows us to
treat properties as point functions and to
assume the properties vary continually in
space with no jump discontinuities.
This idealization is valid as long as the
size of the system we deal with is large
relative to the space between the
molecules.
This is the case in practically all problems.
2–3 Density and Specific Gravity
Read the textbook.
2–4 State and Equilibrium
Thermodynamics deals with equilibrium states.
Equilibrium: A state of balance.
In an equilibrium state there are no unbalanced potentials (or driving
forces) within the system.
Thermal equilibrium: If the temperature is the same throughout the
entire system.
Mechanical equilibrium: If there is no change in pressure at any
point of the system with time.
Phase equilibrium: If a system involves two phases and when the
mass of each phase reaches an equilibrium level and stays there.
Chemical equilibrium: If the chemical composition of a system
does not change with time, that is, no chemical reactions occur.
2–4 State and Equilibrium
Figure 2–9: A system at two different Figure 2–10: A closed system
states. reaching thermal equilibrium.
2–4 State and Equilibrium
The State Postulate Figure 2–11: The state of
The number of properties required to nitrogen is fixed by two
independent, intensive properties.
fix the state of a system is given by
the state postulate:
The state of a simple compressible
system is completely specified by
two independent, intensive
properties.
Simple compressible system: If a
system involves no electrical,
magnetic, gravitational, motion, and
surface tension effects.
2–5 Processes and Cycles
Process: Any change that a system Figure 2–12: A process between
undergoes from one equilibrium states 1 and 2 and the process path.
state to another.
Path: The series of states through
which a system passes during a
process.
To describe a process completely,
one should specify the initial and
final states, as well as the path it
follows, and the interactions with
the surroundings.
from S.R. Turns, Thermal-Fluid Sciences—
2–5 Process and Cycles An Integrated Approach, Cambridge, 2006
Quasistatic or quasi-equilibrium
process: When a process proceeds in
such a manner that the system remains
infinitesimally close to an equilibrium
state at all times.
This is the basic assumptions used to
analyze moving systems.
An example: pressure in a fast moving
cylinder of an internal combustion
engine:
The time for the pressure to equilibrate is
determined by the speed of sound, i.e.,
the propagation speed of a pressure
disturbance.
2–5 Processes and Cycles
Process diagrams plotted by employing
thermodynamic properties as coordinates are very Figure 2–14: The P-V
diagram of a
useful in visualizing the processes.
compression process.
Some common properties that are used as
coordinates are temperature T, pressure P, and
volume (or specific volume ).
The prefix iso- is often used to designate a process
for which a particular property remains constant.
Isothermal process: A process during which the
temperature T remains constant.
Isobaric process: A process during which the
pressure P remains constant.
Isochoric (or isometric) process: A process during
which the specific volume v remains constant.
Cycle: A process during which the initial and final
states are identical.
2–5 Processes and Cycles
The Steady-Flow Process Figure 2–15: During a
The term steady implies no change with time. steady-flow process, fluid
properties within the
The opposite of steady is unsteady, or control volume may change
transient. with position but not with
A large number of engineering devices time.
operate for long periods of time under the
same conditions, and they are classified as
steady-flow devices.
Steady-flow process: A process during which
a fluid flows through a control volume
steadily.
Steady-flow conditions can be closely
approximated by devices that are intended for
continuous operation such as turbines, pumps,
boilers, condensers, and heat exchangers or
power plants or refrigeration systems.
2–5 Processes and Cycles
A thermodynamic cycle consists of a sequence of processes in
which the working fluid returns to its original thermodynamic
state.
Q: Do actual reciprocal
internal combustion
engines undergo a cycle?
from S.R. Turns, Thermal-Fluid Sciences—
An Integrated Approach, Cambridge, 2006
2–5 Processes and Cycles
Another example of quasi-equilibrium process
Figure 7–28: Reversible processes deliver the most and consume the least work.
2–5 Processes and Cycles
A solar power
plant with
Stirling engines
Video
solar.calfinder.com
Stirling engines are significantly more efficient at converting sunlight into energy
than most photovoltaic panels or concentrating solar power plants, whether
parabolic trough or tower designs. The test units have reached 31% efficiency,
compared to 16% for parabolic troughs and about 14-18% for PV panels in use
today (though newer designs not yet on the market range from 24 to as high as
41%). (from Scientific American)
Condenser:
Water pump:
2–5 Processes and Cycles
Spark-Ignition Engines
2–5 Processes and Cycles
Jet Engines
2–5 Processes and Cycles
Jet Engines
2–6 Temperature and the Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
⚫ Definition of Temperature
Internal Energy—the energy associated with the motions of the
microscopic particles (atoms, molecules, electrons, etc.) comprising
a macroscopic system.
1
U trans = n M molec v 2
2
3
U trans = n kBT
2
( T M molec v2 /(3kB ) )
U = U trans + U vib + U rot
Note: Other forms of internal energy can be
associated with chemical bonds or nuclear from S.R. Turns, Thermal-Fluid
bonds, depending on applications. Sciences—An Integrated
Approach, Cambridge, 2006
2–6 Temperature and the Zeroth Law of
Thermodynamics
The zeroth law of thermodynamics:
If two bodies are in thermal
equilibrium with a third body, they are
also in thermal equilibrium with each Figure 2–17: Two bodies reaching
other. thermal equilibrium after being
brought into contact in an isolated
By replacing the third body with a enclosure.
thermometer, the zeroth law can be
restated as two bodies are in thermal
equilibrium if both have the same
temperature reading even if they are
not in contact.
2–6 Temperature and the Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
Temperature Scales
All temperature scales are based on some easily reproducible states such
as the freezing and boiling points of water: the ice point and the steam
point.
Thermodynamic temperature scale: A temperature scale that is
independent of the properties of any substance.
Kelvin scale: A temperature scale nearly identical to the Kelvin scale is
the ideal-gas temperature scale. The temperatures on this scale are
measured using a constant-volume gas thermometer.
The 2018 official definition of the kelvin is:
The kelvin, symbol K, is the S I unit of thermodynamic
temperature; its magnitude is set by fixing the numerical
value of the Boltzmann constant to be equal to exactly
1.38064910-23 J/K.
The Boltzmann constant relates the amount of
thermodynamic energy to its temperature. This new definition provides a
universal measurement of temperature that is independent of the
properties of any substance.
Read the textbook for more information.
2–7 Pressure
Read the textbook.
2–8 Pressure Measurement Devices
Read the textbook.
Summary
• Systems and control volumes.
• Properties of a system.
• Density and specific gravity.
• State and equilibrium.
• Processes and cycles.
• Temperature and the zeroth law of
thermodynamics.
• Pressure.
• Pressure measurement devices.
