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PHYSICS FOR REMEDIAL PROGRAM

Table of contents

CHAPTER ONE ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 1

1. Vectors -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1
1.1. Vector and scalar quantities---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1
1.2.Vector addition and subtraction ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 5
1.3. Multiplication of vectors ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------21
Chapter Two ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------35
2. Kinematics ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------35
2.1. Motion in one dimension ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------35
2.1. 1. Position and reference frame --------------------------------------------------------------------------35
2.1.2. Distance and displacement -----------------------------------------------------------------------------36
2.1.3. Speed and velocity --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------37
2.1.4. Average speed and instantaneous speed--------------------------------------------------------------39
2.15. Average and Instantaneous Velocity ------------------------------------------------------------------40
2.1.6. Average and Instantaneous acceleration--------------------------------------------------------------46
2.1.7. Uniform motion -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------50
2.1.8. Uniformly accelerated motion (Motion with Constant Acceleration) -----------------------------50
2.1.9. Free Fall Motion ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------64
2.1.10. Graphical representation of motion------------------------------------------------------------------71
2.2. Motion in two dimensions ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------78
2.2.1. Projectile Motion ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------78
2.2.2. Uniform Circular Motion-------------------------------------------------------------------------------88
Chapter Three---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------98
3. Angular motion ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------98
3.1. Angular displacement (𝜃) -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------98
3.2. Angular velocity (𝜔) -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 100
3.3. Angular acceleration (rotational acceleration) ---------------------------------------------------------- 101
3.4. Relation between linear and angular motion ------------------------------------------------------------ 101
Chapter Four -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 105
4. Dynamics--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 105
4.1. Types of Forces -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 106
4.2. Newtonian’s law of motion ------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 123

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4.3. Application of Newton’s laws ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- 132

4.4. Linear momentum------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 143
4.4.1. Collisions ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 147
4.5. Center of Mass and moment of inertia ------------------------------------------------------------------- 153
4.5.1. Rotational Inertia and Rotational kinetic Energy -------------------------------------------------- 162
4.5.2. Rotational kinetic energy----------------------------------------------------------------------------- 173
4.6. Torque and angular momentum -------------------------------------------------------------------------- 179
4.6.1. Torque (𝜏) --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 179
4.6.2. Angular momentum ( 𝐿) ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- 181
4.7. Condition of Equilibrium --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 188
4.8. Dynamics of circular motion------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 208
Chapter Five -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 226
5. Work, Energy and Power------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 226
5.1. Work--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 226
5.2. Work done by a constant and variable force ------------------------------------------------------------ 234
5.2.1. Work done by a constant force ---------------------------------------------------------------------- 236
5.2.2. Work Done by a Variable Force--------------------------------------------------------------------- 242
5.3. Energy ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 252
5.3.1. Kinetic Energy (KE) ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 253
5.3.2. Potential Energy (PE)--------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 260
5.3.3. Conservation of Energy ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 263
5.4. Power-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 285
Chapter six ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 290
6. Oscillation and waves ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 290
6.1. Oscillatory motion ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 290
6.1.1. Simple harmonic motion ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- 292
6.1.2. Resonance and Forced oscillation ------------------------------------------------------------------- 334
6.2. Wave motion (travelling wave)--------------------------------------------------------------------------- 340
6.3. Types of waves --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 340
6.3.1. Transvers wave and longitudinal wave ------------------------------------------------------------- 342
6.3.2. Characteristic of waves ------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 344
6.3.3. Travelling wave equation ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- 347
6.4. Wave behavior --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 350

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6.4.1. Standing wave ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 354

6.4.2. Standing wave on strings ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- 355
6.4.3. Standing waves on a string with two fixed ends --------------------------------------------------- 364
6.4.4. Standing wave in organ pipe ------------------------------------------------------------------------- 369
6.5. Sound loudness and intensity ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- 383
6.5.1. The Doppler Effect------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 391
Chapter Seven ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 402
7. Heat and Thermodynamics------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 402
7.1. Hear, Temperature, the Zeroth law of thermodynamics and thermal Expansion ------------------- 403
7.1.1. Heat and temperature --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 403
7.1.2. Thermal contact and Thermal Equilibrium--------------------------------------------------------- 404
7.1.3. Thermal Expansion ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 409
7.2. The concept of Heat, work and Internal Energy -------------------------------------------------------- 412
7.3. Specific Heat and Latent Heat ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- 413
7.4. Law of thermodynamics----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 418
7.4.1. First law of thermodynamics ------------------------------------------------------------------------ 419
7.5. Entropy and The second law of thermodynamics ------------------------------------------------------ 435
7.5.1. Heat Engines------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 437
7.5.2. Reversible and irreversible processes --------------------------------------------------------------- 440
7.5.3. The Carnot Engine (Carnot cycle) ------------------------------------------------------------------ 441
Chapter Eight ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 450
8. Electrostatics and magnetism ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 450
8.2. Electric field due to appoint charge ---------------------------------------------------------------------- 464
8.2.1. Electric filed (𝐸) -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 464
8.2.2. Electric filed due to a point charge------------------------------------------------------------------ 465
8.3. Electric field line ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 466
8.3.1. Properties of Electric field lines --------------------------------------------------------------------- 467
8.3.2. Motion of charged particles in electric field ------------------------------------------------------- 468
8.3.3. Electric field between two parallel plates ---------------------------------------------------------- 473
8.3.4. Electric field due to electric dipole ------------------------------------------------------------------ 475
8.4. Electric Potential (V) and Electrical potential Energy (𝑈)----------------------------------------------- 482
8.4.1. Electrical potential Energy --------------------------------------------------------------------------- 482
8.4.1. Electric work done by the field of a point charge ------------------------------------------------- 482

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8.4.2. Electrical potential Energy --------------------------------------------------------------------------- 485

8.4.3. Equipotential surface --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 494
8.5. Capacitors and Dielectric --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 500
8.5.1. Parallel plate capacitor ------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 502
8.5.2. Capacitors in series and parallel --------------------------------------------------------------------- 505
8.5.3. Capacitors in parallel --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 506
8.5.4. Energy stored in Capacitor --------------------------------------------------------------------------- 511
8.5.5. Energy density of a parallel plate Capacitor (Energy density of the Electric field) ----------- 513
8.5.6. Capacitor with dielectric ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- 516
8.5.6.1. The energy stored in a parallel plate capacitor with dielectric. ----------------------------- 521
Chapter Nine-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 528
9. CURRENT AND MAGNETISM ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- 528
9.1. Electric current (I)------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 528
9.2. Resistance and Ohm’s law -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 534
9.2. Resistance and Resistivity -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 535
9.2.1. Resistivity (𝜌) ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 535

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CHAPTER ONE

1. Vectors
1.1. Vector and scalar quantities

Vector Quantity

 A vector quantity is a physical quantity that has both magnitude (size) and direction. These
quantities are typically represented by arrows, where the length of the arrow represents the
magnitude and the direction of the arrow represents the direction of the quantity.

Examples of vector quantities include:

⃗⃗ ): it represents the rate of change of displacement over time and includes both the
1. Velocity (𝑽
speed and direction of motion
⃗ ): it represents a push or pull on an object and includes both the magnitude and
2. Force (𝑭
direction of the force.
⃗ ): it represents the change in position of an object and includes both the
3. Displacement (𝑺
distance and direction between initial and final positions.
4. Acceleration (𝒂
⃗ ): it represents the rate of change velocity with respect to time and includes
both the magnitude and direction of the change in velocity.
⃗⃗ ): it represents the quantity of motion possessed by an object and includes
5. Momentum (𝑷
both the magnitude and direction of the object’s velocity.
⃗⃗ ): it represents the force experienced by a changed particle in an electric
6. Electric Field (𝑬
field and includes both the magnitude and direction of the force.
⃗⃗ ): it represents the force experienced by a magnetic object in a magnetic
7. Magnetic field (𝑩
field and includes both the magnitude and direction of the force.
⃗⃗⃗ ): it represents the rate of change angular displacement over time and
8. Angular velocity (𝝎
includes both the speed and direction of rotation

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9. Torques (𝝉
⃗ ): it represents the rotational equivalent of force and include both the magnitude
and direction of the rotational force.

Scalar quantity

 A scalar quantity is a physical quantity that is described only by its magnitude and does not
have any associated direction. In other words, scalar quantities are fully characterized by their
numerical value and unit of measurement.
Examples of scalar quantities include:

1. Temperature: it represents the hotness or coldness of a substance or object.

2. Mass: it refers to the amount of matter present in an object.
3. Time: it represents the sequence of events or duration of an event.
4. Distance: it refers to the length or separation between two points.
5. Speed: it represents the rate at which an object moves, defined as the distance traveled per
unit of time.
6. Energy: it represents the ability to do work or bring about a change.
7. Electric charge: it refers to the fundamental property of matter that determines
electromagnetic interaction.
8. Pressure: it represents the force per unit area exerted by a fluid or gas.
9. Density: it refers to the amount of mass per unit volume of a substance.
10. Volume: it represents the amount of space occupied by an object or substance.
11. Power: it refers to the rate at which work is done or energy is transferred.
12. Area: it represents the extent or size of a two-dimensional surface.
13. Voltage: it refers to the electric potential difference between two points in a circuit.

Vector Representation

There two ways of vector representation

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A. Algebraic method

Vectors are represented algebraically (analytically) by a letter(symbol) with an arrow over its
head or bold face letters can be used

Example

Velocity( ⃗𝑽
⃗ ), Acceleration( 𝒂
⃗ ), 𝑴𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒖𝒎 ( 𝒑
⃗ )𝒆𝒕𝒄.,

The magnitude of a vector is a positive scalar in addition is written as either by |A| or A.

B. Geometric (Graphically) method

Geometrically (geometrically), a vectors are represented by an arrow which has a foot(or

origin) and a head(or terminal) point.

 The length of the arrow represents the magnitude of the vector, and the direction of the arrow
represents the direction of the vector.
 A vector changes if either its magnitude or direction changes, or if both the magnitude and
direction changes.

1. Change in magnitude

If the magnitude of a vector changes, it means that its length or size changes. For example,
if a vector initially has a length of 5 units and then its length becomes 7 units, the magnitude
of the vector has changed.

Even if the direction remains the same, the vector is different due to the change in magnitude.

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2. Change in direction

If the direction of a vector changes, it means that the vector points to a different direction in
space.

For instance, if a vector initially points towards the north and then changes to point towards
the east, then direction of the vector has changed. Even if the magnitude remains the same,
the vector is different due to the change in direction.

3. Change in both magnitude and direction

If both the magnitude and direction of a vector change, it means that the vector undergoes
a transformation that affects both its length and direction it points.
For example, if a vector initially points towards the northeast with a magnitude of 3 units,
and then it changes to point due south with a magnitude of 6 units, both the magnitude and
direction of the vector have changed.

Properties of Vectors

1. Equality of vector

Two vectors are considered to be equal if they have the same magnitude and the same direction.
In other words, if two vectors have the same length and points in the same direction, they are
considered to be equal.

A  B  A  B and A // B

2. Negative Vectors
Two vectors are negative if they have the same magnitude but are 180° apart, meaning they
are pointing in opposite direction. A negative vector is a vector that has the opposite direction
of another vector.

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A   A if A  A  anti-parallel

1.2. Vector addition and subtraction

Vector addition

 Vector addition is the process of adding two or more vectors to calculate the resulting vector.
In other words, vector addition is the operation of combining multiple vectors to obtain a
resultant vector.
 Vectors can be added together using vector addition. This operation follows the rules of the
parallelogram law or the triangle law, where the resultant vector is obtained by connecting the
initial and terminal points of the vector.

 There are different laws of vector addition and they are:

Triangle law of vector addition

Parallelogram law of vector addition
Polygon law of vector addition

A. Triangle law of vector addition

 Triangle law of vector addition states that: when two vectors are represented as two sides of
the triangle with the order of magnitude and direction, then the third side of the triangle
represents the magnitude and direction of the resultant vector.
Suppose, we have two vector A and B as shown.

Now the method to add these is very simple, what we do is to simply place the head of
one vector over the tail of the other vector as shown below.

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Now join the other endpoints of both the vectors together as shown in the below figure.

 To obtain the resultant vector, we use the following rule:

R  A B 1.1
Triangle law of vector addition derivation (the magnitude of resultant vector)

⃗ , respectively, represented by the side OP and PB. Let vector 𝑅

Consider two vectors, 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 ⃗
⃗.
be the resultant of vectors 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵

From the above triangle,

 OQ    OC    CQ 
2 2 2

 OQ    OP  PC    CQ  , OP  A & OQ  R
2 2 2

R 2   A  PC    CQ  1.2 
2 2

From triangle PCQ with 𝜃 as the angle between A and B,

adj. side
cos  
hypo.
PC PC
 
PQ B
PC  PQc os   B cos  1.3

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And
Opp.side
sin  
hyp.
CQ CQ
 
PQ B
CQ  PQ sin   B sin  1.4 
Substituting Eq. (1.4) and Eq. (1.3) into Eq. (1.2) we obtain:

R 2   A  B cos     B sin  
2 2

 A2  2 AB cos   B 2 cos 2   B 2 sin 2 

 A2  B 2 sin 2   B 2 cos 2   2 AB cos 
 A2  B 2  sin 2   cos 2    2 AB cos 
1

R 2  A2  B 2  2 AB cos 
R  A  B  A2  B 2  2 AB cos  1.5
The direction of the resultant of two vectors inclined at angle 𝜃 is given by:

Opp.side
tan  
Adj.side
B sin 
tan  
A  B cos 
 B sin  
  tan 1   1.6 
 A  B cos  

B. Parallelogram law of vector addition

The parallelogram law states that: if two vectors are considered to be the adjacent sides of a
parallelogram, then the resultant of two vectors is given by the vector that is a diagonal passing
through the point of contact of two vectors.
It states that the resultant R of two vectors A and B is the diagonal of the parallelogram for
which the two vectors A and B becomes adjacent sides.

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Figure 2: parallelogram law of vectror addition

Drive expressions for magnitude and direction of the resultant of two vectors inclined 𝜃 from
each other?

The magnitude of the resultant of two vector is given by:

 OQ    OC    CQ 
2 2 2

  OP  PC    CQ 
2 2

R 2   A  B cos     B sin  
2 2

 A2  2 AB cos   B 2 cos 2   B 2 sin 2 

 A2  B 2 sin 2   B 2 cos 2   2 AB cos 
 A2  B 2  sin 2   cos 2    2 AB cos 
1

R 2  A2  B 2  2 AB cos 
R  A  B  A2  B 2  2 AB cos  1.7 
The direction of the resultant vector is given by:

Opp.side
tan  
Adj.side
B sin 

A  B cos 
 B sin  
  tan 1   1.8
 A  B cos  

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Cosine law

The cosine law, also known as the law of cosine, is a trigonometric formula that relates the
lengths of the sides of a triagle to the cosine of one of its angle.

It can be used to find the length of a side of a triangle when the lengths of the other two sides
and the measured of one angle are known.

⃗ having an angle 𝜃 between them is given by:

The resultant of two vectors 𝐴 and 𝐵

R A2  B 2  2 AB cos  ,  c osine law if   90o 1.9 

R A2  B 2  2 AB cos 180o    , if 90o    180o 1.10 
Since, cos(180° − 𝜃) = −𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

R A2  B 2  2 AB cos  , if 90o    180o 1.11

Sine law

The sine law, also known as the law of sines, is a mathematical rule used in trigonometry to
relate the side and angle of a triagle.

Sine law: States that “the ratio of sine of an angle to its opposite side is constant.” i.e., if:

sin  sin  sin 

  1.12 
R B A

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C. Polygon law of vector addition

 Polygon law of vector addition states that if a number of vectors can be represented in
magnitude and direction by the sides of a polygon taken in the same order, then their resultant
is represented in magnitude and direction by closing side of the polygon taken in the opposite
order.

Properties of vector addition

 Vector addition is commutative

A B  B  A 1.13
 Vector addition is associative
 A  B  C  A  B  C  1.14 
 Vector addition is distributive
  A  B   A  B 1.15 

 Existence of identity. For any given vector, say 𝐴,

Ao  A 1.16 
 Existence of inverse. Every vector has an additive inverse,
 
A A  o 1.17 

Subtraction of vector

The subtraction of two vector is similar to addition.

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Since vectors have both magnitude and direction two vectors cannot be subtracted from each
other by the method of ordinary algebra. Thus, this subtraction can be done either
geometrically or analytically.
⃗ which are inclined to each other at angle 𝜃, the difference
For two non-zero vectors 𝐴 and 𝐵
⃗ = 𝐴− 𝐵
𝑅 ⃗ is obtained and the angle between 𝐴 and −𝐵
⃗ is 180° − 𝜃.
If you want to subtract both the vectors using the triangle law then simply reverse the direction
of any vector and add it to the other one as shown.

Figure3: subtraction of vectors

⃗ is the same as the resultant of 𝐴 and −𝐵

 The difference 𝐴 − 𝐵 ⃗.
⃗ = 𝐴 + (−𝐵
 We can write 𝐴 − 𝐵 ⃗ ) and using the Eq. (1.5), we have:

R  A  B  A2  B 2  2 AB cos 180o    1.18

⃗ is vector with magnitude is given by Eq. (1.18).
Thus the difference 𝐴 − 𝐵
Since, 𝑐𝑜𝑠(180° − 𝜃) = −𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 , we get Eq. (1.18) as,

R  A B  A2  B 2  2 AB cos  1.19 
Again from Figure 3, and using equation similar to Eq. (1.6), we obtain the direction of two
resultant vectors as,

 B sin 180o    
tan  2   
 A  B cos 180o    
1.20 
 
 B sin 180o    
 2  tan 1  
 A  B cos 180o    
1.21
 

But sin(180° − 𝜃) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 and we know that cos(180° − 𝜃) = −𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃, Eq. (1.20) becomes,

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 B sin  
 2  tan 1   1.22 
 A  B cos  

Example

⃗ of magnitude 5 units and 7 units make an angle 60° with each other.
1. Two vectors 𝐴 and 𝐵
⃗.
A. Find the magnitude of the difference vector 𝐴 − 𝐵
B. Find its direction with respect to the vector 𝐴.

Given Required

𝐴 = 5 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝛼 =?
⃗ = 7 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡
𝐵
𝜃 = 60°
Solution
A. The magnitude of resultant of two vector is given by:

R  A B  A2  B 2  2 AB cos 
  5   7    2  5  7  cos 60
2 2

 25  49   70  0.5 
 74  35
 39
R  6.24 unit
⃗⃗ − 𝑩
B. The angle that 𝑨 ⃗⃗ makes with the vector 𝑨
⃗⃗ is given by:
 7 sin 60 
 2  tan 1  
 5  7 cos 60 
  7  0.866  
 tan 1  
 5   7  0.5  
 6.062 
 tan 1  
 1.5 
 tan 1  4.041
 2  76.1o
2. Two vectors have equal magnitude and their resultant also has the same magnitude. What is
the angle between the two vectors?

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Solution

A  B  A B
2 2
R  A B  A  B  2 A B cos
2 2
A  A B  A  A  2 A A cos
2 2
A A  A  2 A A cos  Squareboth side
2 2 2
A  A  A  2 A A cos
2 2 2
A  2 A  2 A cos 
2 2 2
A  2 A  2 A cos
2 2
 A  2 A cos
1  2cos
1
cos 
2
  cos 1  21   1200

⃗ have equal magnitudes. If magnitude of 𝐴 + 𝐵

3. Two vector 𝐴 and 𝐵 ⃗ is equal to n times the
⃗ , then the angle between 𝐴 and 𝐵
magnitude 𝐴 + 𝐵 ⃗ is?
Solution
A B  n A B
A2  B 2  2 AB cos   n A2  B 2  2 AB cos 180o   
A2  B 2  2 AB cos   n A2  B 2  2 AB cos  , if A  B  A  B
A2  A2  2 AA2 cos   n A2  A2  2 AA cos 
2 A2  2 A2 cos   n 2 A2  2 A2 cos 
2 A2 1  cos    n 2 A2 1  cos    Square both side
2 A2 1  cos    2A2 n 2 1  cos  
1  cos   n2 1  cos 
1  cos   n 2  n 2 cos 
n 2 cos   cos   n 2  1
 n2  1 cos  n2  1
n2  1
cos  
n2  1
 n2  1 
  cos 1  2 
 n 1 

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4. Two vectors having equal magnitude A makes an angle 𝜃 with each other.

⃗ | and |𝐴 − 𝐵
A. Find the magnitude of |𝐴 + 𝐵 ⃗|
⃗ | and |𝐴 − 𝐵
B. The direction of the of |𝐴 + 𝐵 ⃗|

Given Required

⃗ | = |𝐴 | = |𝐵
|𝐴 + 𝐵 ⃗|=𝐴=𝐵 ⃗ | =? And |𝐴 − 𝐵
A. |𝐴 + 𝐵 ⃗ | =?

⃗ | & |𝐴 − 𝐵
B . 𝛼 =? For |𝐴 + 𝐵 ⃗ | =?

Solution

⃗
A. The magnitude of the sum of 𝐴 + 𝐵

A  B  A  A2  B 2  2 AB cos  , hence A  B  A  B cos  2   cos    

 cos  cos   sin  sin 
 A2  A2  2 AA cos   cos 2   sin 2 
 A2  A2  2 A2 cos   cos 2   1  cos 2 
 2 A2  2 A2 cos  cos  2   2 cos 2   1
 2 A2 1  cos   , 1  cos   2 cos 2  2  cos  22   2 cos 2  2   1
 4 A2 cos 2  2  cos   2 cos 2  2   1
A  B  2 A cos  2  cos   1  2 cos 2  2 

⃗,
B. The magnitude of the difference of 𝐴 − 𝐵

A  B  A  A2  B 2  2 AB cos 180o    cos  2   2 cos 2   1

 2 1  sin 2    1
 A  A  2 AA cos  , A  B  A
2 2
 2  2 sin 2   1
 2 A2  2 A2 cos  cos  2   1  2 sin 2 
 2 A2 1  cos   , but 1  cos   2sin 2  2  cos  22   1  2 sin 2  2 
cos   1  2 sin 2  2 
 4 A2 sin 2  2 
cos   1  2 sin 2  2 
A  B  2 A sin  2  1  cos   2 sin 2  2 

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C. The resultant will make an angle 𝛼 with the first vector were

A sin  2 A sin  2  cos  2  2 A sin  2  cos  2 

i ) tan      tan  2 
A  A cos A 1  cos  2 A cos 2  2 
A sin  2 A sin  2  cos  2  2 A sin  2  cos  2 
ii ) tan      cot  2 
A  A cos A 1  cos  2 A sin 2  2 

Thus, the resultant of two equal vectors bisects the angle between them.

Vector addition using components

To perform vector addition using components, you need to break down each vector into x and
y (or x, y, and z in three dimensions) components and then add the corresponding components
together.
⃗ in a Cartesian coordinate system can be expressed as;
 The two vectors 𝐴 and 𝐵

A  Ax xˆ  Ay yˆ  Az zˆ 

 1.23
B  Bx xˆ  By yˆ  Bz zˆ 

In three dimensional coordinate system, the unit vectors are denoted by 𝑥̂, 𝑦̂ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧̂ along
+𝑥, +𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 + 𝑧 respectively.
An alternative notation is: 𝑥̂ = 𝑖̂ , 𝑦̂ = 𝑗̂, 𝑧̂ = 𝑘̂, then Eq. (1.23) becomes

A  Ax iˆ  Ay ˆj  Az iˆ 

 1.24 
B  Bx iˆ  By ˆj  Bz iˆ 

The symbols 𝑖̂, 𝑗̂ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑘̂ represent unit vectors. They form a set of mutually perpendicular
vectors in a right-handed coordinate system.

iˆ  iˆ  ˆj  ˆj  kˆ  kˆ  1 1.24 

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 Then the addition of two vectors is equivalent to adding their corresponding x, y and z
components.

R  A  B   Ax  Bx  iˆ   Ay  By  ˆj   Az  Bz  kˆ 1.26
The magnitude of resultant vector is given by:

R Rx2  Ry2  Rz2 1.27 

 Similarly the subtraction of two vectors is equivalent to subtracting the corresponding x, y
and z component.

R  A  B   Ax  Bx  iˆ   Ay  By  ˆj   Az  Bz  kˆ 1.28

The above rules (Eq. (1.26) and Eq. (1.28)) form an analytical way of adding and subtracting
two vectors.

Example

⃗ are given in the component form as 𝐴 = 5𝑖̂ + 7𝑗̂ − 4𝑘̂ and 𝐵

1. Two vectors 𝐴 and 𝐵 ⃗ = 6𝑖̂ +

3𝑗̂ − 2𝑘̂. Find 𝐴 + 𝐵

⃗,𝐵
⃗ + 𝐴, 𝐴 − 𝐵
⃗ and 𝐵
⃗ −𝐴
Solution

  
R  A  B  5iˆ  7 ˆj  4kˆ  6iˆ  3 ˆj  2kˆ 
  5  6  iˆ   7  3 ˆj   4  2  kˆ
 11iˆ  10 ˆj  6kˆ
  
R  B  A  6iˆ  3 ˆj  2kˆ  5iˆ  7 ˆj  4kˆ 
  6  5  iˆ   3  7  ˆj   2  4  kˆ
 11iˆ  10 ˆj  6kˆ
  
R  A  B  5iˆ  7 ˆj  4kˆ  6iˆ  3 ˆj  2kˆ 
  5  6  iˆ   7  3 ˆj   4  2  kˆ
 iˆ  4 ˆj  2kˆ
  
R  B  A  6iˆ  3 ˆj  2kˆ  5iˆ  7 ˆj  4kˆ 
  6  5  iˆ   3  7  ˆj   2  4  kˆ
 iˆ  4 ˆj  2kˆ

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Remark!

 The vector 𝐴 + 𝐵⃗ and 𝐵⃗ + 𝐴 are same and vector 𝐴 − 𝐵⃗ and 𝐵⃗ − 𝐴 are opposite to each other.
 The addition of two vectors using components depends on the choice of the coordinate system.
But the geometric way of adding and subtracting two vectors is independent of the coordinate
system used.
⃗ = −𝑖̂ − 𝑎𝑗̂ are vectors in xy plane. What is the value of “a” such
2. Suppose 𝐴 = 3𝑖̂ − 2𝑗̂ and 𝐵
⃗ = 2𝑖̂?
that 𝐴 + 𝐵

Solution

A  B  2iˆ
   
3iˆ  2 ˆj  iˆ  ajˆ  2iˆ
 3  1 iˆ   2  a  ˆj  2iˆ
2iˆ   2  a  ˆj  2iˆ
  2  a  ˆj  2iˆ  2iˆ
  2  a  ˆj  0
 2  a  ˆj  0
2 ˆj  ajˆ  0
ajˆ  2 ˆj
a  2

Components of Vector

 Vector can be resolved into its components with respect to a particular coordinate system. This
process is known as vector resolution.
 Any vector in two-dimensional space (such as 𝑥𝑦-plane) can be completely described by the
sum of two perpendicular vectors. These perpendicular vectors are called the components of
the vector.

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Fig: components of vector A

Where 𝜃 is the angle that vector makes with +ve x-axis measured counter clockwise from this
axis.
The 𝑥 − components of vector A is given by the projection of A along the 𝑥 −axis and is
denoted by 𝐴𝑥 and the y-component of vector A is given by the projection of A along the y-
axis and is denoted by 𝐴𝑦 . These components represent the magnitudes of the projection of
vector A along the respective coordinate axes.
From the former figure and the definition of sine and cosine:
adj. side Ax
cos   
hyp. A
Ax  A cos  1.28
Opp.side Ay
sin   
Hyp. A
Ay  A sin  1.29 
A vector can be resolved into two or more components such their sum will give the original
vector in magnitude and direction. This concept is known as vector resolution or vector
decomposition. i.e.,

A  Ax  Ay 1.30 
 If two perpendicular components of a vector A, denoted as 𝐴𝑥 and 𝐴𝑦 , vector A can be obtained
by using Pythagoras’ theorem. If 𝐴𝑥 and 𝐴𝑦 are components of a vector A along the x and y
axes, respectively, then the magnitude of the resultant vector A can be calculated using the
following formula:

A Ax2  Ay2 1.31

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Unit Vector

A unit vector is a vector that has a magnitude (or length) of one (1) and is often used to indicate
direction in a specific space. In other words, it is a vector that has been normalized to have a
length of 1 while maintaining its direction.
Unit vector is a dimensionless quantity and typically denoted by replacing a hat symbol ( ̂ ),
above the vector symbol, such as 𝐴̂, 𝑢̂, 𝑒̂ 𝑒𝑡𝑐., to indicate that it is a unit vector.

ˆ  A  Ax i  Ay j  AZ k
A 1.32 
A Ax  Ay  Az

A vector A is given by:

ˆ
A A A 1.33

Where 𝐴̂ ( A “hat” ) is unit vector in the direction of 𝐴.

ˆ 1
A 1.34 

Example

1. A given 𝐴 = 𝑖̂ + 2𝑗̂ + 4𝑘̂. Find a unit vector in the direction of 𝐴.

Given required

𝐴 = 𝑖̂ + 2𝑗̂ + 4𝑘̂ 𝐴̂ =?
Solution

A
Aˆ 
A
iˆ  2 ˆj  4kˆ

iˆ    2 ˆj    4kˆ 
2 2 2

iˆ  2 ˆj  4kˆ iˆ  2 ˆj  4kˆ
 
1  4  16 21
1 ˆ 2 ˆ 4 ˆ
Aˆ  i j k
21 21 21

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The magnitude (norm) of a unit vector is given by:

2 2 2
 1  ˆ ˆ  2  ˆ ˆ  4  ˆ ˆ
Aˆ    i i    j j  k k
 21   21   21 
1 4 16
  
21 21 21
21

21
ˆ
A 1

⃗ = −𝑖̂ − 4𝑗̂ and vector 𝐶 is in the 𝑥𝑦 plane with the property 𝐴 + 𝐵

2. Suppose 𝐴 = 3𝑖̂ − 2𝑗̂, 𝐵 ⃗ −

𝐶 = 0. Determine a unit vector along 𝐶 ?

Solution

A B C  0
  
3iˆ  2 ˆj  iˆ  4 ˆj  C  0 
 3  1 iˆ   2  4  ˆj  C  0
2iˆ  6 ˆj  C  0
C  2iˆ  6 ˆj
C
Uˆ C 
C
2iˆ  6 ˆj

 2    6 
2 2

2iˆ  6 ˆj

40



2 iˆ  3 ˆj 
2 10
1 3 ˆ
Uˆ C  iˆ  j
10 10

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1.3. Multiplication of vectors

A. Multiplication of vector by a scalar

The product of a scalar 𝜆 and a vector 𝐴 is a new vector whose magnitude is 𝜆𝐴 and whose
direction is the same as that of 𝐴 if 𝜆 is positive and opposite to 𝐴 if 𝜆 if negative.

B. Scalar (dot) product of two vectors

The scalar product (dot product) of two vectors is defined as the product of the magnitudes of
both the vectors and cosine of the angle between them.
⃗ having an angle 𝜃 between them, then their scalar
Thus, if there are two vectors 𝐴 and 𝐵
product is defined as:

A  B  A B cos  1.35
A B
cos  
A B
 A B 
  cos 1   1.36 
 A B
 

⃗ | are magnitudes of 𝐴 and 𝐵

Where |𝐴| and |𝐵 ⃗.

Properties of scalar (dot) product

⃗ is always scalar. It is positive if the angle between the vectors is

 The product quantity 𝐴 ⋅ 𝐵
acute (𝑖. 𝑒. , < 90°) and negative if the angle between them is obtuse (i.e., 90° < 𝜃 < 180°).
 The scalar product obeys commutative and distributive laws i.e.,

⃗ =𝐵
𝐴⋅𝐵 ⃗ ⋅ 𝐴 ⟹ commutative law
⃗ + 𝐶) = 𝐴 ⋅ 𝐵
𝐴 ⋅ (𝐵 ⃗ + 𝐴 ⋅ 𝐶 ⟹ distributive (associative law)

 The scalar product of two vectors will be maximum when 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 1, i.e., 𝜃 = 0°, i.e., when
the vectors are parallel.

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 A B Max
 A B 1.37 
 The scalar product of two vectors will be minimum when 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = −1, i.e., 𝜃 = 180°, i.e.,
when the vectors are anti- parallel.

 A B Min
 A B 1.38 
⃗ are perpendicular to each other then, their scalar product 𝐴 ⋅ 𝐵
 If two vectors 𝐴 and 𝐵 ⃗ = 0,
⃗ are said to be mutually orthogonal.
because 𝑐𝑜𝑠90° = 0. Then the vector 𝐴 and 𝐵

 The scalar product a vector with itself is termed as self-dot product and is given by:

 A 1.39 
2
 A  A  A A cos   A2 , where   0o
The magnitude or norm of the vector 𝐴 is given by

A A A 1.40
 In case of a unit vector 𝑛̂:

nˆ  nˆ  11cos 0  1 1.41
For Example.

iˆ  iˆ  ˆj  ˆj  kˆ  kˆ  1 1.42 
 In the case of orthogonal unit vectors 𝑖̂, 𝑗̂ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑘̂,

iˆ  ˆj  ˆj  kˆ  kˆ  iˆ  11cos 90  0 1.43
 When the vectors are in component forms as; 𝐴 = 𝐴𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝐴𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝐴𝑧 𝑘̂ and 𝐵
⃗ = 𝐵𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝐵𝑦 𝑗̂ +

𝐵𝑧 𝑘̂ , the dot product is obtained by:

 
A  B  Axiˆ  Ay ˆj  Az kˆ  Bxiˆ  By ˆj  Bz kˆ 
 Ax Bxiˆ  iˆ  Ay By ˆj  ˆj  Az Bz kˆ  kˆ

A  B  Ax Bx  Ay By  Az Bz 1.44 

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Scalar Projection

Scalar projection, also known as scalar projection of vector A onto vector B, is a process of
finding the length of the component of vector A in the direction of vector B. It is the scalar
value obtained by taking the dot product of the two vectors and dividing it by the magnitude
of vector B.
In other words, the scalar projection is equal to the length of the vector A multiplied by the
cosine of the angle between vector A and vector B.
⃗ is given by:
The scalar projection of vector 𝐴 on to 𝐵
Ax Bx  Ay By  Az Bz A  B
A cos    1.45
Bˆ Bˆ
⃗ on to 𝐴 is given by:
The scalar projection of vector 𝐵
Ax Bx  Ay By  Az Bz A  B
B cos    1.46 
Aˆ Aˆ

 It’s important to note that scalar projection only provides information about the magnitude of
(length) of the projected component. It does not give any information about the direction or
orientation of the projected component.

Application of dot production

The dot product has numerous applications in various fields, including mathematics, physics,
computer science, and engineering. Some applications of the dot product:

A. Geometry

The dot product can be used to find the angle between two vectors. The dot product of two
vectors is zero if and only if the vectors are orthogonal (perpendicular).
B. Physics

In physics, the dot product is used to calculate work done by a force. The dot product of
the force vector and the displacement vector gives the scalar value of the work done.

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C. Projection

The dot product can be used to find the projection of one vector onto another. It helps in
determining the component of a vector in a different direction.
D. Signal processing

The dot product is employed in the field of signal processing to determine the similarity
between two signals. It can be used in application such as speech recognition and image
processing.
E. Computer graphics

The dot product is used extensively in computer graphics for lighting calculations. It helps
in calculating the intensity or brightness of a light source on a surface.
F. Quantum mechanics

In quantum mechanics, the dot product is used to calculate probabilities and determine the
orthogonally of quantum states.

G. Machine learning

In machine learning algorithms, the dot product is used for calculating similarity measures,
such as cosine similarity or dot product similarity, between vectors. It plays a crucial role
in various applications, including recommendation systems and text classification.

H. Navigation

The dot product can aid in determining the direction (heading) and distance traveled in
navigation systems, including GPS or satellite navigation.

Example

1. Consider vector 𝐴 = 2𝑖̂ + 4𝑗̂ − 3𝑘̂ and 𝐵

⃗ = 𝑖̂ + 2𝑗̂ + 2𝑘̂. Find the scalar projection of :
⃗
A. 𝐴 on to 𝐵
⃗ on to 𝐴
B. 𝐵
⃗
C. Find the angle between 𝐴 and 𝐵

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Solution
⃗⃗ on to 𝑩
A. Projection of 𝑨 ⃗⃗ is given by

A  B Ax Bx  Ay By  Az Bz
Aon to B  
Bˆ Bˆ


 2iˆ  4 ˆj  3kˆ    iˆ  2 ˆj  2kˆ 
,  iˆ 
2
 iˆ  iˆ
 iˆ    2 ˆj    4kˆ 
2 2 2

286 4
 
1 4  4 9
4
Aon to B 
3

⃗ on to 𝐴 is given by
B. Projection of 𝐵

B  A Ax Bx  Ay By  Az Bz
B on to  
Bˆ B
4
 ,
 2    4    3 
2 2 2

4 4
 
4  16  9 29
4
B on to 
29
⃗ is given by
C. The angle between 𝐴 and 𝐵

A  B  A B cos 
A B 4
cos     0.2476
A B  3  29 
  cos  0.2476   75.660
1

The vector product (cross product) of two vector

 The vector product, also known as the cross product, is an operation between two vectors in
three-dimensional space that results in a new vector. It denoted by the symbol “×” or by
using the notation 𝐴 × 𝐵.

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 The cross product of two vectors, A and B, produces a vector C that is perpendicular to both
A and B.

C  A  B  A B sin  nˆ 1.47 
The magnitude of the vector product is equal to the product of the magnitudes of A and B
multiplied by the sine of the angle between the two vectors.

The direction of the resulting vector is determined by the right-hand rule. If you orient your
right hand so that your fingers represent the direction of vector A and curl your fingers towards
vector B, then your thumb points in the direction of the resulting vector.

⃗ is given by
A unit vector which is perpendicular to both vector 𝐴 and 𝐵
A B
Cˆ A B  1.48
A B

Properties of vector (cross) product

 The vector product of any two vector is always another vector. The resultant of cross product
is a vector quantity. i.e.,

A  B  C  vector 1.49 
⃗ is perpendicular to both vectors 𝐴 and 𝐵
 The direction of 𝐴 × 𝐵 ⃗.
 The vector product of two vectors is not commute, i.e.,

   
A  B   B  A but A  B  C  A  B  A  C 1.50 
⃗ and 𝐵
In the case of the product vectors 𝐴 × 𝐵 ⃗ × 𝐴, the magnitudes are equal but directions
are opposite to each other.
⃗ =0
 For collinear vectors, 𝐴 × 𝐵
Vector that lie along the same line or parallel lines are known to be collinear vectors.
 The vector product of two vectors will have maximum magnitude when 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 1, i.e., 𝜃 =
⃗ are orthogonal to each other.
90° i.e., when the vectors 𝐴 and 𝐵

 A B Max
 A B nˆ 1.51

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The vector product of two non-zero vectors will be minimum when |𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃| = 0, i.e., 𝜃 =
0° 𝑜𝑟 180°.

 A B Min
0 1.52 
This is, the vector product of two non-zero vectors vanishes, if the vectors are either parallel
or anti -parallel.

The self-cross product, i.e., product of a vector with itself is the null vector.

A  A  A A sin  nˆ  0 1.53 
⃗ is simply denoted as zero.
In physics the null vector 0

The self-vector products of unit vectors are thus zero.

iˆ  iˆ  ˆj  ˆj  kˆ  kˆ  11sin 0  0 1.54 
When the vector are in component form as, 𝐴 = 𝐴𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝐴𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝐴𝑧 𝑘̂ and 𝐵
⃗ = 𝐵𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝐵𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝐵𝑧 𝑘̂,

then the cross product is obtained by using the determinant form as;

iˆ ˆj kˆ
A  B  Ax Ay Az
Bx By Bz
A  B   Ay Bz  Az By  iˆ   Az Bx  Ax Bz  ˆj   Ax By  Ay Bx  kˆ 1.55
Counter clockwise direction as positive (𝑖̂ ⟶ 𝑗̂ ⟶ 𝑘̂ ),

iˆ  ˆj  kˆ but ˆj  iˆ  kˆ 

ˆj  kˆ  iˆ but kˆ  ˆj  iˆ  1.56 

kˆ  iˆ  ˆj but iˆ  kˆ   ˆj 

If two vectors 𝐴 and 𝐵 ⃗ form adjacent sides in a parallelogram, then the magnitude of |𝐴 × 𝐵⃗|
will give the area of the parallelogram.

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A  B  A B sin  1.57 

Figure: 4. Area of parallelogram

Since we can divided a parallelogram into two equal triangles, the area of a triangle with 𝐴
⃗ as sides is 1 |𝐴 × 𝐵
and 𝐵 ⃗ |.
2

A B
Area  1.58
2

Figure 5: Area of triangle

Application of vector (cross) product

A number of quantities used in physics are defined through vector products. Particularly
physical quantities representing rotational effects likes:
Torque 𝜏 = 𝑟 × 𝐹. Where 𝐹 is force and 𝑟 is position vector of a particle.
Angular momentum 𝐿⃗ = 𝑟 × 𝑃⃗ . Where 𝑝. Is linear momentum
Linear velocity𝑉⃗ = 𝜔
⃗ × 𝑟, where 𝜔
⃗ is angular velocity.
Magnetic force,
Area of parallelogram,
Area of triangle and volume of parallelepiped it combination of with the dot product.…. Etc.

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Examples

⃗ are two non-zero vector. If |𝐴 × 𝐵

1. Vector 𝐴 and 𝐵 ⃗ | = 𝐴⋅ 𝐵
⃗ , what is the angle between them?

Given Required

⃗|= 𝐴⋅𝐵
|𝐴 × 𝐵 ⃗ 𝜃 =?
Solution
 Based on the concept of scalar and cross product rule,
A B  A B

A B sin   A B cos 
sin   cos 
sin 
1
cos 
tan   1
  tan 1 1
  450

2. Suppose 𝐴 = 3𝑖̂ − 2𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂ and 𝐵

⃗ = −𝑖̂ − 4𝑗̂ + 3𝑘̂ and 𝐶 is a vector in the 𝑥 axis with the
⃗ + 𝐶 ) = 0. Then determine vector 𝐶?
property that; 𝐴 ⋅ (𝐵

Solution


A B  C  0 
3iˆ  2 ˆj  kˆ    iˆ  4 ˆj  3kˆ  Ciˆ   0
3iˆ  2 ˆj  kˆ    C  1 iˆ  4 ˆj  3kˆ   0
 
3 C 1  8  3  0
3C  3  8  3  0
3C  8  0
3C  8
8 ˆ
C i
3

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⃗ = 2𝑖̂ + 3𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂. Find a unit vector which is perpendicular

3. Suppose vector 𝐴 = 2𝑖̂ + 2𝑗̂ and 𝐵
⃗?
to both vector 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵

Solution

iˆ ˆj kˆ
A B  2 2 0
2 3 1
A  B  2iˆ  2 ˆj  2kˆ
A B 2iˆ  2 ˆj  2kˆ
Uˆ A B  
A B  2    2    2 
2 2 2

2iˆ  2 ˆj  2kˆ

12



2 i  ˆj  kˆ
ˆ 
2 3
Uˆ A B 
1
3

iˆ  ˆj  kˆ 
4. How do you prove that, if the sum and difference of two vectors are perpendicular, then the
vectors have equal magnitude?

Solution
If two vector are perpendicular then the dot product (scalar product) must be zero.

 A  B A  B 
 A iˆ  A ˆj  A kˆ  B iˆ  B ˆj  B kˆ    A iˆ  A ˆj  A kˆ  B iˆ  B ˆj  B kˆ   0
x y z x y z x y z x y z

 Ax  Bx  Ax  Bx  iiˆˆ   Ay  By  Ay  By  ˆˆjj   Az  Bz  Az  Bz  kk
ˆˆ  0
 Ax  Bx  Ax  Bx    Ay  By  Ay  By    Az  Bz  Az  Bz   0
Ax2  Ax Bx  Ax Bx  Bx2  Ay2  Ay By  Ay By  By2  Az2  Az Bz  Az Bz  Bz2  0
Ax2  Bx2  Ay2  By2  Az2  Bz2  0
Ax2  Ay2  Az2  Bx2  By2  Bz2  0
Ax2  Ay2  Az2  Bx2  By2  Bz2
A B

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5. If 𝑛̂ = 𝑎𝑖̂ + 𝑏𝑗̂ is perpendicular to the vector (𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂), then determine the value of a and b?

Given Required

𝑛̂ = 𝑎𝑖̂ + 𝑏𝑗̂ 𝑎 =? 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 =?

𝑥 = 𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂
Solution
nˆ  x  nˆ x cos90, because nˆ  x
nˆ  x  0
  
aiˆ  bjˆ  iˆ  ˆj  0
ab  0
a  b i 
nˆ  a 2  b 2  1, because, iˆ  ˆj  kˆ  1,

nˆ  a 2  b 2  1
2

a 2  b2  1  ii 
Put Eq.(i )in to Eq.  ii  ,
 b   b2  1
2

b2  b2  1
2b 2  1
1
b2 
2
1
b
2
a  b
1
a
2

⃗ = 𝑖̂ − 3𝑘̂?
6. What is the area of a parallelogram formed by the vector 𝐴 = 3𝑖̂ + 4𝑗̂ and 𝐵

Given Required

𝐴 = 3𝑖̂ + 4𝑗̂ ⃗ | =?
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = |𝐴 × 𝐵
⃗ = 𝑖̂ − 3𝑘̂
𝐵

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Solution

iˆ ˆj kˆ
A B  3 4 0
1 0 3
 12iˆ  9 ˆj  4kˆ
A B   12    9    4   15.5
2 2 2

3. Suppose 𝐴 = 𝑖̂ − 𝑗̂, 𝐵⃗ = 2𝑖̂ + 3𝑗̂ and 𝐶 = −𝑖̂ + 2𝑘̂. Find the volume of a parallelepiped
⃗ & ⃗⃗⃗𝐶
formed by 𝐴, 𝐵

Solution

Volume  A  ( A  B
iˆ ˆj kˆ
BC  2 3 0
1 0 2
 6iˆ  4 ˆj  3kˆ
   
A  B  C  iˆ  ˆj  6iˆ  4 ˆj  3kˆ 
 64
 
A  B  C  10 unit cube

Review Question

Choose the correct answer from a given alternative choice

1. Which of the following is not correct in clockwise system?

A. 𝑘̂ × 𝑗̂ = −𝑖̂ C. 𝑖̂ × 𝑗̂ = −𝑗̂ × 𝑖̂
B. 𝑖̂ × 𝑖̂ = 1 D. 𝑖̂ × 𝑘̂ = −𝑗̂
2. Which of the following is NOT true of vector product?
⃗ = −𝐵
A. 𝐴 × 𝐵 ⃗ ×𝐴 ⃗ = |𝐴 × 𝐵
C. 𝐴 ⊥ 𝐵 ⃗ | = 𝐴𝐵

⃗ + 𝐶) = 𝐵
B. 𝐴 × (𝐵 ⃗ ×𝐴+𝐴×𝐶 ⃗ ⇒𝐴×𝐵
D. 𝐴 ∥ 𝐵 ⃗ =0

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3. If 𝐴 = 8𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂ − 2𝑘̂ and 𝐵

⃗ = 5𝑖̂ − 3𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂ then what is the value of 𝐵
⃗ × 𝐴?
A. 3𝑖̂ + 4𝑗̂ − 3𝑘̂ C. −5 − 18𝑗̂ − 29𝑘̂
B. −3𝑖̂ − 4𝑗̂ + 3𝑘̂ D. 5𝑖̂ + 18𝑗̂ + 29𝑘̂
⃗ are parallel, if
4. Two vectors 𝐴 and 𝐵
⃗ =0
A. 𝐴 × 𝐵 ⃗ =0
C. 𝐴 + 𝐵
⃗ =0
B. 𝐴 ⋅ 𝐵 ⃗ =0
D. 𝐴 − 𝐵
⃗ are equal in magnitude. What can
5. The sum and difference of two non-zero vectors 𝐴 and 𝐵
you conclude about these two vector?
⃗ have the same direction
A. 𝐴 and 𝐵 ⃗ have same magnitude
C. 𝐴 and 𝐵
⃗ have opposite direction
B. 𝐴 and 𝐵 ⃗ are perpendicular to each other
D. 𝐴 and 𝐵
6. Suppose the sum and difference of two vectors are perpendicular to each other. Which one of
the following is true about vector?
⃗ | = |𝐴 − 𝐵
A. |𝐴 + 𝐵 ⃗| ⃗
C. 𝐴 = 𝐵
⃗|
B. |𝐴| = |𝐵 B. 𝐴2 = 𝐵
⃗
7. Which of the following condition is true for equal vectors?
A. They have the same direction but not same magnitude
B. They have the same magnitude and direction
C. They have the same initial point
D. They are parallel to the same line
8. A vector 𝐴 is given in a rectangular coordinate system as 𝐴 = 4𝑖̂ + 3𝑗̂ where 𝑖̂ and 𝑗̂ are unit
vectors along the 𝑥 −axis and 𝑦 − axis. A vector which is three times as long 𝐴 is
A. 12𝑖̂ + 9𝑗̂ C. 12 + 3𝑗̂
B. 4𝑖̂ + 9𝑗̂ D. 12𝑖̂ − 9𝑗̂
9. Which of the following vectors is perpendicular to the vector 𝐴 = 4𝑖̂ + 3𝑗̂?
A. 4𝑖̂ − 3𝑗̂ C. 3𝑖̂ + 4𝑗̂
B. 3𝑖̂ − 4𝑗̂ D. −4𝑖̂ − 3𝑗̂
⃗ , 𝐶 are three vectors, which of the following is not a vector?
10. If 𝐴, 𝐵
⃗ +𝐶
A. 𝐴 + 𝐵 ⃗ ×𝐶
C. 𝐴 × 𝐵

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⃗
B. 𝐴 × 𝐵 ⃗ ×𝐶
D. 𝐴 ⋅ 𝐵

Solution

1. B 6. B
2 B 7. B
3. D 8. A
4. A 9. B
5. D 10. D

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Chapter Two

2. Kinematics

Kinematics

 Kinematics is the branch of mechanics which describes (deals) the motion of objects or system
of bodies without consideration of the cause of motion.
 Kinematics is used to define the motion of a particle or body without consideration of the
forces causing the motion
 Kinematics describes motion without its cause.
 Kinematics is a part of mechanics that studies the relationship among displacement, velocity,
acceleration and time without reference to cause motion.
 Kinematic relationships are used to help us determine the trajectory of a projectile, speed of
satellite in its orbit and accelerations of various particles

2.1. Motion in one dimension

2.1. 1. Position and reference frame

Position: Where you are located.

The location of a particle with respect to a fixed reference point is known as position.
The particle’s location is specified by its coordinate, which will be denoted by x or y.

Reference frame

The frame relative to which the position or the motion of a body is specified is called the frame
of reference.
Whenever you describe something that is moving you compare it to something that is usually
stationary. This background or object that is used for comparison is called the frame of
reference.
Earth is the most common frame of reference point.
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Motion: change in position relative to a reference point.

Frame reference: a system used to identify the precise location of an object.

2.1.2. Distance and displacement

Distance (S)

How far you have traveled, regardless of direction

It is a total length of path moved by a body in a certain interval of time.
It is a scalar quantity i.e., it has only magnitude.
Its magnitude depends on the path followed by the object.
It can be more than or equal to the magnitude of the displacement.
It is always positive.
It is not necessary that distance will be zero if displacement is zero.

Displacement

Where you are in relation to where you started.

The change in position of an object with respect to a given reference frame is known as
displacement.
It is the shortest distance between initial and the final position.
It is a vector quantity i.e., it has both magnitude and direction.
Its magnitude does not depend on the path followed by the object.
Its magnitude can be less or equal to the magnitude of the distance.
Displacement can be positive, negative and even zero
It is zero if distance is zero, but it can be zero even if distance is not zero.
Displacement will be zero if the body comes back to its initial position

 As a particles moves from an initial position 𝑋𝑖 to a final position 𝑋𝑓 , the displacement of the
particle is given by

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x  x f  xi  2.1

In two dimensional motion, the position of a body is given by

r  rf  ri
  
 x f iˆ  y f j  xi iˆ  yi ˆj 
  x f  xi  iˆ   y f  yi  ˆj
r  xiˆ  yjˆ  2.2 

Example

1. A particle starts from the origin and moves 4cm to the right and then 11cm to the left along the 𝑥 −
axis. What is its

A. Displacement
B. Distance

Solution

A. S  11cm  4cm  7cm

B. S  11cm  4cm  15cm

2.1.3. Speed and velocity

Speed (V): how fast you go

The rate at which an object covers a certain distance is known as speed.

Speed is a scalar (how fast something is moving regardless of its direction).

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Speed can be positive or zero but can never be negative because a negative sign shows the
direction and speed does not represent direction.
Speed is the magnitude of velocity.
Speed may or may not be equal to velocity.

Speed (𝑉 ): 𝑖𝑠 the distance traveled divided by the time taken;

𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑆
𝑉= = (2.3)
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 𝑡

⃗⃗ )
Velocity (𝑽

How fast and which way; the rate at which position changes.
Velocity is a combination of speed and direction
Velocity is the rate of change of displacement with respect to time.
It is a vector quantity. The velocity tells us the speed and direction of the motion of a body.
The velocity can be positive and negative depending on the direction of the motion.
The average velocity of a moving body can be zero. ( when displacement equal to zero)

Velocity (𝑉⃗ ): is the displacement covered divided by the time taken

𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 ∆𝑠 𝑆𝑓 − 𝑆 𝑖
⃗ =
𝑉 = = 𝑓𝑜𝑟 1𝐷 (2.4)
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 𝑡 𝑡𝑓 − 𝑡𝑖
For three dimensional motion,

V
r rf  rf
 
   
x f iˆ  y f ˆj  z y kˆ  xi iˆ  yi ˆj  zi kˆ

r  t  t   r  t 
t t t t t


 x f  xi  iˆ   y f  yi  ˆj   z f  zi  kˆ
t t t
x ˆ y ˆ z ˆ
V i j k  2.5
t t t

Velocity is measured in meter per second.

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It tells us how much an object’s position changes in time.

Remark!

Velocity can be positive or negative

Positive value of velocity means that the object is moving away from the reference
point or origin.
Negative value means that the object is moving towards the reference point or origin.

2.1.4. Average speed and instantaneous speed

In reality, motion cannot be uniform. So we take the average value.

Average speed 𝑽𝒂𝒗

 Average speed is the total path length traversed by an object divided by the time taken for the
motion

Average Speed (𝑽𝒂𝒗 ): is the ratio of the total distance covered to the total time taken.
total distance covered Stot Si  S f
Vav     2.6 
total time taken ttot ti  t f

Instantaneous speed (𝑽𝒊𝒏𝒔 )

 Instantaneous speed is the speed recorded at specific point in time.

 The instantaneous speed is the speed of an object at a particular moment in time.

Instantaneous speed is defined as the speed at a specific instant in time.

lim S
Vins   2.7 
t  0 t

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Remark!

The average speed over a given interval may not be equal to the speed at one instant of time
The speed at particular time could be less than, greater than or equal to the average speed.

2.15. Average and Instantaneous Velocity

Average velocity is the ratio of displacement to the time taken in entire journey when the
velocity of a body moving in a particular direction changes with time

⃗𝑎𝑣 ) ∶ is the rate at which its displacement changes with respect to time.
Average velocity (𝑉

S S f  Si
Vav    2.8
t t f  ti

In three dimensional motion, the average velocity is given by,

r rf  ri xiˆ  yjˆ  zkˆ r  t  t   r  t 

Vav    
t t t t
xiˆ yjˆ zk ˆ
  
t t t
Vav  Vav xi  Vav y j  Vav zk  2.9 

 The direction of average velocity is the direction of the displacement i.e. if the displacement
points in the positive direction, the average velocity is positive and if the displacement points
in the negative direction, the average velocity is negative .

Remark!

The average velocity between points is independent of the path taken. This is because average
velocity is proportional to displacement, which depends only on the initial and final position
vectors and not on the path taken.
The magnitude of the average velocity is not the average speed.

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Under what condition is the magnitude of average velocity of an object equal to its average
speed?

A. Body moves along curved path C. Both A and B

B. Body moves along straight line D. None of the above

Explanation

The average speed is the total distance travelled in a given time and average velocity is the
total displacement in a given time. The magnitude of average velocity and average speed will
be equal when the total distance travelled is equal to the magnitude of displacement only if the
object is moving in a straight line without change direction.
Graphically, average velocity is the slop of the displacement time graph. In this case,

S S f  Si
Vav   slope PQ  2.10 
t t f  ti

⃗⃗ 𝒊𝒏 )
Instantaneous velocity (𝑽

Instantaneous velocity: is the velocity of a body at a particular instant of time, or at a specific

point.
The instantaneous velocity is the value of the average velocity that it approaches in the limit
as ∆𝑡 goes to zero.

lim S
Vins   2.11
t  0 t

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To find out instantaneous velocity of a body, it is good to follow the steps given below,

First find the displacement at t and 𝑡 + ∆𝑡, i.e., 𝑆 (𝑡) and 𝑆(𝑡 + ∆𝑡).
Then find the change in displacement, ∆𝑆. i.e.,

S  S t  t   S t   2.12

Finally,

lim S lim S  t  t   S  t  ds
Vins     2.13
t  0 t t  0 t dt

In three dimensional motion, the instantaneous velocity is given by;

lim r lim r  t  t   r  t  d r
Vins   
t  0 t t  0 t dt
lim  x  t  t   x  t  y  t  t   y  t  ˆ z  t  t   z  t  ˆ 
  iˆ  j k
t  0  t t t 
ˆ ˆ ˆ
Vins  Vxi  Vy j  Vz k  2.14 

Remark!

 Instantaneous speed is the magnitude of instantaneous velocity. It has the same value, but no
direction.

Example

1. When is the average velocity of an object equal to the instantaneous velocity?

A. This is always true
B. This is never true
C. This is the case only when the velocity is constant
D. This is the case only when the acceleration is constant
E. This is the case only when the velocity is decreasing at a constant rate

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Explanation

Average velocity is equal to the instantaneous velocity when acceleration of an object equal
to zero. In order for acceleration of an object equal to zero, when an object moves with
constant velocity.
2. When you look at the speedometer in a moving car, you can see the car’s;
A. Instantaneous acceleration C. average acceleration
B. Average speed D. Instantaneous speed

Explanation

Car do not always moves at a constant speed. You can tell the speed of the car at any instant
by looking at the car’s speedometer. A speedometer shows how fast a car is going at one point
in time or at one instant.
The speedometer shown on a speedometer is the instantaneous speed. Instantaneous speed is
the speed at a given point in time.

3. If the x and y coordinate of a particle at any t is given by 𝑥 = 7𝑡 + 4𝑡 2 and 𝑦 = 5𝑡. What is

the instantaneous velocity of the particle?

Given required
𝑟 = 𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝑦̂𝑗̂ 𝑉⃗𝑖𝑛𝑠 =?
𝑟 = (7𝑡 + 4𝑡 2 )𝑖̂ + 5𝑡𝑗̂

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Solution
lim r  t  t   r  t 
Vins  
t  0 t
 x  t  t   x  t  ˆ y  t  t   y  t  ˆ 
 i j
 t t 
lim x  t  t   x  t  lim y  t  t   y  t 
 iˆ  ˆj
t  0 t t  0 t
lim 7  t  t   4  t  t    7t  4t  lim 5  t  t   5t
2 2

 iˆ  ˆj
t  0 t t  0 t
lim 7  t  t   4  t  2t t  t    7t  4t  lim 5  t  t   5t
2 2 2

 iˆ  ˆj
t  0 t t  0 t
lim  7t  7 t  4t 2  8t t  4t 2  7t  4t 2  lim  5t  5t  5t 
   iˆ   ˆj 
t  0  t  t  0  t 
lim  7 t 8t t 4t 2  lim  5t 
     iˆ    ˆj
t  0  t t t  t  0  t 


lim
t  0 
7  8t  4 t iˆ  0 lim
t  0
 5 ˆj
Vins   7  8t  iˆ  5 ˆj  m / s

4. The position of a particle moves a long x- axis varies in time a cording to the expression

𝑋 = (3𝑡 2 − 4𝑡)𝑚, where t is in second

Calculate

A. The position at 𝑡 = 2 sec and 𝑡 = 4 sec.

B. The displacement during 𝑡 = 2 sec to 𝑡 = 4 sec.
C. The average velocity during 𝑡 = 2 sec and 𝑡 = 4 sec.
D. The instantaneous velocity at 𝑡 = 2 sec and 𝑡 = 4 sec.

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Solution

A. The position at 𝑡 = 2 sec and 𝑡 = 4 sec. is given by

X  t  2   X 2  3 2   4  2  m  12  8 m  4m
2
 
X  t  4   X 4  3 4   4  4  m   48  16  m  32m
2
 
B. The displacement during 𝑡 = 2 sec to 𝑡 = 4 sec. is given by;

S  X  X 4  X 2  32m  4m  28m
C. The average velocity during 𝑡 = 2 sec and 𝑡 = 4 sec. is given by.

S X  X2 28m
Vav   4   14m / s
t 4sec 2sec 2sec
D. The instantaneous velocity at 𝑡 = 2 sec and 𝑡 = 4 sec. is given by;
S  X  X  t  t   X  t 
 3  t  t   4  t  t    3t 2  4t 
2

 3  t 2  2t t  t 2   4  t  t    3t 2  4t 
 3t 2  6t t  3t 2  4t  4t  3t 2  4t
 6t t  3t 2  4t
Vins  lim St
t 
 lim 6 t t  3 t 2  4 t
t
t 

 lim
t 
 6 t t
t  3tt  4tt
2

Vins   6t  4  m s
V t  2  8 m s
V  t  4   20 m s

Acceleration (𝒂
⃗ )

How fast you speed up, slow down, or change direction.

Acceleration is the rate at which velocity changes with respect to time.

V V f  Vi
a   for 1D  2.15 
t t f  ti

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Acceleration in to three dimension is given by;

V v x ˆ v y ˆ v z ˆ
a  i j k  in 3D
t t t t
a  axiˆ  a y ˆj  az kˆ  2.16 
Note that: a body is said to be;
Accelerating, when it is speeding up, i.e., velocity increasing at some rate.
Decelerating, when it is slowing down, velocity decreasing at some rate.

2.1.6. Average and Instantaneous acceleration

Average acceleration (𝒂
⃗ 𝒂𝒗 )

 Average Acceleration: is the change in velocity divided by the time interval in which the
change occurs.

v v f  vi
aav    2.17 
t t f  ti

Instantaneous acceleration ( 𝒂
⃗ 𝒊𝒏𝒔 )

Instantaneous acceleration: is the rate of change of velocity at a specific point or at a

particular time.
It is defined as the limit of the average acceleration as the time interval (∆𝑡) approaches zero.
Instantaneous acceleration is the rate of change of velocity at a specific point or at a particular
time.
In the language of calculus, instantaneous acceleration equals the instantaneous rate of change
of velocity with time.

lim v lim v  t  t   v  t  dv d 2 r
ains      2.16 
t  0 t t  0 t dt dt 2

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 In three dimensional motion, instantaneous acceleration is given by;

lim v lim v  t  t   v  t  d r 2
ains   
t  0 t t  0 t dt 2
lim  v x  t  t   v x  t  v y  t  t   v y  t 
ˆj  z 
v t  t   v z  t  ˆ 
  iˆ  k
t  0  t t t 
ains  ax iˆ  a y ˆj  az kˆ  2.17 

Remark!

Under what conditions would average and instantaneous acceleration be equal?

When the body has constant acceleration, the average acceleration and the instantaneous
acceleration will be equal.
If the velocity of a body is non-zero, can its acceleration be zero?
If the particle has non-zero velocity that is not changing with time (constant velocity)
then the acceleration of the particle will be zero.
If a body is traveling East ward, can its acceleration be west ward?
Yes, if a car is travelling eastward and slow down (decelerating), its acceleration is
opposite to the direction of travel: its acceleration is westward.

Example

1. If the x and y coordinate of a particle at any t is given by 𝑥 = 7𝑡 + 4𝑡 2 and 𝑦 = 5𝑡. What is

the acceleration of the particle at 𝑡 = 5 sec?

Given required

𝑟 = 𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝑦̂𝑗̂ 𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑠 =?
𝑟 = (7𝑡 + 4𝑡 2 )𝑖̂ + 5𝑡𝑗̂

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Solution
lim r  t  t   r  t 
Vins  
t  0 t
 x  t  t   x  t  y  t  t   y  t  
 iˆ  ˆj 
 t t 
lim x  t  t   x  t  lim y  t  t   y  t 
 iˆ  ˆj
t  0 t t  0 t
lim 7  t  t   4  t  t    7t  4t  lim 5  t  t   5t
2 2

 iˆ  ˆj
t  0 t t  0 t
lim 7  t  t   4  t  2t t  t    7t  4t  lim 5  t  t   5t
2 2 2

 iˆ  ˆj
t  0 t t  0 t
lim  7t  7 t  4t 2  8t t  4t 2  7t  4t 2  lim  5t  5t  5t 
   iˆ   ˆj 
t  0   t    
 t 0  t 
lim  7 t 8t t 4t  2
lim  5t 
     iˆ    ˆj
t  0  t t t  t  0  t 


lim
t  0
 
7  8t  4 t iˆ 
0 lim
t  0
 5 ˆj
Vins   7  8t  iˆ  5 ˆj  m / s

Instantaneous acceleration is given by

lim v lim v  t  t   v  t 
ains  
t  0 t t  0 t
lim  7  8  t  t  iˆ   7  8t  iˆ   5  5  ˆj 
  
t  0  t 
lim  7  8t  8t  7  8t 
   iˆ
t  0  t 
lim  8t 
 iˆ
t  0  t 
ains  t  5sec   8m / s 2iˆ

2. A particle has a velocity of 4m/s in the +𝑣𝑒 𝑥 −axis and 2 sec later, its velocity become 10𝑚/𝑠
in the −𝑣𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠. What is its average acceleration during this time?

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Given Required

𝑉⃗𝑖 = 4𝑚/𝑠 𝑎𝑎𝑣 =?

𝑉⃗𝑓 = −10𝑚/𝑠
𝑡 = 2𝑠𝑒𝑐.
Solution
v f  vi
aav 
t
10 m s  4 m s

2
14
aav   m s  7 m s
2

3. The velocity of a particle is given by 𝑉 (𝑡) = 2𝑡 2 − 10𝑡 + 5.

A. When will the acceleration of the particle become zero?
B. What is the velocity of the particle when its acceleration is zero?

Solution

A. The time when instantaneous acceleration of a particle is equal to zero is given by:
V (t )  2t 2  10t  5.
lim v  t  t   v  t 
ains 
t  0 t
lim  2  t  t   10  t  t   5   2t  10t  5  
2 2

  
t  0  t 
 
lim  2t  4t t  2t  10t  10t  5  2t  10t  5 
2 2 2
  
t  0  t 
lim  4t t 2t 10t  2
    
t  0  t t t 
lim
  4t  2t  10 
t  0
ains   4t  10  , if ains  0
0  4t  10
4t  10
10
t   2.5sec .
4

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B. Instantaneous velocity at 𝑡 = 2.5 sec is given by

V  t  2.5  2  2.5  10  2.5  5

2

 12.5  25  5
V  t  2.5  7.5 m s

2.1.7. Uniform motion

 The type of motion in which the object travels in a straight line with uniform speed, is called
uniform motion.
 This means that the speed of the body remains constant as it covers equal distances in equal
intervals of time.
 In uniform motion a body moves with a constant speed and in same direction.
 In the case of uniform rectilinear motion, the acceleration of the body will be zero,

Remark!

If the motion of a body has zero acceleration, then the motion is called uniform motion.
A body moving with a constant speed in a straight line has uniform motion.
Distance time graph show a straight line of a uniform motion.

2.1.8. Uniformly accelerated motion (Motion with Constant Acceleration)

Uniformly accelerated motion is motion of an object where the acceleration is constant.

When the velocity of an object changes at the same rate throughout its motion, it is known as
uniformly accelerated motion (motion with constant acceleration).
The acceleration is uniform, when equal changes of velocity take place in equal intervals of
time.

The following figure illustrates a body moving in a straight line starting with velocity v
⃗ i and
with a constant acceleration “𝑎” in its direction of motion. v
⃗ f is its velocity at the end of times
t and S is its distance at that instant from its starting point.

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The equations of motion for a body moving in a straight line with constant acceleration are
the following:

Average velocity 𝑉⃗𝑎𝑣 of a body is given by;

S  vi  v f 
vav     2.18
t  2 

The acceleration of a body is given by;

v f  vi 
a 
t 

v f  vi 
 2.19 
t
a 
The distance traveled by a body is given by

1
S  vi t  at 2  2.20 
2
Or
v f  vi v f  vi
S   vav  t , a  ,t
t a
 vi  v f  v f  vi 
  
 2  a 
vi v f  vi2  v 2f  vi v f

2a
v 2f  vi2
S  2.21
2a

Final velocity 𝑉⃗𝑓 of a body is given by;

v f  vi
a
t
v f  vi  at
v f  vi  at  2.22 

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Or from Eq. (2.21), we obtain final velocity;

v 2f  vi2
S
2a
v  v  2aS
2
f
2
i

v 2f  vi2  2aS  2.23

From Eq. (2.23), obtain,
v2f  vi2
a  2.24
2s
Distance travelled by a body in the 𝑛𝑡ℎ second is obtained by:
𝑆𝑛𝑡ℎ = (distance traveled in the t sec.)− (distance travelled in 𝑡𝑛 − 1)

1 1
S nth  S n  S n 1 , but S n  vi tn  atn2 & S n 1  vi tn 1  a  tn  1
2

2 2
 1   1 
S nth   vi tn  atn2    vi  tn  1  a  tn  1 
2

 2   2 
   
  vi tn  atn2    vi  tn  1  a  tn2  2tn  1 
1 1
 2   2 
 1   1 1 
  vi tn  atn2    vi tn  vi  atn2  atn  a 
 2   2 2 
1 2 1 1
 vi tn  atn  vi tn  vi  atn2  atn  a
2 2 2
1
 vi  atn  a
2
 vi  a  tn  12 
1
S nth  vi  a  2tn  1  2.25 
2

 When brakes are applied to a moving vehicle, the distance it travels before stopping is called
stopping distance. It is an important factor for road safety and depends on the initial velocity
⃗ iand braking capacity or decelerating, −𝑎 that caused by braking.
v

1. Derive an expression of a vehicle in terms of 𝑣𝑖 and 𝑎;

Given Required

Velocity of moving vehicle = 𝑣𝑖 and deceleration = 𝑎 𝑠 =?

Final velocity of the vehicle 𝑣𝑓 = 0 (as it stops)

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Solution

Let the stopping distance be 𝑠, then equation of motion we have;

v 2f  vi2  2   a  s, but v f  0
0  vi2  2as
 vi2  2as
vi2  2as
vi2
s  2.26 
2a
What is the deceleration (−𝑎 ) of a vehicle if the brakes applied and it travels with stopping
distance S?. from Eq. (2.26) we obtain the deceleration of a vehicle as
v 2f  vi2  2as
v 2f  vi2  2as
v 2f  vi2
a , but v 2f  0
2s
 vi2
a  2.27 
2s

Example

𝑚
2. An Athlete accelerates at 1.9 for 2.2 second at the beginning of a race. What is the speed of
𝑠2

the athlete at the end of a 300m race?

Given Required

𝑎 = 1.9𝑚/𝑠 2 𝑣𝑓 =?
𝑡 = 2.2 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑠 = 300𝑚
𝑣𝑖 = 0
Solution
v f  vi  at
 0  1.9 m s2   2.2sec 
v f  4.18 m s

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3. An object of mass m moving with initial speed of 15𝑚/𝑠 got an acceleration of 10𝑚/𝑠 2 after
a constant force 𝐹 is applied to it. How long does it take for the object to reach 90m from its
initial position?

Given Required

𝑣𝑖 = 15𝑚/𝑠 𝑡 =?
𝑎 = 10𝑚/𝑠 2
𝑠 = 90𝑚
Solution
1
s  vi t  at 2
2
1
90  15t  10  t 2
2
90  15t  5t 2
5t 2  15t  90  0 factor out 5 :
5t 2 15t 90
  0
5 5 5
t 2  3t  18  0  thisis quadratic equation,lets put it'sin the form
at 2  bt  c  0
a  1, b  3& c  18
b  b 2  4ac
t
2a
3   3  4 1 18 
2


2
3  9  72

2
3  81

2
3  9

2
3  9 6
t    3sec
2 2
3  9 12
t    6sec.
2 2
Ans, t  3sec

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4. A car with initial speed of 4𝑚/𝑠 starts accelerating in a straight line at 3.2𝑚/𝑠 2 for 10sec. if
the brakes are then applied and it travels at further 20m before stopping. What is the
acceleration in 𝑚/𝑠 2 ?
Solution
For the first part of motion;
v f  vi  at
 4 m s   3.2 m s2  10sec 
 4 m s  32 m s
v f  36 m s
For the second part of motion;
v f  0 and v f  vi  36 m s ,  v f in thecasefor first part of motion
v 2f  vi2
a
2s
v  vi2  36 m s 
2 2
v2
2
f 1296 m s2
a  i    32.4 sm2
2s 2s  2  20m  40m

5. If a motorcycle is moving with a velocity of 20𝑚/𝑠, and when the brakes are applied, the
acceleration is reduced to −0.5𝑚/𝑠 2 . What is the distance covered before coming to rest?

Given required

vi = 20𝑚/𝑠 𝑠 =?
𝑎 = −0.5𝑚/𝑠 2
vf = 0
Solution
v 2f  vi2  2   a  s
v 2f  vi2  2as, v 2f  0
0  vi2  2as
 vi2  2as
 20 m s   400 m s2  400m
2 2
v2
s i 
2a 2  0.5 m s2  1m s2

6. A body starts with initial velocity 30𝑚/𝑠 and a retardation of 4𝑚/𝑠 2 . Find the distance
travelled by the body in 8th second?

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Given Required
vi = 30𝑚/𝑠 𝑠𝑛𝑡ℎ = 𝑆8𝑡ℎ =?
𝑎 = −4𝑚/𝑠 2
𝑡𝑛 = 𝑡8 = 8
Solution
1
S nth  vi   a  2tn  1 , a  ve
2

 4   2 8   1
1
S8th  30 
2
 30  2 16  1
 30  30
S8th  0

7. A cart on an air track is moving at 0.5m/s when the air is suddenly turned off. The cart comes
to rest after traveling 1m, the experiment is repeated, but now the cart is moving at 1m/s when
the air is turned off. How far does the cart before coming to rest?
Solution
For the first experiment Now using kinematic equation to
Initial speed of the cart 𝐯𝐢 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝒎/𝒔 ⃗ =? )
determine deceleration (−𝒂
Final speed of the cart 𝐯𝐟 = 𝟎 v 2f  vi2  2as1
Distance of the cart 𝒔𝟏 = 𝟏𝒎
0   0.5 m s   2a 1m 
2

0  0.25 m  2a`m
2

s2

0.25 m2
a s2

2m
a  0.125 m s 2

For the second experiment Now using kinematic equation to

Initial speed of the cart 𝐯𝐢 = 𝟏𝒎/𝒔 determine distance (𝑠 =? )
Final velocity of the cart 𝐯𝐟 = 𝟎
Acceleration of the cart 𝒂⃗ = −𝟎. 𝟏𝟐𝟓

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v 2f  vi2  2as
v 2f  vi2
s
2a
vi2

2a
1m s 
2


2  0.125 m s2 
2
1m s2 100
s  m  4m
0.25 m s2 25

8. A car accelerates steadily from 0m/s to 30m/s in a distance d and time t. another car takes time
3t to accelerate steadily from stationary to the same final velocity. What distance does the
second car cover during the new acceleration?

Solution

For the first car, Now using kinematic equation to

Initial velocity 𝐯⃗𝐢 = 𝟎𝒎/𝒔 ⃗ 𝟏 & 𝒅𝟏 =? )
determine (𝒂
Final velocity 𝐯⃗𝐟 = 𝟑𝟎𝒎/𝒔
Time taken for car 𝒕𝟏 = 𝒕 v 2f  vi2 30  0 30
Distance of the car 𝒔𝟏 = 𝒅𝟏 a1   
t t t
0 1
s1  vi t1  a1t12
2
1 2
d1  at1 , t1  t
2
1  30 
  t2
2 t 
d1  15t i 
For the second car; Now using kinematic equation to
Initial speed of the 𝐯𝐢 = 𝟎𝒎/𝒔 determine distance (𝑑2 =? )
Final velocity of the car 𝐯𝐟 = 𝟑𝟎𝒎/𝒔
Time taken for car 𝒕𝟐 = 𝟑𝒕
Distance of the car 𝑺𝟐 = 𝒅𝟐 =?

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v 2f  vi2 30  0 30 10
a2    
t2 3t 3t t
0 1
s2  vi t2  a2t22
2
1 2
d 2  a2t2 , t2  3t
2
1  10 
    3t 
2

2 t 


 5  9  t 2
t
d 2  45t  ii 
Divided Eq. (ii) by Eq. (i) we obtain
d 2 45t
 3
d1 15t
d 2  3d1  3d

9. A driver moving at a constant speed of 20m/s sees an accident up a head and hits the brakes.
If the car decelerates at a constant rate of 0.5𝑚/𝑠 2 , how far does the car go before it comes to
a stop?

Given required

v𝑓 = 0 𝑠 =?
vi = 20𝑚/𝑠
𝑎 = −0.5𝑚/𝑠 2
Solution
v 2f  vi2 0   20 m s 
2 2
400 m
s   s2
 400m
2a 2  0.5 m
s2  1 m
s2

10. An object moving with uniform acceleration has a velocity of 12m/s in the positive x- direction
when its x coordinate is 3cm. if its x coordinate 2 sec later is −5𝑐𝑚, what is its acceleration?

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Solution
s  s f  si
 5m  3m
 s   8m
1
s  s  vi t  at 2
2
1
8  12  2   a  2 
2

2
8  24  2a
8  24  2a
32  2a
32
a    16 m s 2
2

11. A car initially at rest and the origin has moved a distance of 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 40, 50, 60, 70m
during the 1, 2, 3… 10sec. periods respectively. What is the average speed during the first 5
sec and the second half period from t= 6sec to 5= 10 sec?

Solution

S in meter 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 40 50 60 70
t in second 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

∆𝑆 25 −0
For the 1st 5 second, 𝑣𝑎𝑣 = = = 5𝑚/𝑠
∆𝑡 5−0
∆𝑆 70−30 40
For the 2nd second, 𝑣𝑎𝑣 = 𝑣𝑎𝑣 = = = = 10𝑚/𝑠
∆𝑡 10−6 4

12. A body is moving with uniform velocity of 8m/s. when the body just crossed another body, the
second one stars and moves with uniform acceleration of 4𝑚/𝑠 2 . The time after which two
bodies meet, will be

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Solution

For the first body,

velocity 𝐯𝟏 = 𝟖𝒎/𝒔

Now using kinematic equation to determine distance ( 𝒔𝟏 =? )

s1
v1 
t
s1  v1t  8t i 
For second body, it stars after 1st body cross it,

Initial speed of a 2nd body 𝐯𝐢 = 𝟎

⃗ = 𝟒𝒎/𝒔𝟐
Acceleration 𝒂

Now using kinematic equation to determine distance ( 𝒔𝟐 =? )

0 1
s2  vi t  at 2
2
1 2
 at
2
1
  4 t 2
2
s2  2t 2  ii 
Since displacement of both bodies are the same;

s1  s2
8t  2t 2
8  2t
t  4sec

13. A body starts with an initial velocity of 10m/s and is moving along a straight line with constant
acceleration. When the velocity of particle is 50m/s, the acceleration is reversed in direction.
The velocity of particle when it again reaches the starting point is?

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Solution

In the first case

Initial velocity of the body 𝐯𝐢 = 𝟏𝟎𝒎/𝒔
Final velocity of a body 𝐯⃗𝐟 = 𝟓𝟎𝒎/𝒔
Now using kinematic equation;
v 2f  vi2  2as
2as  v 2f  vi2
  50   10 
2 2

 2500  100
2as  2400 i 
For the second case;
Initial velocity of the body 𝐯𝐢 = 𝟓𝟎𝒎/𝒔
Now using kinematic equation to determine final velocity 𝒗𝒇 =?
v 2f  vi2  2as, but 2as  2400
  50   2400
2

 2500  2400
 4900
v f  4900  70 m s

14. A body is moving with a uniform acceleration covers 40m in the first 4 sec. and 120m in next
4sec. Its initial velocity and acceleration are?

Solution

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The displacement from A to B, in the first 4sec is given by

1 2
s  vi t  at
2
1
40  vi  4   a  4 
2

2
1
 4vi  a 16 
2
40  4vi  8a i 

The displacement from A to C, in the next 4sec is given by

1 2
s  vi t  at , where S  40m  120& t  4sec  4sec  8sec
2
1
40  120  vi  8   a  8 
2

2
1
 8vi  a  64 
2
160  8v i  32a  ii 
Solving Eq. (i) and Eq. (ii) by using simultaneous equation;

40  4vi  8a
2 

1 
120  8vi  32a
 80   8vi  16a


 160  8vi  32a


 80  16a
80
a  5 m s2 , substituting a in to Eq.(i);
16
40  4vi  8a, a  5
40  4vi  40
4vi  40  40
4vi  0
vi  0

15. A body moves with a uniform velocity of 5m/s from a point. From the same point at the same
time another body starts from rest and moves with uniform acceleration of 2𝑚/𝑠 2 in the same
direction. When and where do they meet each other?

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Solution
 For the first body
s1
v1 
t
s1  v1t  5t i 
 For second body, 𝒗𝒊 = 𝟎, 𝒂
⃗ = 𝟐𝒎/𝒔 , 𝟐
0
s2  vi t  12 at 2
s2  12  2  t 2
s2  t 2  ii 
 Since the displacement of both bodies are the same,
s1  s2
5t  t 2
t  5sec.

16. A body, starting from rest and moving with constant acceleration, covers 20m in the first
second. The distance travelled by it in the 2nd second is

Solution
The distance covered in 𝒏𝒕𝒉 sec. is given
1
snth  vi  a  2tn  1 , , snth  s1th  20m, tn  1sec & vi  0
2
s1th  0  a  2 1  1 ,
1
2
1
20  a
2
a  4 m s2

The distance covered in 2nd sec is given by

1
snth  vi  a  2tn  1 , here tn  2sec, & vi  0
2
1
s2   40  2(2)  1
th

2
  20  4  1
  20  3
s2  60m
th

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17. An object has a constant acceleration of 3𝑚/𝑠 2 . At a certain instant, its velocity is 9.6m/s.
what is the ratio of its velocity

A. 2.5 second earlier, and

B. 2.5 sec later?
Given Required
𝑎 = 3𝑚/𝑠 2 A. 𝑣𝑖 =? At 𝑡 = 2.5𝑠 𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑟
𝑣𝑖 = 9.6𝑚/𝑠 B. 𝑣𝑓 =? At 𝑡 = 2.5𝑠 𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟

Solution
A. initial velocity at 2.5 second earlier
The expression for the equation of motion is
v f  vi  at
9.6  vi   3.2  2.5 
vi  9.6  8
vi  1.6 m s
Thus, the value of the velocity 2.5sec earlier is 1.6m/s

B. the value of velocity 2.5 sec later i.e., 𝑣𝑓 =?, v𝑖 = 9.8𝑚/𝑠 and

v f  vi  at
 9.6   3.2  2.5 
 9.6  8
v f  17.6m / s

Thus the value of the velocity 2.5 later is 17.6m/s

𝑽𝒇 𝟏𝟕.𝟔
So, we have = = 𝟏𝟏
𝑽𝒊 𝟏.𝟔

2.1.9. Free Fall Motion

The motion of an object near the surface of the earth under the influence of the force of gravity
only is called free fall. In other words, free fall motion refers to the motion of an object that is
only affected by the force of gravity.
In a free fall, an object is only subject to the force of gravity, with no other forces acting upon
it, such as air resistance.

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When an object is free fall, it experiences a constant acceleration due to gravity, which near
the Earth’s surface is approximately 9.8𝑚/𝑠 2 . This acceleration is commonly represented by
the symbol 𝑔.

 In the absence of air resistance, all objects regardless of their size, or weights fall with constant
𝑚
acceleration, 𝑔 = 9.8 2 , toward the surface the earth.
𝑠

The acceleration due to gravity varies does vary with both latitude and altitude but not with
longitude. Acceleration due to gravity is greater at the poles than at the equator and greater
at sea level than at a top of mountain.

Latitude:

The acceleration due to gravity varies with latitude primarily because of the Earth’s rotation,
which causes the shape of the Earth to deviate from a perfect shape.
The earth is slightly flattened at the poles and bulges at the equator. As the result, the distance
from the center of the earth to a point on its surface is greater at the equator than at the poles.
This variation in distance affects the gravitational force and, consequently, the acceleration due
to gravity.
The magnitude of the acceleration due to gravity is slightly higher at the poles than at the
equator.

Altitude

 The acceleration due to gravity also decreases with increasing altitude. Since gravity weakens
with distance from the center of the Earth, being at a higher altitude means being farther from
the center. Therefore, the gravitational force and the acceleration due to gravity decreases as
you move higher above sea level.

Longitude

Unlike latitude and altitude, the acceleration due gravity does not vary with longitudinal.
Gravity is a force that acts towards the center of mass of the earth. The rotation of the Earth

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and distribution of mass within it affect the shape of the gravitational field, but it does not
cause gravity to vary based on longitude.

Remark!

Objects thrown upward or downward or those of released from rest are all free fall. When a
body falls towards Earths, its motion is due to gravitational force
The acceleration due to gravity is slightly greater at the poles than at equator due to the Earth’s
shape, and it decreases with increasing altitude. However, it does not vary with longitude.

Sign of vectors

1. All vectors directed vertically upwards, are positive.

2. All vectors directed vertically downwards, are negative.
3. The acceleration vector 𝑔 is always directed downwards. Therefore, acceleration due to
gravity 𝑔 is always negative.

Equations of motion for free fall

The equations for constantly accelerated straight line motion are used for freely falling
bodies with some changes in notation. Here we use (∆𝑦)𝑜𝑟 (∆ℎ)instread of ∆𝑠) and (𝑔)
instead of (𝑎).

i. For an object released downward freely from rest

v y  v oy  gt , v oy  0 and    g  for     g    
v y  gt  2.28
1 2
Y  h  voy t  gt , v oy  0
2
1 2
Y h gt  2.28 
2
v 2y  v oy
2
 2 gY (h)
v 2y  2 gY  2 g Y  Yo   2.29 

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ii. For an object dropped vertically downwards with initial velocity (𝑽𝒐𝒚 )

v y  v oy  gt , and    g  for     g    
v y  v oy  gt  2.30 
1
Y  h  voy t  gt 2 ,  2.31
2
v 2y  v oy
2
 2 g Y  Yo   2.32 

iii. For an object thrown vertically upward with initial velocity voy

v y  v oy  gt , and    g  for     g    
v y  v oy  gt  2.33
1
Y  Yo  voy t  gt 2 ,  2.34 
2
1 2
Y  voy t  gt  2.35
2
v 2y  v oy
2
 2 g Y  Yo   2.36 
voy2 1
YMax   voy tup  gtup2  2.37 
2g 2
v oy
tup   2.38
g
2v oy
ttot  tup  tdown   2.39 
g

Example

1. A stone is thrown vertically upward with initial speed of 10𝑚/𝑠. Calculate

A. The time taken by the stone to reach the maximum height?
B. The maximum height? (Take 𝑔 = 10𝑚/𝑠 2 )
Given Required

𝑉𝑜𝑦 = 10𝑚/𝑠 2 A. 𝑡𝑢𝑝 =?

𝑔 = 9.8𝑚/𝑠 2 B. 𝑌𝑀𝑎𝑥 =?

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Solution
A. 𝐯𝐲 = 𝐯𝐨𝐲 − 𝐠
⃗ 𝒕, 𝒗𝒚 = 𝒐, 𝒂𝒕 𝒀𝒎𝒂𝒙
0  voy  gtup
 voy   gtup
voy 10m / s
tup    1sec.
g 10m / s 2

10m / s 
2
voy2 100m2 / s 2
B. Ymax     5m
2 g  2  10m / s 2  20m / s 2

1 2
Ymax  voy tup  gttup
2
 10m / s 1sec  
1
2
10m / s 2  1sec 
2

 10m  5m
Ymax  5m

2. Small steel fall from rest through the opining at constant rate of two balls per second. Find the
separation (h) between two consecutive balls when the lower one is dropped 5m.

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Solution
Distance (height) traveled by the 1 st ball is given by;
1
Y1  vo t  gt12 , but vo  0
2
1
5  10  t12
2
5  5t12
5
t12   1
5
t  1sec
Two balls per second i.e., second ball released after (𝟏/𝟐)sec distance travelled by 1st ball;
then 𝒕𝟐 is given by
𝒕𝟏 𝟏
𝒕𝟐 = = 𝟐 𝒔𝒆𝒄 = 𝟎. 𝟓 sec. i.e., the 𝒕𝟐 released 0.5 earlier.
𝟐

The distance travelled by 2nd ball is given by;

1 2
Y2  vo t  gt2 , but vo  0
2
1
Y2  10  0.5 
2

2
  5  0.25 
Y2  1.25m

Change in displacement ∆𝒀 is given by

Y  Y1  Y2  5m  1.25m  3.75m

Terminal velocity

When a body falls from a very high altitude, the air resistance balances the weight of the body
and the body attains constant velocity.
Terminal velocity V: is the velocity attained by a falling body at the instant when air resistance
prevents further increase in velocity due to gravity.

So we see, at terminal velocity, resistive force (𝐹𝑟 ) =gravitational force (𝐹𝑔 ).

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Fr  Fg
KV  mg
mg
V  2.40 
K

Where, 𝐾 →constant and 𝑉 → terminal velocity

Example

1. A particle of weight 26N is thrown down at a velocity of 5m/s. if the particle reaches at its
maximum velocity in 4 sec. Find:

A. The height from where it falls.

B. Its terminal velocity.
C. The proportionality constant.

Given Required

𝑤 = 𝑚𝑔 = 26𝑁 A. ℎ =?
𝑡 = 4𝑒𝑠𝑐 B. 𝑉 =?
𝑣𝑖 = 5𝑚/𝑠 C. 𝑘 =?
Solution
1 2 1
A) h  vi t  gt   5  4   10  4   100m
2

2 2
mg
B) V  or V  vi  gt   5   10  4   45 m s
k
mg mg 26
C) V  k    0.58 kg s
k V 45

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2.1.10. Graphical representation of motion

Three types of graph that can represent motion are displacement-time graph, velocity- time
graphs and acceleration- time graphs

A. Displacement – time graph

Displacement time graphs show the displacement of a moving object changes with time.
In a displacement –time graph, the slop or gradient of the line, is equal to the velocity
of the object.
A graph plotted between displacement S on the y – axis and time t on the x – axis is
called the S- t graph.

∆𝑆 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔
𝑉⃗ = = 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 =
∆𝑡 ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔

A straight line (diagonal) line represents a constant velocity.

A curved line represent an acceleration
A positive slope represents motion in the positive direction.
A negative slope represents motion in the negative direction.
A zero slope (horizontal line) represents a state of rest.
The area under the curve is meaningless.

Slope is positive
Slope is zero
A velocity is constant, +Ve
A velocity is zero (object at rest)

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Slope is negative Slope is cureve

Velocity is constant, negative Velocity is not constant
(object is accelerating)

B. Velocity – time graph

A graph plotted between velocity V on the y – axis and time t on the x – axis is called the V- t
graph.
In a velocity –time graph, the slop or gradient of the line, is equal to the acceleration of the
object.
A straight line (diagonal) line represents a constant /uniform acceleration.
A curved line represent non- uniform acceleration.
A positive slope represents an increase in velocity in the positive direction.
A negative slope represents an increase in velocity in the negative direction.
A zero slope (horizontal line) represents motion with constant velocity.
The area under the curve equals the displacement or distance travelled.

The V-t graph for different cases is as shown

Uniformly accelerated motion

Uniform motion 𝑽 = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕, 𝒂
⃗ =𝟎 ⃗ = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕), slope = +𝑽𝒆
(𝒂

Non- uniformly accelertion

Uniformly deccelerated motion (acceleration 𝑎 is not constant)
⃗ = −𝐯𝐞, slope = −𝐯𝐞 )
(𝒂

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C. Acceleration – time graph

A graph plotted between acceleration 𝑎 on the y – axis and time t on the x – axis is called
the V- t graph
In acceleration – time graph, the slop or gradient of the line, is meaningless.
A zero slope (horizontal line) represents an object undergoing constant acceleration.
The area under the curve equals the change in velocity.

For uniformly increasing acceleration

Constant acceleration

Non- uniformly uniformly

Object moving uniform retardation accelerated body

Remark!

The displacement- time graph indicates how the displacement of a body changes with time.
The slope of displacement – time graph can determine the velocity of the body.
The slop of the velocity – time graph can determine the acceleration of the body.
The area under the velocity – time graph determines the displacement of the body.

Example

1. The speed – time graph of a particle moving along a fixed direction is shown in figure below.
Obtain the distance traversed by the particle between

A. 𝑡 = 0𝑠𝑒𝑐 to 10sec.
B. 𝑡 = 2𝑠𝑒𝑐 to 6sec.

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Solution
A. Distance travelled by the particle = area under the graph,
Distance travelled at 𝒕 = 𝟎𝒔𝒆𝒄 to 10sec. is given by
𝑺 = 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆𝒍𝒆
1
S  base    height 
2
1
 10  0  sec 12  0  m s
2
1
 10 12  m
2
120
 m
2
S  60m

B. the total distance (S) covered by the particle in time 𝑡 = 5𝑠𝑒𝑐 to 𝑡 = 6𝑠𝑒𝑐 is given by

𝑆 = 𝑆1 + 𝑆2 (𝑖)

For distance 𝑆1 , let 𝑣𝑖1 be the velocity of the particle after 2 sec and 𝑎 1, be the acceleration of
the particle in 𝑡 = 0 𝑡𝑜 𝑡 = 5𝑠𝑒𝑐.

Since the particle undergoes uniform acceleration in the interval 𝑡 = 0 to 𝑡 = 5𝑠𝑒𝑐,

acceleration can be obtain as

v f  v1i  a1t , where t  5  0  5ec., v i1  0

12  0  5a1
12  5a1
12
a1   2.4 m 2
5 s

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Again, from kinematic equation of motion,

1
S1  v1i  a1t 2
2
1
  4.8 3   2.4  3
2

2
S1  25.2m  ii 
Distance travelled by the particle between time 2sec and 5sec i.e., in 3sec is given by
1
S1  v1i t  a1t 2
2
1
  4.8 3   2.4  3
2

2
S1  25.2m  ii 
Let 𝑎 2 be the acceleration of the particle between 𝑡 = 5𝑠𝑒𝑐 to 𝑡 = 10𝑠𝑒𝑐.
From the kinematic equation of motion, we have,

v 2 f  v1i  a2t , where v 2 f  0, t  10  5  5sec

0  12  5a2
 12  5a2
12
a    2.4 m 2
5 s
 S  S1  S 2
S  25.2  10.8  36m
1
v   h  b 
2
1
  2  4 
2
v  4 m s
 v f  vi  4 m s
 vi  4 m s
vf  2ms  4ms  6ms

Distance travelled by the particle in 1sec (i.e., between 𝑡 = 5 to 𝑡 = 6𝑠𝑒𝑐),

1
S 2  v 2i t  a2t 2
2
1
 12 1   2.4 1
2

2
 12  1.2
S 2  10.8m  iii 

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From Eq. (i), Eq.(ii) and Eq. (iii), we obtain:

S  S1  S 2
S  25.2  10.8  36 m
2. The acceleration- time graph of a particle moving in a straight line is as shown in figure. The
velocity of the particle at 𝑡 = 0 is 2𝑚/𝑠. The velocity after 2 seconds will be

Solution
Area under acceleration – time graph gives the change in velocity
1
v  h  b
2
1
  2  4 
2
v  4 m s
v f  vi  4 m s
v f  vi  4 m s
vf  2ms  4ms  6ms

3. The velocity – time graph for the vertical component of the velocity of a body thrown upward
from the ground and landing on the roof of a building is given by in the figure. The height of
the building is

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Solution
Height of building = Area

h  A1  A2
1 1
 b  h   b  h 
2 2
1 1
  3 30    4  3 10 
2 2
1 1
  90   1 10 
2 2
 45  5
h  40m

4. The velocity- time graph of a car that slows down a t a uniform rate is shown.

A. find the acceleration

B. the distance travelled before the car stops

Solution
A. acceleration of a body is given by:
v
a  slope 
t
v f  vi

t f  ti
0  30

30
a  10 m s 2

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B. Total displacement travelled by a body is given by:

S  Area
1
  30  3
2
S  45m

2.2. Motion in two dimensions

Two dimensional (2D) motion means motion that takes place in two different directions (or
coordinates) at the same velocity.
When the object travels in x and y coordinates with a constant velocity, it is known as two
dimensional motion.
Two dimensional motion is the study of movement in two directions, including the study of
motion along curved path, such as projectile and circular motion.

2.2.1. Projectile Motion

Projectile motion refers to the motion of an object that is launched into the air and moves along
a curved path under the influence of gravity. In other words, Projectile motion is a type of
motion in which an object is launched into the air with an initial velocity and then moves along
a parabolic trajectory under the influence of gravity only.
In projectile motion, the object follows a parabolic trajectory, where its motion can be divided
into two components: horizontal (along the x-axis) and vertical (along the y-axis). The
horizontal component is constant an unaffected by gravity, while the vertical component is
influenced by gravity, causing the object to follow a parabolic trajectory.
Example of projectile

A football being kicked through the air and then falling to the ground.
A baseball being pitched and then flying through the air before being caught.
A javelin being through in a track and field event before landing in the ground.

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A cannonball being fired from a canon and then traveling in a parabolic path before hitting
the ground.
Bullets fired from the guns.

The key characteristics of projectile motions are:

A. Horizontal motion

In the absence of horizontal forces, a projectile will move horizontally at a constant velocity.
This means that the horizontal component of the object’s velocity remains unchanged
throughout the entire motion. In other words, in the horizontal direction, there are no external
horizontal forces acting on the projectile (neglecting air resistance). This means that the
horizontal velocity of the projectile remains constant throughout its flight.

If there are no external forces acting on the object in the horizontal direction, and there is no
acceleration or deceleration, then the object will maintain a constant velocity. i.e.,

Fx  max , hence ax  0
 velocity  constant, vox  vx

B. Vertical motion

Due to the force of gravity, a projectile will experience a vertical downward acceleration.
The vertical component of the object’s velocity changes over time, causing the object to
move in a curved path known as parabola. The object’s velocity decreases as it rises and
increases as it falls.

When an object is subject to only the force of gravity in the vertical direction, it undergoes
free-fall motion. In the absence of air resistance, an object in free fall will experience a
constant acceleration due to gravity, which is approximately 9.8𝑚/𝑠2.

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C. Independent of motion

The horizontal and vertical motions of a projectile are independent of each other. This
means that the object’s motion in one direction does not affect its motion in the other
direction. The motion can be analyzed separately along the horizontal and vertical axes.

D. Time of flight

The time it takes for a projectile to return to initial height (time of flight) depends on the
initial velocity, launched angle, and gravitational acceleration. The time of flight is the sum
of the time it takes for the object to reach its maximum height and the time it takes to fall
back down.

Remark!

The trajectory of a projectile is influenced by its initial velocity, launched angle, and the
force of gravity acting on it, but not upon the mass of projectile.
The vertical and horizontal components of the projectile are independent of each other and
occur simultaneously, resulting in a curved or parabolic trajectory.
We take (−𝑔) for upward motion and (+𝑔 ) for downward motion.
The velocity is changing both in magnitude and direction along the vertical direction. This is
due to the effect of gravity.

Projectiles can be projected

Horizontally
Vertically
Inclined
The following three assumptions are necessary to analyze a projectile motion

1. The free- fall acceleration 𝑔 is constant over the range of motion and is directed downward.
Projectile has zero acceleration in the x direction ( 𝑎𝑥 = 0) and 𝑎𝑦 = 𝑔 in y direction
2. The effect of air resistance is negligible.

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3. The rotation of the earth does not affect the motion

Equations of motion for projectile motion

The equations motion for projectile motion, neglecting air resistance, can be derived by
considering the horizontal and vertical components of the motion separately. Let’s assume that the
initial velocity of the projectile is vo , and the launch angle (angle with respect to the horizontal) is
𝜃.

Fig: Motion of a projectile

1. Horizontal motion or Motion in x- direction (horizontal motion with constant velocity)

The horizontal motion of the projectile is uniform, meaning there is no acceleration in the
horizontal direction. The equation for horizontal motion is given by:

v ox  v o cos 
v x  v ox  ax t , sin ce ax  0
v x  v ox  cons tan t
x  v ox t , v ox  v o cos 
x   v o cos   t  2.42 
x
t  2.43
v o cos 

Where 𝑥 is the horizontal distance, vox is the initial horizontal velocity, vx is the final
horizontal velocity, and t is the time.

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2. Motion in y- direction (vertical motion with uniform acceleration)

In the vertical direction, there is acceleration due to gravity, so the motion is affected by
both the initial velocity and the acceleration due to gravity.
The equation for vertical motion can be divided into two equations:
One for velocity (voy 𝑎𝑛𝑑 vy ) and
another for displacement or the height of projectile motion (𝑌 = ℎ)
The equations for velocity in the vertical direction is given by:

voy  vo sin 
v y  voy  a y t , sin ce ax  g
= voy  gt , voy  vo sin 
v y  vo sin   gt  2.44 

Where voy is the initial vertical velocity, 𝑣𝑦 is the final vertical velocity, and t is the
time.
The equations for displacement or height (𝑌) in the vertical direction is given by:

1 2
Y  voy t  gt
2
1 2
Y   vo sin   t  gt  2.45
2
Substituting Eq. (2.43) into Eq. (2.45), we obtain:

2
 x  1  x 
Y   v o sin     g 
 v o cos   2  v o cos  
sin  1 gx 2
x 
cos  2 vo2 cos 2 
 g  2
Y  x  tan     2 x  2.46 
 2vo cos  
2

Or
g
Y  ax  bx 2  parabolaEquation where a  tan  , b   2.47 
2v cos 2 
2
o

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Eq. (2.46) is the equation of the trajectory.

Note that Eq. (2.47) is equation of a downward parabola.

3. The maximum height (𝒀𝑴𝒂𝒙 = 𝒉𝑴𝒂𝒙 )

The maximum height reached by the object is the highest point of the trajectory. The
maximum height, 𝑌𝑀𝑎𝑥 attained by the body during its flight can be evaluate as follow:

v y2  voy2  2 gY
  vo sin    2 gY
2

v y  vo2 sin 2   2 gY
2
 2.48

At 𝑌𝑀𝑎𝑥 , the vertical component of the velocity is zero (𝑉𝑦 = 0) and hence Eq.(2.48)
becomes:

v y2  vo2 sin 2   2 gY , at YMax , v y  0

0  vo2 sin 2   2 gYMax
2 gYMax  vo2 sin 2 
vo2 sin 2 
YMax   2.49 
2g

4. Time to reach the maximum height (𝒕𝒖𝒑 )

The time it takes for an object to reach its maximum height (also known as the time of flight)
depends on the initial velocity and launch angle. Assuming the object is subject only to the
force of gravity and air resistance is negligible, the time to reach the maximum height can be
determined using the following equations:

v y  v o sin   gt , at YMax , v y  0
0  v o sin   gtup
gtup  v o sin 
v sin 
tup  o  2.50 
g

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5. Total time of flight (𝒕𝒕𝒐𝒕 )

The total time of flight of an object in projectile motion is the time it takes for the object to
complete its entire trajectory, from its initial launch to when it lands.
From Eq. (2.45), we obtain the total time of flight when the thrown object reached maximum
height and returns to back its original position

1 2
Y   v o sin   t  gt , but Y  0, when aprojectile return back toitsinitial position
2
1 2
0 = v o sin  ttot  gttot
2
1 2
 v o sin  ttot   gttot
2
1
v o sin   gttot
2
2v o sin   gttot
2v sin 
ttot  o  2.51
g

6. Range of Projectile (R)

The range of a projectile refers to the horizontal distance it covers before hitting the ground.
In other words, the range of a projectile is the horizontal distance traveled by the projectile
from its initial position to the point where it hits the ground. It is influenced by the initial
velocity, angle of launch, and the acceleration due to gravity. The range can be calculated
using the following equations:
R  vox ttot
 2vo sin  
  vo cos   
 g 
vo2  2v sin  cos 
R  2.52 
g

But from trigonometric relations:

sin  A  B   sin A cos B  sin B cos A
sin      sin  cos   sin  cos 
sin  2   2sin  cos   2.53

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Substituting Eq. (2.53) into Eq. (2.52), we obtain:

vo2 sin  2  2vo2 sin cos 

R   2.54 
g g

Remark!

The range of projectile is a maximum at 45°.

v o2 sin  2  45o 
Rmax 
g
v sin  90o 
2

 , sin  90o   1
o

g
2
v
Rmax  o
 2.55
g

Example

1. An astronaut on a strange planet can jump a maximum horizontal distance of 15m if his initial
speed is 3m/s. What is the free fall acceleration on the planet?

Given Required

𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 15𝑚 A. 𝑔 =?
𝑣𝑜 = 3𝑚/𝑠
Solution
vo2
Rmax 
g
vo2
g
Rmax
 3m / s 
2


15m
9m / s 2 2
g  0.6m / s 2
15m

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2. A stone is thrown upward with a speed of 20m/s at an angle of 37° from the ground.
Find:
A. The position (x, y) of the stone after 2 sec.
B. Time taken to reach the maximum height
C. The maximum height of the stone
D. The range of the stone

Given Re quired
Vo  Vx  20 m s A) x & y  ?
g  10 m s 2 B ) tup  ?
t  2sec C ) Ymax  hmax  ?
  370 D) R  ?

Solution

A. B. C. D.
i ) x  Vx t Vo sin 37 0 Vo2 sin 2 37 0 2Vo2 cos 37 0 sin 37 0
tup  tmax  hmax  R
 Vo   cos 37 0   2sec  g 2g g

  20 m s  0.8  2sec 
 20 m s  0.6   20 m s   0.6 
2 2
 2  20 m s   0.8  0.6 
2
  
x  32m
10 m s 2
2 10 m s 2  10 m s  2

1 
12 m s  400 m 2
s 2
  0.36   m2 
ii ) y  Voy t  gt 2 10 m s 2   2   400   0.8  0.6 
2 20 m s 2  s2 
tup  1.2sec 
 Vo   sin 37   2sec   10   2sec 
0 1
2
m
s2
2

144 m 2 s 2 10 m s 2 
20 m s 2
  20 m s  0.6  2sec    5 m s  4sec 
2 2
hmax  7.2m 
 384 m s 
2 2

 24m  20m 10 m s  2

y  4m R  38.4m

3. A projectile is fired in such a way that its horizontal range is equal to three times its maximum
height. What is the angle of projection?

Given Required

𝑅 = 3𝑌𝑀𝑎𝑥 𝜃 =?

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Solution
R  3YMax
2v o2 sin  cos  3v o2 sin 2 

g 2g
3sin 
2 cos  
2
4
cos   sin 
3
4 sin 

3 cos 
4
tan    1.33
3
  tan 1.33  53.1o
1

4. A stone is thrown upward on its way up it passes point A with speed v and point B, 3m higher
than A with speed v/2. What is the speed and maximum height reached by the stone above
point B, respectively?

Solution

A. the speed of stone V above point B is given by:

v 2f  vo2  2as
𝒗
At point A and B, 𝑽𝒐𝑨 = 𝒗, 𝒗𝒇𝑩 = 𝟐, 𝒂
⃗ = −𝒈
⃗⃗ , and 𝒔 = 𝒉 =
𝟑𝒎
vB2  voA
2
 2 gh
2
v
    v     2 10  3
2

2
v2
 v 2  60
4
v 2  4v 2
 60
4
3v 2
  60
4
v2 
 4  60   240
3 3
v 2  80
v  80  8.9 m s

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B. The maximum height reached by the stone above point B, is given by;

Between point B and C, at maximum height, velocity = 𝒛𝒆𝒓𝒐

v
VBi  , v c  0, a  g, s  Y , take g  10 m s2
2
vC2  v 2Bi  2 gY
2
v
0     20Y
2
2
v
  20Y
4
v 2  80Y
v2
Y  , where v  80
80
 
2
80 80
Y   1m
80 80

2.2.2. Uniform Circular Motion

Uniform Circular Motion is motion of objects in a circular path with a constant speed.
When a particle is moving in a circular path at constant speed we say that the particle is in
uniform circular motion.
For objects moving in a circular path with a constant speed, acceleration arises because of
the change in direction of the velocity is called centripetal acceleration 𝑎 𝑐
Centripetal acceleration 𝑎 𝑐: is an acceleration of a body that always points to the center of
the circle.

v2
ac   2.56
r

Where 𝑎𝑐 is called centripetal acceleration.

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For one complete revolution, distance moved by the body is equal to the circumference of the
circle and its time taken is the period (T), so we have;
s 2 r
v   2.57 
t T
2 r
T  2.58
v

Remark!

There are two ways in which the acceleration can occur due to:

change in magnitude of the velocity

change in direction of the velocity

In case of uniform circular motion;

Velocity is always tangent to the circular path and perpendicular to the radius of the circular
path.
Acceleration vector is always perpendicular to the circular path and points towards the
center of the circle.

Example

1. What is the centripetal acceleration of the earth as it moves in its own orbit around the sun?
(Earth distance is approximately 150 million km and assume the orbit of the earth to be
circular)

Given Required

𝑟 = 150,000,000𝑘𝑚 = 1.5 × 108 𝑘𝑚 = 1.5 × 1011 𝑚 𝑎𝑐 =?

𝑇 = 1𝑦𝑟 = 365 𝑑𝑎𝑦 = 3665 × 24 × 60 × 60𝑠𝑒𝑐 = 3.15 × 107 𝑠𝑒𝑐
Where T is the time for the earth to orbit around the sun, which is one year

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Solution

 2 r 
2

2  

v T 
ac 
r r
4 r  4  3.14  1.5  10 m 
2 11
2
 2 
 3.15  107 sec 
2
T
ac  6  10 3 m s 2

2. A satellite is in circular orbit at altitude of ℎ = 200𝑘𝑚 above the Earth’s surface, where 𝑔 =
9.2𝑚/𝑠 2 . What is the orbital speed of the satellite?

Given Required

𝑎𝑐 = 𝑔 = 9.2𝑚/𝑠 2 v =?
ℎ = 200𝑘𝑚 = 200 × 103 𝑚
𝑅𝐸 = 6.37 × 106 𝑚

Solution
v2
ac  , r  RE  h, where ac  g
r
v2
g
RE  h
v  g  RE  h 
2

v  g  RE  h 
 9.2  6.37  106  200  10 6 
v  7770 m s

Relative velocity

In reality, everything is relative. There is no such thing absolute!

Relative velocity: is the velocity of a body relative to a fixed body or a moving body.
The velocity of a moving object with respect to another object either moving or in rest is
termed as Relative motion

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 If body A and body B are moving with velocities 𝑉𝐴 and 𝑉𝐵 with respect to a common stationary
frame of reference, say the ground, a tree or a fixed platform;

The velocity of A with respect to B is written as, 𝑉𝐴𝐵 .

VAB  VA  VB  2.56
The velocity of B with respect to A is written as, 𝑉𝐵𝐴

VBA  VB  VA  2.57 
When two bodies are moving in opposite direction, relative velocity between them is equal to
sum of the velocity of the bodies.

VAB  VA   VB   VA  VB  2.58

But if the bodies are moving in same direction, their relative velocity is equal to difference in
velocity of the bodies.

VAB  VA  VB  2.59

Two bodies are moving in two mutually perpendicular direction then the relative velocity will
be the trigonometric hypotenuse of the right tringle formed by the two velocities.

R  VA2  VB2  2.61

Example

1. A ship is streaming towards East with a speed of 5m/s. A woman runs a cross the deck at a
speed of 6m/s towards north. What is the velocity of women relative to the sea?

Given Required

Velocity of ship v
⃗ s = 8𝑖̂ |𝑣𝑤 | =?
Velocity of woman w.r.t ship, v
⃗ ws = 6𝑗̂
Velocity of women = v
⃗w

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Solution
v ws  v w  v s
v w  v s  v ws
v w  8iˆ  6 ˆj

vw   v s    v ws 
2 2

vw  8   6   64  36  100  10 m s
2 2

The direction of motion is given by

opp.side v ws 6 3
tan       0.75
adj.side v s 8 4
  tan 1  0.75   36.9o
The velocity of women relative to the sea is 10m/s at 𝟑𝟔. 𝟗° North East

2. A plane is travelling eastward at a speed of 500km/h. but a 90km/h wind is blowing southward.
What is the direction and speed of the plane relative to the ground?
Given Required
𝑉𝑝 = (500𝑖̂ + 0𝑗̂)𝑘𝑚/ℎ A. |𝑉𝑝𝑔 | =?
𝑉𝑤 = (0𝑖̂ − 90𝑗̂)𝑘𝑚/ℎ B. 𝜃 =?
Solution
v pg  v p    v w 

  
 500iˆ  0 ˆj  0iˆ  90 ˆj 
v pg   500iˆ  90 ˆj  km
h

v pg  v 2p  vw2   500    90    500    90   508 km h

2 2 2 2

The angle 𝜽 is given by

opp.side v w 90
tan      0.18
adj.side v p 500

  tan 1  0.18   10o

The plane’s velocity relative to ground is 508km/h at 𝟏𝟎° south East

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3. A boat is moving with velocity vb = (3𝑖̂ + 4𝑗̂)𝑚/𝑠 in river and water is moving with a velocity
vw = (−3𝑖̂ − 4𝑗̂)𝑚/𝑠 with respect to ground. Relative velocity of boat with respect to water
is
Given Required
vb = (3𝑖̂ + 4𝑗̂)𝑚/𝑠 𝑣𝑏𝑤 =?
vw = (−3𝑖̂ − 4𝑗̂)𝑚/𝑠
Solution
vbw  vb  v w

  
 3iˆ  4 ˆj  3iˆ  4 ˆj 
  3iˆ  4 ˆj    3iˆ  4 ˆj 

  3  3 iˆ   4  4  ˆj


vbw  6iˆ  8 ˆj  m
s

4. A motorcycle policeman travelling at 𝑣𝑝 = 80𝑘𝑚/ℎ overtakes a car travelling at 𝑣𝑐 =

65𝑘𝑚/ℎ. The velocity of the policeman relative to the car velocity is

Given Required
vp = 80𝑘𝑚/ℎ 𝑣𝑝𝑐 =?
vc = 65𝑘𝑚/ℎ
Solution
v pc  v p  v c
v pc  80  65  15 km h

5. Two cars, A and B, are approaching each other, A going at vA = 40𝑘𝑚/ℎ and B going at vB =
60𝑘𝑚/ℎ. What is the velocity of A relative to B?

Given Required

vA = 40𝑘𝑚/ℎ 𝑣𝐴𝐵 =?
vB = 60𝑘𝑚/ℎ

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Solution
v AB  v A    v B 
 v A  vB
v AB  40  60  100 km h

6. A boat is moving towards East with velocity 4m/s with respect to river flowing towards north
with velocity of 2m/s and the wind is blowing towards north with velocity 6m/s. the direction
of the flag blown over by hoisted on the boat is

Given Required

The velocity of boat with respect to river is given by 𝑉⃗𝑏𝑟 = 4𝑖̂ m/s 𝜃 =?
Velocity of river with respect to ground is given by 𝑉⃗𝑏𝑔 = 2𝑗̂ m/s
Velocity of wind with respect to ground is given by 𝑉⃗𝑊𝑔 = 6𝑗̂ m/s
Solution
The direction of flag hoisted on the boat will be along the direction of velocity of
wind with respect to boat.
Applying the concept of relative velocity;
Vbr  Vbg  Vrg
Vbg  Vbr  Vrg i 
VWb  VWg  Vbg  ii 
Put Eq. (i) into Eq. (ii), we obtain: The angle 𝜃 is given by
VWb  VWg  Vbr  Vrg 

 6 ˆj  4iˆ  2 ˆj 
 6 ˆj  4iˆ  2 ˆj
  6  2  ˆj  4iˆ
Vy 4
tan    1
VWb  4 ˆj  4iˆ Vx 4

  tan 1 1  450

On observing the component of velocity for 𝑽𝑾𝒃 it is clear that the direction will be
along North-West.

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Review Question

Choose the correct answer from a given alternative choice

1. An athlete accelerates at 1.9𝑚/𝑠 2 for 2.2 sec at the beginning of race. What is the speed of
the athlete at the end of a 3000m?
A. 0.86m/s B. 1.16m/s C. 4.18m/s D. 9.2m/s
2. A ball is thrown down ward from the top of a tower. After being released, it’s downward.
A. Velocity will be uniform C. Acceleration greater than 𝑔
B. Acceleration will be equal to 𝑔 D. acceleration smaller than 𝑔
3. What does the slope of a velocity time graph represent?
A. Distance C. Displacement
B. Acceleration D. Speed
4. A small car and a bus move with velocities given by 𝑉𝑐 = (3𝑖̂ − 2𝑗̂)𝑚/𝑠 and 𝑉𝑏 =
(−5𝑖̂ − 4𝑗̂)m/s respectively, what is the velocity of the bus according to a car driver?
A. (−2𝑖̂ + 6𝑗̂)m/s C. (−8𝑖̂ + 2𝑗̂)m/s
B. (−2𝑖̂ − 6𝑗̂)m/s D. (−8𝑖̂ − 2𝑗̂)m/s
5. A bird, accelerating from rest at a constant rate, experiences a displacement of 28 m in 11 s.
What is its acceleration?
A. 0.21 𝑚/𝑠 2 B. 0.46 𝑚/𝑠 2 C. 0.64 𝑚/𝑠 2 D. 0.78 𝑚/𝑠 2
6. A body is thrown upwards and reaches its maximum height. At that point:
A. Its velocity is zero and its acceleration is also zero
B. Its velocity is zero but its acceleration is maximum
C. Its velocity is zero and its acceleration is the acceleration due to gravity
D. Its acceleration is minimum.
7. A ball is thrown vertically downwards with a velocity of 20m/s from the top of a tower. It
hits the ground after some time with the velocity of 80m/s. the height of the tower is:
(assuming 𝑔 = 10𝑚/𝑠 2 )
A. 340m B. 320m C. 300m D. 360m

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8. A body is thrown vertically up from the ground. It reaches a maximum height of 100m in
5seconds. After what time will it reach the ground from the position of maximum height?
A. 1.2sec B. 5sec C. 10sec D. 25sec
9. A particle moves in a straight line with constant acceleration. It changes its velocity from 10m/s
to 20m/s while covering a distance of 135m in “t” second. The value “t” is
A. 10sec B. 1.8sec C. 12sec D. 9sec
10. A car travelling at a speed of 30km/h is brought to rest at a distance of 8m by applying brakes.
If the same car is moving at speed of 60km/h, then it can be brought to rest the same brakes in:
A. 64m B. 32m C. 16m D. 4m
11. If two projectiles, with the same masses and with the same velocities, are thrown at angle
60° 𝑎𝑛𝑑 30° with the horizontal, then which of the following quantities will remain the
same?
A. Time of flight C. Maximum height acquired
B. Horizontal range of projectile D. All of the above
12. A particle A is dropped from a height and another particle B is projected in horizontal
direction with speed of 5m/s from the same height, then correct statement is
A. Particle A will reach at ground first with respect to particle B.
B. Particle B will reach at ground first with respect to particle A
C. Both particles will reach at ground simultaneously
D. Both particles will reach at ground with same speed
13. Which of the following is correct about uniform circular motion?
A. Direction of motion is continuously changed
B. Direction of motion is not changed
C. Speed and direction both remain constant.
D. Speed is constant, but direction is changing
E. A and D are correct

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14. A child whirls a ball at the end of a rope, in a uniform circular motion. Which of the
following statements is NOT true?
A. The speed of the ball is constant
B. The magnitude of the ball's acceleration is constant
C. The velocity is of the ball is constant
D. The acceleration of the ball is directed radially inwards towards the center
15. In a uniform circular motion, the centripetal acceleration of a body moving in a circular path
results from:
A. Change in magnitude of tangential velocity.
B. Change in direction of angular velocity
C. Change in direction of tangential velocity
D. Change in magnitude of tangential acceleration

Solution

1. C 4. D 7. C 10. B 13. E
2 B 5. B 8. B 11. B 14. C
3. B 6. C 9 D 12. C 15. C

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Chapter Three

3. Angular motion

The simplest angular motion is one in which the body moves along a curved path at a constant
angular velocity, as when a runner travels along a circular path or an automobile rounds a
curved.

Rotational about a fixed axis

The rotation of the Earth creates the cycle of day and night, the rotation of wheels enables easy
vehicular motion and modern technology machines depends on rotating parts such as gears,
etc.
Rotational motion: is the motion of a body that takes place in a circular path about a fixed
axis. Example: the rotation of the Earth on its axis.

Note that

Axis of rotation, is an axis about which a body rotates.

When a body is in rotational motion, every particle of it moves in a circular path about a
fixed point.
The three concept in angular motion or rotational kinematics are

 Agular displacement (𝜃)

 Angular velocity (𝜔)
 Angular acceleration (𝛼)
3.1. Angular displacement (𝜽)

When a body moves in a circular path, its position continuously changes.

Angular displacement (𝜃): is the angle through which a body has rotated.
When a body rotates about circular path of radius 𝑟, the angle 𝜃 formed at the center is called
angular displacement.

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The angle which is subtended by the position vector at the center of the circular path is called
angular displacement (𝜽)

The relationship between angular displacement (𝜃) and the tangential displacement (s) is
given by
s  r
s
  3.1
r
Where

𝑠 → arc length
𝜃 → central angle
𝑟 → radius of the circle

The Angular displacement of a body can be expressed in radian, degree, revolution or cycle.
But the SI unit of angular displacement is the radian.
One radian: is the angle formed when the arc length and the radian are equal. → 𝜃 = 1𝑟𝑎𝑑 →
𝑠 = 𝑟.
More over;

1rev  2 rad  360o  1rad  57.30 3.2

Remark!

Angular displacement is a vector quantity, and its direction is determined using the right hand
rule.
Right hand rule: “If you curl your right hand finger in the direction of rotation, then your
thumb will point in the direction of the angular displacement.”
Thus, if a body rotates counter clockwise in the 𝑥𝑦 plane, the angular displacement is pointed
out of the page or along the positive z axis.

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 In Counter clockwise rotation, angular displacement is given by

   kˆ 3.3
 In clockwise rotation, angular displacement is given by

 
   kˆ   kˆ  3.4 

3.2. Angular velocity (𝝎)

Angular velocity (𝜔) is the vector measure of the rotation rate, which refers to how fast an
object rotates or revolves about an axis.
Angular velocity is the time rate at which an object rotates or revolves about an axis.
Angular Velocity (𝜔): is the time rate of change of angular displacement.

  3.5 
t

Its SI unit is rad/sec.

Remark!

 Angular velocity describes how fast a body is rotating.

 Angular velocity can be positive or negative

 Angular velocity has direction along the angular displacement.

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3.3. Angular acceleration (rotational acceleration)

Angular acceleration (𝛼): is the rate at which angular velocity of a body changes with time.


  3.6 
t

Its SI unit is 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠 2

Remark!

 The direction of angular acceleration is the same as the direction of angular velocity when the
velocity is increasing.

 The direction of angular acceleration is opposite to the direction of the angular velocity when
the velocity is decreasing.

3.4. Relation between linear and angular motion

 We have the relation:

s  r 

V  r   3.7 

at   r 

Where

𝑠 → Tangential velocity
𝑉 → Tangential velocity
𝑎𝑡 → Tangential acceleration

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 Equation of motion for uniformly accelerated angular motion are analogous to those equations
of motion for uniformly accelerated linear motion.
Linear Agular
V f  Vi  f  i
a   3.8 
t t
Vi  V f i   f
Vav  av   3.9 
2 2
V f  Vi  at  f  i   t  3.10 
V f2  Vi 2  2as  2f  i2  2  3.11
V f2  Vi 2  2f  i2
a   3.12 
2s 2
V f2  Vi 2  2f  i2
S   3.13
2a 2
1 1
S  Vi t  at 2   i t   t 2  3.14 
2 2
1 1
S  Vi t  at 2   i t   t 2  3.13
2 2
S dS  d
Vins  lim  ins  lim   3.14 
t  0 t dt t  0 t dt
V d 2 S  d 2
ains  lim
t  0 t
 2  ins  lim
t  0 t
 2  3.15 
dt dt

Examples

1. A body is rotated with a uniform speed in a circle of radius 1m. What is the centripetal
acceleration in 𝑚/𝑠 2 if it completes 12 rotations in 3 sec?

Given Required

𝜃 = 12𝑟𝑒𝑣 𝜔 =?
𝑡 = 3𝑠𝑒𝑐

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Solution
 24 rad 1rev  2 rad
   8 rad s
t 3sec 12rev  ? x
v2
ac  , v  r 1revx  12rev  2 rad 
r
 r   r 2
2

x
12rev  2 rad   24 rad

r 1rev
 1m  8 rad s 
2
12rev  24 rad
ac  64 2 m
s2

2. The angular position of a swinging door is described by 𝜃 = 5 + 10𝑡 + 2𝑡 2 . What is the

angular speed and acceleration of the door at 𝑡 = 3𝑠𝑒𝑐?

Given Required

𝜃 = 5 + 10𝑡 + 2𝑡 2 A. 𝜔 =?
𝑡 = 3𝑠𝑒𝑐 B. 𝛼 =?
Solution
A. Angular speed at instant of time is given by B. Angular acceleration is
   t  t     t 
  lim  lim
   t  t     t  t  0 t t  0 t  0
  lim  lim  10  4  t  t   10  4t  
t  0 t t  0 t  0  lim  
 5  10  t  t   2  t  t 2   5  10t  2t 2   t  0
 t 
 lim  
t  0  t   10  4t  4t  10  4t 
   lim  
 5  10  t  t   2  t  2t t  t   5  10t  2t 2 
2 2 t  0
 t 
 lim  
 4 t 
t  0  t 
   lim  
 5  10t  10t  2t 2  4t t  2t 2  5  10t  2t 2 
t  0
 t 
 lim 
t  0 

   4 rad s 2
 t 
 10t 4t t 2t 2 
 lim    
t  0
 t t t 
 lim 10  4t  2t 
t  0
  10  4t
  t  3  10  4  3
  t  3  22 rad sec

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3. A wheel starts from rest and rotates with constant angular acceleration to reach an angular
speed of 12rad/s in 3sec. what is the magnitude of the angular acceleration of the wheel in
𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠 2 and the angle in rad through which it rotates in this time interval respectively?

Given Required

𝜔𝑖 = 0 A. 𝛼 =?
𝜔𝑓 = 12𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠 B. 𝜃 =?
𝑡 = 3𝑠𝑒𝑐
Solution
A. Angular acceleration is given by B. Angular displacement is given by
 f  i 12 rad s  0 1
   4 rad s2   i t   t 2
t 3 2
1
   t 2     4 rad s   3s 
1
  2  9  rad  18rad
2
2
2 2

4. A wheel initially at rest is rotated with constant angular acceleration of 100rad/s in 20sec. If
the radius of the wheel is 0.3m what is the tangential acceleration of a point at the rim of the
wheel?

Given Required

𝜔𝑖 = 0 A. 𝑎𝑡 =?
𝜔𝑓 = 100𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠
𝑡 = 20𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑟 = 0.3𝑚
Solution
 f  i 100 rad s  0
   5 rad s2
t 20
at  r   0.3m   5 rad s2   1.5 m s

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Chapter Four

4. Dynamics

The study of the physical cause of motion is called dynamics, or mechanics. Dynamics is a
part of mechanics which deals with the motion of bodies under the action of forces. This is
because the force is responsible for the motion of the particle.

The acceleration of the particle is also related with forces, and the force obeys Newton’s cause
of motion.

⃗)
Force (𝑭

Force is a physical quantity that describes the ability of a body to change its state of motion or
deform under the influence of external interactions. In other words, Force is a vector quantity
and causes a body to move, to stop, to change direction of motion or change size or shape.
Force is a concept in physics that refers to the push or pull exerted on an object or body. Force
can cause an object to accelerate, decelerate, or change direction. It is usually measured in units
of newton (N).

⃗ 𝒏𝒆𝒕 )
Net force (𝑭

The net force is the vector sum of all the forces acting on an object. It can be determined by
adding up all the individual forces vectorially, taking into account their magnitude and
direction.

Balance Force

When the force acting on an object are balanced, it means that the net force is zero. This means
that the force acting on the object are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction, resulting
in a net force of zero. In this case, the object remains in a state of equilibrium, either at rest or
moving at a constant velocity.

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If the resultant (sum) of all the forces acting on a body is zero, the forces are called balanced
(in equilibrium) force.
⃗ 𝒏𝒆𝒕 ) on a body is zero, its motion does not change, the body is either at
If the vector sum (𝑭
rest or moving with constant velocity. The body is said to be in equilibrium. i.e.,

∑ 𝐹 = 0 → 𝑎 = 0 → 𝑉⃗ = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

Balance forces acting on an object can cause a change in its shape. When forces are balanced,
they do not cause the object to accelerate, but they can still deform the object’s shape.

Unbalance Force

If the resultant forces acting on the body is not zero, the forces are called unbalanced force
It can change the state of motion of object
It can stop the moving object
It can change the speed of object
It can change the direction of object
⃗ 𝒏𝒆𝒕 ) acting on it is not equal to zero.
The object accelerates only if the net force (𝑭

4.1. Types of Forces

 There are a variety of types of forces. A variety of force types were placed into two broad
category. These are

Non- contact force (action at a distance) and

Contact force

1) Non-contact Force (Field force)

A non-contact force is a force that acts without direct physical contact between objects. It
is a type of force that does not required a physical contact with the other object.

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Non-contact forces can act over long distances, even if there is empty space between the
objects involved.

Examples of non-contact forces includes:

All fundamental force (interaction) in nature are field force (non-contact force)

Gravitational force
Electromagnetic force: magnetic force and electrostatic force
Strong nuclear force
Weak nuclear force

1. Gravitational force

Gravity is a force of attraction between two objects with mass. It acts on objects at a distance
without any physical contact.
For example, the force of gravity between the Earth and the Moon keeps the Moon in orbit
around the Earth.
Gravitational force is governed by Newton’s law of gravitation, which states that:

1
𝐹 ∝ 𝑚 1 𝑚 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐹 ∝ (4.1)
𝑟2
𝐺𝑚 1 𝑚 2
𝐹= (4.2)
𝑟2

Properties of Gravitational forces

It is universal attractive force

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It is directly proportional to masses of two bodies

It is obey inverse square law
It is longer range force
It is central forces
It is weakest force in nature
It is conservative force
It is to be caused by the exchange of particles called graviton.

2. Electromagnetic force

The electromagnetic force is one of the fundamental forces in nature that governs the
interactions between electrically charged particles.
It is responsible for the attraction and repulsion of charged particles, as well as the
interactions between magnetic fields.
The electromagnetic force is carried by particles called photons and is described by the laws
of electromagnetism, which include Coulomb's law and Maxwell's equations.
It plays a crucial role in many aspects of everyday life, from the behavior of atoms and
molecules to the functioning of electronic devices.

The force acting between two electric charge at rest is called electrostatic force
This force is governed by coulomb's law which states that:

1
𝐹 ∝ 𝑞1 𝑞2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐹 ∝ (4.3)
𝑟2

𝐾𝑞1 𝑞2
𝐹= (4.4)
𝑟2

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The force between two magnetic poles is called magnetic force

These two forces are inseparable and considered as the two facets of a general force known
as Electromagnetic force.

Properties of Electromagnetic force

It may be attractive or repulsive

It obey inverse square law
It is not as much longer than gravitational force.
It is 1036 times shorter than gravitational force.
It is central force
It is conservative force
It is caused by the exchange of photons between two charged bodies.

A. Electrostatic force

Electrostatic force is the force that exists between charged objects. Like charges repel each
other, while opposite charges attract. This force acts without physical contact between the
charged objects.
For example, when you rub a balloon against your hair, the balloon becomes negatively
charged and can attract small pieces of paper without touching them.

B. Magnetic force

Magnetic force is the force that exists between magnets or between a magnet and a magnetic
material. It acts without any direct contact between the objects.
For example, magnets can attract or repel each other without physical contact.

C. Electric force

Electric force is the force that exists between charged objects. It acts without any physical
contact. When objects have opposite charges, they attract each other, and when they have the
same charge, they repel each other.
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3. Strong Nuclear force

It is a force which binds together the protons and neutrons in the nucleus.
It is responsible to keep protons and neutrons bound together in the nucleus
The strong nuclear force is the strongest of the four fundamental forces, but it has a very
short range, only acting over distances on the order of a few femtometers (10−15 meters).
This force is mediated by particles called gluons, which "glue" quarks together to form
protons, neutrons, and other particles.

This force is 100 times stronger than electromagnetic force and 1038 times stronger than
gravitational force.

Properties of strong nuclear force

It is an attractive force
It is short range force and it operates with 10−15 𝑚
It is charge independent
It does not obey inverse square law
It is non-central force
It is non-conservative force
It is caused by the exchange of particles called 𝜋 − 𝑚𝑒𝑠𝑜𝑛

4. Weak Nuclear force

The weak nuclear force is fundamental force in nature that acts on subatomic particles,
particularly on quarks and leptons (such as electrons and neutrinos).

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It is responsible for certain types of radioactive decay and plays a crucial role in the process
of nuclear fusion in stars.
This is the force that appears only between elementary particles involved in a nuclear
process such as the beta decay of nucleus.
It is responsible for a beta decay radioactivity

Depending on the exchanged particle, weak interaction can be electrically neutral Z-boson
and the charged W-bosons.

Properties of weak nuclear force

Any process involving neutrino or antineutrino is governed by weak nuclear force.

It is 1025 times stronger than gravitational force.
It operates only through the range of 10−19 𝑚.
This force a rises due to the exchange of particle called massive vector boson.

 These non-contact forces can have significant impacts on the behavior and motion of objects,
even though they do not require direct physical contact.

2) Contact Force

Contact force is a type of force that occurs when two objects are in direct physical contact with
each other. It arises due to the interaction between the surfaces of the objects in contact.

Examples of contact force:

Muscular force: the force resulting due to the action of muscles.

Applied force
Frictional force

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Normal force
Tension force
Air resistance force
Sping force (restoring force)

Muscular Force

Muscular force is the force generated by the contraction of muscles in the body. Muscles
are specialized tissues that contract and relax to produce movement.
When a muscle contracts, it exerts a force that can be used to move body parts, lift objects,
or perform other physical tasks.
The muscular force is a type of contact force as it requires direct contact between the muscle
and the object being acted upon.

⃗ 𝒂𝒑 )
Applied force (𝑭

 An applied force is a force that is exerted on an object by a person or another object. This force
can cause the object to move, change its shape, or experience acceleration.

 Applied forces can be in various forms, such as pushing, pulling, lifting, tension, compression,
frictional forces, and more. These forces can act on different parts of an object and produce
different effects.

Remark!

 An applied force is one that an entity exerts on an object, typically in the form of a push or
pull.

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Resolving of force

Resolving of force refers to the process of breaking down a single force into its component forces
acting in different directions. This technique is commonly used in physics and engineering to
analyze forces acting on an object or structure in multiple directions.

When a force is applied to an object at an angle, it can be resolved into two or more component
forces that act along specific axes or directions. By resolving the force, we can determine the
individual effects of each component force on the object and calculate their magnitudes and
directions.

Fap  F  Fx iˆ  Fy ˆj , hence Fx  F cos  & Fy  F sin 

F  F cos  iˆ  F sin  ˆj  4.5

The magnitude and direction of a force is given by

F  Fx2  Fy2  4.6 

Fy
tan    4.7 
Fx

Example

1. A man pulls a box with a force of 120N using a rope that makes 60° to horizontal. What is the
force needed to move the box?

Given Required

𝐹 = 120𝑁 𝐹𝑥 =?

𝜃 = 60°

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Solution
Fx  F cos  , cos 60  0.5
 120 N  0.5
Fx  60 N

2. Triangle ABC has sides 𝐴𝐵 = 4𝑐𝑚, 𝐵𝐶 = 3𝑐𝑚, and force 20N, 30N and 10N act along sides
AB, BC and CA respectively. Determine the resultant of these system of forces.

Solution

𝑎𝑑𝑗. 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 4 4 4
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = = = =
ℎ𝑦𝑝. 2
√4 + 3 2 √ 25 5

𝑜𝑝𝑝. 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 3 3 3
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = = = =
ℎ𝑦𝑝. √42 + 32 √ 25 5

 Resolving forces horizontally,

F x  F cos   20 N
  10 N  cos   20 N
4
 10 N    20 N
5
 8 N  20 N
 Fx  12 Niˆ

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 Resolving forces vertically,

F   10 N  sin   30 N
y

3
 10 N    30 N
5
 6 N  30 N
Fy  24 N ˆj

 The resultant of the force is given by

 F    F 
2 2
F  x y

 12 N    24 N   720 N 2
2 2

F  26.83N

3. A force of 𝐹1 is added to 𝐹2 = (3𝑖̂ − 6𝑗̂)𝑁. The resulatnt of the two is in the negative x-
direction and has 5N. what is magnitude of 𝐹1 ?.

Given Required

𝐹2 = (3𝑖̂ − 6𝑗̂)𝑁 |𝐹1 | =?

𝐹2 𝑥 = 3𝑁𝑖̂ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐹2 𝑦 = −6𝑁 𝑗̂

𝐹1 + 𝐹2 = −5𝑖 + 0𝑗̂

Solution

F1  F2  F
    
F1x iˆ  F1 y ˆj  F2 xiˆ  F2 y ˆj  5iˆ  0 ˆj 
 F1x  F2 x  i   F1 y  F2 y  ˆj  5iˆ  0 ˆj
 F1x  3 i   F1 y  6  j  5iˆ  0 ˆj
 F1x  3 i  5iˆ i 
F 1y  6  j  0 ˆj  ii 

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From Eq. (i), we obtain:

 F1x  3 i  5iˆ
F1x  3  5
F1x  5  3
F1x  8iˆ

From Eq. (ii),we obtain;

F 1y  6  j  0 ˆj
F1 y  6  0
F1 y  6 ˆj

The the magnitude of 𝐹1 is given by:

F1  F1x  F1 y

F1  8iˆ  6 ˆj N 
F1  F12x  F12y   8   6   100 N 2  10 N
2 2

⃗𝒇)
Forces of Friction (𝑭

The force that opposes the motion of an object when it is in contact with another object or
surface. For instance, when you try to slide a box on the floor, the frictional force between the
box and the floor opposes the motion.

The force of friction is a resistance force that opposes the motion or attempted motion of an
object in contact with a surface. Friction occurs when two surfaces are in contact and interact
with each other, creating a force that resists the relative motion between them. The force of
friction acts parallel to the surface and opposes the direction of motion or the tendency of
motion.

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Remark!

Friction force exists parallel to the surfaces and always directed opposite to the direction of
motion.
Frictional force doesn’t depend on the area of the surfaces in contact.
Frictional force depends on normal force/load (the force pressing the two surfaces together)
and the nature of surfaces in contact i.e., roughness and smoothness of the surfaces

⃗ 𝑵)
Normal Force (𝑭

The normal force is the force exerted by a surface on an object that is in contact with it. It is
perpendicular to the surface and acts in a direction that is perpendicular to the contact surface.
The normal force is a reaction force that balances the force exerted by an object on a surface
due to gravity or any other external force.
For example, when you place a book on a table, the weight of the book exerts a downward
force on the table due to gravity. In response, the table exerts an equal and opposite normal
force upward on the book to support its weight and prevent it from falling through the table.
The normal force prevents the object from sinking into the surface or falling through it.

It acts perpendicular to the surface and prevents the object from sinking into the surface.

Friction force is always proportional to the normal force between the two interacting surfaces.
Mathematically

Ff  FN

Ff   FN  4.8

Where 𝐹𝑓 = frictional force, 𝐹𝑁 = Normal force and 𝜇 = coefficient of friction

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Types of friction (𝒇𝒔 )

There are two main types of friction:

A. Static friction

Static friction is the type of friction occurs when an object is at rest and prevents it from
moving when a force is applied to it.
Static friction is a type of friction that exists between two surfaces that are in contact with
each other but not in relative motion. In other words, static friction is a force of friction
which opposes the sliding of an object when it is pulled or push.
Static friction is the frictional force that keeps things from moving. In other words, it keeps
an object at rest from moving when a force is applied to it.
It opposes the tendency of motion between two surfaces and prevents them from sliding
against each other.

Mathematically static friction is written as

f s   s FN  4.9 
Where 𝜇𝑠 is the coefficient of static friction.

The coefficient of static friction represents the interaction between the surfaces and it is a
dimensionless value that varies depends on the materials involved. It measures the roughness
or smoothness of the surfaces in contact.
The maximum static friction called limiting friction and is arises when the body is on the
verge of motion.
Static friction is greater than kinetic friction, which is the friction between surfaces that are
relative motion.

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B. Kinetic friction (𝒇𝒌 )

Kinetic friction is a type of frictional force occurs when an object is in motion across a
surface.
Kinetic friction is the frictional force between two surfaces that are in relative motion to each
other.
Kinetic friction is the frictional force when the object is in sliding (in motion) on the surface.
It is frictional force that acts to retard (slow down) motion.

f k  k FN  4.10 

Where 𝜇𝑘 is the coefficient of kinetic friction.

The coefficient of kinetic friction is a dimensionless constant that represents the level of
resistance between two surfaces in relative motions.

Remark!

The friction force and the normal force are perpendicular.

The maximum force of friction will be the same as the smallest force necessary to start motion
The coefficient of static friction can vary depending on several factors, including the surface
roughness, the materials in contact, and any applied force perpendicular to the surface (normal
force), while Coefficient of friction are independent of the area of contact between the surface
Kinetic friction is less than static friction 𝑓𝑘 < 𝑓𝑠 ) and Coefficient of kinetic friction is less
than coefficient of static friction (𝜇𝑘 < 𝜇𝑠 ).

Example

1. A 25.0-kg block is initially at rest on a horizontal surface. A horizontal force of 75.0 N is

required to set the block in motion. After it is in motion, a horizontal force of 60.0 N is required
to keep the block moving with constant speed. Find the coefficients of static and kinetic
friction from this information.

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Given Required

𝑚 = 25𝑘𝑔 𝜇𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜇𝑘 =?
𝑓𝑠 = 75𝑁
𝑓𝑘 = 60𝑁

𝑔 = 9.8𝑚/𝑠 2

Solution

f s   s FN , but FN  mg
fs f 75 N
s   s   0.31
FN mg  25kg   9.8m / s 2 

f k  k FN
fk 60 N
k    0.245
FN  25kg   9.8m / s 2 

2. A block of mass m slides down an inclined plane as shown in the figure below. Find the
expression for the acceleration of the block.

A. If the inclined plane is frictionless

B. If the inclined plane has coefficient of kinetic friction

Solution

The free body diagram for the problem is

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A. If the inclined plane is frictionless:

F x  mg sin   f k  ma , but f k  0

m g sin   m a
a  g sin   4.11
B. If the inclined plane has coefficient of kinetic friction (𝜇𝑘 ):

F x  mg sin   f k  ma , but f k  k FN

mg sin    k FN  ma , but FN  mg cos 

m g sin   k m g cos   m a
g sin   k g cos   a
a  g  sin   k cos    4.12 

Air resistance Force

The air resistance force, also known as drag force, is a type of frictional force that acts
opposite to the motion of an object moving through the air. It depends on various factors
such as the speed of the object, the cross-sectional area, and the drag coefficient of the object.

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Tension Force (T)

 The tension force is the force that is transmitted through a string, rope, cable or wire when it
is pulled tight by forces acting from opposite ends.

 The tension force is directed along the length of the wire and pulls equally on the objects on
the opposite ends of the wire.

Remark!

An applied force where force is applied through a string cable, rope, etc is called tension force.
A tension force can only pull, it cannot push.

T W  0
T  W  mg  4.13

Spring Force (Restoring Force)

The spring force, also known as the restoring force, is the force exerted by a spring when it
is stretched or compressed.
The spring force is the force exerted by a compressed or stretched spring upon any object
that is attached to it.
An object that compresses or stretches a spring is always acted upon by a force that restores
the object to its rest or equilibrium position.
Restoring force is a force that acts to bring a body to its equilibrium position.

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The restoring force is a function only position of the mass or particle, and it is always
directed back toward the equilibrium position of the system.

Hooke’s law

The spring force is directed toward the equilibrium position of the spring and follows Hooke's
Law, which states that the force exerted by a spring is directly proportional to the displacement
of the spring from its equilibrium position.

FR  x
FR   Kx  4.14 

𝐹𝑅 is the spring(restoring) force

K is the spring constant (a measure of the stiffness of the spring)
𝑥 is the displacement of the spring from its equilibrium position

The negative sign in the formula indicates that the spring force is always directed opposite to
the direction of displacement, meaning it acts to restore the spring to its equilibrium position.

4.2. Newtonian’s law of motion

Newton’s laws of motion are fundamental principles in classical physics that describe the
relationship between the motion of an object and the forces acting upon it. These laws were

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formulated by Sir Isaac Newton in the late 17th century and have since become the basis of
classical mechanics.
Newton’s law of motion is the basic laws of dynamics. The three laws are as follows:

1. Newton’s First law (Law of Inertia)

Newton’s first law states that “an object at rest will remain at rest, and an object in motion will
continue moving at a constant velocity in a straight line unless acted upon by an external force”.
In simpler terms, an object will maintain its state of motion (either stationary or moving with
a constant speed and direction) unless a force is applied to change it.
This law demonstrates the concept of inertia, which is the resistance of an object to changes in
its motion.
⃗ 𝒏𝒆𝒕 ) on a body is zero, its motion does not change, the body is either at
If the vector sum (𝑭
rest or moving with constant velocity. The body is said to be in equilibrium. i.e.,

∑ 𝐹 = 0 → 𝑎 = 0 → 𝑉⃗ = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

A reference frame in which Newton’s first law of motion is valid (hold) is known as Inertial
frame of reference.
A reference frame in which a body at rest remain at rest a body in motion moves at constant
velocity in a straight line unless acted upon by external force is called inertial reference
frame.

Inertia

Inertia is a fundamental principle of physics that describes an object's tendency to resist

changes in its state of motion. In other words, an object at rest tends to stay at rest, while an
object in motion tends to stay in motion with the same speed and direction, unless acted upon
by an external force.

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The concept of inertia was first formulated by Sir Isaac Newton in his three laws of motion.
According to Newton's first law, also known as the law of inertia, an object will remain at rest
or continue moving at a constant velocity along a straight line, unless acted upon by a net
external force.
The inertia of an object is directly related to its mass. The more massive an object is, the greater
its inertia and the more force is required to accelerate it or change its state of motion. This is
why it is harder to change the motion of a heavy object compared to a lighter one.
Inertia can be observed in many everyday situations. For example, when a car suddenly stops,
the passengers tend to lurch forward due to their inertia, as their bodies want to continue
moving forward at the original speed. Similarly, when a car accelerates rapidly, passengers are
pushed backward because of their resistance to changes in motion.

Mass

Mass is the measure of the body’s resistance to change in its state of motion. So, it is true that
“the bigger the mass, the greater the inertial”.

Remark!

 Newton’s laws: are valid only in inertial frame of reference.

 We can assume that the Earth as an inertial frame if we neglect its rotation. And a body moving
with a constant velocity can taken an inertial frame. However, an accelerating body is a non
inertial frame, and hence, Newton’s laws do not hold if measurements are made there.

2. Newton's second law of Motion (Law of acceleration or law of momentum)

According to Newton’s 2nd law, the acceleration of a body is directly proportional to the net
force acting on it and inversely proportional to its mass. i.e., ∑ 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎
In simpler terms, if you apply a greater force to an object, it will accelerate more, and if you
increases the mass of an object, it will accelerate less for the same force.

“The net external force applied on a particle is the rate of change of linear momentum.

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p
Fnet  , p  mv
t
 v 
 m 
 t 
Fnet  ma  4.15

Remark!

Newton’s second law of motion applies to the motion of a single object or particle.
A force is necessary to produce acceleration.
The direction of the acceleration is always in the direction of the net force.
The net force is always the vector sum of the individual forces and may or may not be in the
same direction as any one of the individual forces. Its direction depends on the magnitudes and
directions of all the individual forces acting on the object.

F net  ma   Fx  F F
y z

F net  max iˆ  ma y ˆj  maz kˆ  4.16 

Magnitude of Force and acceleration is given by

F Fx2  Fy2  Fz2 and a  a x2  a y2  a z2  4.17 

Example

1. Find the force needed to accelerate amass of 40kg from velocity 𝑉⃗𝑖 = (4𝑖̂ − 5𝑗̂ + 3𝑘̂)𝑚/𝑠 to

𝑉⃗𝑓 = (8𝑖̂ + 3𝑗̂ − 5𝑘̂)𝑚/𝑠 in 10s?

Given Required

𝑚
𝑉⃗𝑖 = (4𝑖̂ − 5𝑗̂ + 3𝑘̂) 𝑠 𝐹 =?
𝑚
𝑉⃗𝑓 = (8𝑖̂ + 3𝑗̂ − 5𝑘̂)
𝑠
𝑡 = 10𝑠𝑒𝑐

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Solution

F  ma i 

a
V f  Vi

8iˆ  3 ˆj  5kˆ    4iˆ  5 ˆj  3kˆ 
m
s
m
s

t 10s
(8  4)iˆ  (3  5) ˆj  (5  3) kˆ  ms
 
10 s
 4 8 ˆ 8 ˆ m
  iˆ  j  k  s2
 10 10 10 
2 4 4 
a   iˆ  ˆj  kˆ  sm2  ii 
5 5 5 

Put Eq. (ii) into Eq. (i), we obtain:

2 4 4 
F  40kg  iˆ  ˆj  kˆ  sm2
5 5 5 
 80 160 ˆ 160 ˆ 
  iˆ  j k  kgm / s 2
 5 5 5 

F  16iˆ  32 ˆj  32kˆ N 

2. A 1kg body accelerates by 𝐹1 = (3𝑖̂ + 4𝑗̂)𝑁 and 𝐹2 = (−2𝑖̂ − 6𝑗̂)𝑁.

Find

A. The net force in unit vector notation

B. The magnitude of the net force
C. The acceleration
D. The magnitude of acceleration

Given Required

𝐹1 = (3𝑖̂ + 4𝑗̂)𝑁 A) 𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 =?

𝐹2 = (−2𝑖̂ − 6𝑗̂)𝑁 B) | 𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 | =?
𝑚 = 1𝑘𝑔 C) 𝑎 =?
D) |𝑎 | =?
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Solution

A) B) C) D

Fnet  F1  F2 Fnet  (1) 2 N 2   2  N 2

2
 F  ma 
a  iˆ  2 ˆj  m
s2

  
 3iˆ  4 ˆj N  2iˆ  6 ˆj N   5N 2 a
Fnet
a  (1) 2 m2
  2 
2 m2
s4 s4
m
  3  2  iˆ   4  6  ˆj  N Fnet  2.24 N
 iˆ  2 ˆj  N  5 ms4
2


Fnet  iˆ  2 ˆj N  
1kg a  2.24 sm2

a  iˆ  2 ˆj  m
s2

3. A body of mass 2kg is moving with velocity of 2m/s. if a force of 10N is applied on the body,
what will be its velocity after 2 sec?

Given Required

𝑚 = 2𝑘𝑔 𝑉𝑓 =?
𝑉𝑖 = 2𝑚/𝑠
𝐹 = 10𝑁
𝑡 = 2𝑠𝑒𝑐
Solution
F  ma
F 10 N
a   5 m s2
m 2
V f  Vi  at
 2   5  2 
 2  10
V f  12 m s

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3. Newton’s 3rd law (Law of action and reaction)

Newton’s 3rd law states that “For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction”.
This law states that when one object exerts a force on a second object, the second object exerts
a force of equal magnitude but in the opposite direction on the first object.

F12   F21  4.18 

Where, 𝐹12 is the force applied by body 1 on body 2 and 𝐹21 is the force applied by body 2 on
body 1.
The action and reaction forces always occur in pairs and act on different objects not on the
same object. It describes the nature of force pairs and interactions between objects.
This law highlights the fact that forces are always mutual and never exist independently.

Remark!

Action and reaction forces are always exist in pair; a single isolated force cannot exist.
Action and reaction forces acts on different objects; as the result they never cancel one another.
In Newton’s 3rd law of motion, the net external force applied to a system is not necessarily
equal to zero. This is because there may be multiple external forces acting on the system, and
they may not cancel each other out. As the result, the net external force can cause the system
to accelerate or decelerate, depending on the direction of the net force.
Action and reaction forces; can be contact and non-contact.
The two forces in Newton’s 3rd law never occur in the free body diagram.

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Example

1. Three blocks 𝑚 1 = 3𝑘𝑔, 𝑚 2 = 4𝑘𝑔 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑚3 = 5𝑘𝑔 are in contact on a smooth horizontal
surface. If a horizontal force of 60N pushes them,
A. Find the acceleration of the blocks;
B. Find the resultant force on each block;
C. How much force 𝑚 1exert on 𝑚 2 ?
D. How much force does 𝑚 2 exert on 𝑚 3 ?

Solution

A. The net force on the system and the total mass of the system are known. So, we apply Newton’s
2nd law:

Fnet  ma
Fnet Fnet 60 N 60 N
a     5 m s2
m m1  m2  m3 3kg  4kg  5kg 12kg

Three of the blocks accelerates with the same value 𝑎 = 5𝑚/𝑠 2 .

B. Let (𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 )1 be the net force on 𝑚 1, (𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 )2 be net force on 𝑚 2 and (𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 )3 be net force on 𝑚 3 .
Then,

 Fnet 1  m1a  by Newton’s 2nd law

  3kg   5 m s 
2

 Fnet 1  15 N
Therefore, the net (resultant) force on 𝑚 1 is 15N

 Fnet 2  m2a   4kg  5 m s   20 N

2

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Hence, the net (resultant) force on the second block is 20N. similarly,

 Fnet 3  m2a   5kg  5 m s   25N

2

Therefore, the net (resultant) force on the third block is 25N. We observe that:

 Fnet 1   Fnet 1   Fnet 1  F  60 N

C. In order to calculate the contact force between two blocks we have to treat each block
separately.

Where
𝐹12 is the reaction force on 𝑚 1 by 𝑚 2
𝐹21 is the action force on 𝑚 2 by 𝑚 1
𝐹23 is the reaction force on 𝑚 2 by 𝑚 3
𝐹32 is the action force on 𝑚 3 by 𝑚 2

 Fnet 1  m1a  net force on block1

F  F12  m1a
F12  F  m1a
 60 N   3kg   5 m s 2 
 60 N  15 N
F12  45 N

Therefore, 𝑚 1 pushes 𝑚 2 with a force of 45N

D. Now, let us seen 𝑚 2

 Fnet 2  m2 a
F21  F23  m2 a

But according to Newton’s 3rd law , |𝐹12 | = |𝐹21 | = 45𝑁 because they are action and reaction
forces.

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45 N  F23  m2 a
F23  45 N  m2 a
 45 N   4kg   5 m s 2 
 45 N  20 N
F23  25 N

Which means 𝑚 2 pushes 𝑚 3 with a force of 25N.

4.3. Application of Newton’s laws

4.3.1. Application of Newton’s First law

Newton's First Law, also known as the law of inertia, states that an object at rest will remain at
rest, and an object in motion will continue to move with a constant velocity unless acted upon by
an external force. This law can be applied to various scenarios, including equilibrium, static
equilibrium, and dynamic equilibrium.

A. Equilibrium

In the context of Newton's First Law, equilibrium refers to a situation where the net force acting
on an object is zero, resulting in a state of balance. In other words, Equilibrium is a condition
in which the state of motion of a body does not change.

When an object is in equilibrium, its velocity remains constant (either at rest or in uniform
motion). This means that the object is not accelerating since there is no unbalanced force acting
on it.
Newton's First Law is applicable in this scenario because the object at rest or in motion will
continue to stay that way unless acted upon by an external force.

A body at equilibrium is either at rest or moves with a constant velocity (zero

acceleration)
A body is in equilibrium, if and only if the vector sum of the force acting on the body is
zero. ∑ 𝐹 = 0

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For this to be true, component of the net force must be zero i.e.,

 Fx  0,  Fy  0 &  Fz  0  4.19
B. Static Equilibrium

Static Equilibrium is a type of equilibrium that occurs when a body is at rest and there is no
net force acting on it. In other words, Static equilibrium occurs when an object is at rest and
experiences no net force or acceleration.
Static equilibrium occurs when an object is at rest or motionless.
In static equilibrium, the net force acting on the object is zero, and there is no linear
acceleration.
An example of static equilibrium is when a book lies on a table without moving.

 In this case, Newton's First Law states that the object will remain at rest as long as no external
force is applied to it. If any external force is applied, the object will no longer be in static
equilibrium and may accelerate or move.

C. Dynamic equilibrium

Dynamic equilibrium is a types of equilibrium arises when an object is in motion with a

constant velocity in a straight line and experiences no net force.
Newton's First Law is relevant here because it states that an object in motion will continue
to move with a constant velocity unless acted upon by an external force. In dynamic
equilibrium, the forces acting on the object are balanced, allowing it to maintain a steady
motion without acceleration.

Remark!

Newton's First Law provides the principles for objects to remain at rest or in motion without
acceleration when in equilibrium, static equilibrium, or dynamic equilibrium, unless acted
upon by external forces.

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Condition of Equilibrium

In solving problems of static equilibrium:

i. Draw the free diagram of the problem

ii. Decompose each force into its x and y components
iii. Apply the equation ∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 0, ∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∑ 𝐹𝑧 = 0 by combining these equation we
will be solved.

Example

1. A bag of cement of weight 400 N hangs from three ropes as shown in the figure below. Two
of the ropes make angles of 370 and 530 with the horizontal. If the system is in equilibrium,
find the tensions 𝑇1 , 𝑇2 and 𝑇3 in the ropes. (cos370 = sin 530 = 0.8 and cos 530 =
sin 370 = 0.6)

Given Required

W  mg  400 N 𝑇1 =?, 𝑇2 =? 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑇3 =?

cos37 0  sin 530  0.8 and cos 530  sin 37 0  0.6

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Solution

A). Free body diagram for Masses suspended by strings

 Fy  o
T3  W  0
T3  W  mg  400 N I 
B). A free body diagram for the knot holds the three cables together

i   Fx  o

T2 cos 53o  T1 cos 37o  0

0.6T2  0.8T1  0
0.6T2  0.8T1
 0.8 
T2    T1
 0.6 
4
T2  T1  II 
3
 ii   Fy  o

T1 sin 37o  T2 sin 53o  T3  0, but T3  400 N

0.6T1  0.8T2  400 N  0
0.6T1  0.8T2  400 N  III 

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Substitute Eq. (II) into Eq. (III), we obtain:

0.6T1  0.8  43  T1  400 N

0.6T1  3.23 T1  400 N

 1.833.2  T1  400 N
5
3 T1  400 N
  400 N   53  12003 N
T1  240 N
From Eq. (II):
4
T2  T1 , but T1  240 N
3
4 960
T2   240 N   N  320 N
3 3
Therefore;
T1  240 N
T2  320 N
T3  400 N

Application of Newton’s second law

Problem solving strategy of Newton’s 2nd law

The problem solving strategy is similar to our strategy for solving equilibrium problems,
presented in application of newton’s first law.

1. Draw a sketch of the physical situation, and identify the moving object or objects to which
you will apply Newton’s 2nd law
2. Draw free body diagram for each chosen object, showing all the forces acting on that
object, as described in the strategy for Newton’s 1st law.
3. Show your coordinate axes explicitly in each free- body diagram and then determine the
components of forces with reference to these axes.
4. Write the equations for Newton’s 2 nd law in component for ∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 𝑚𝑎 and ∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 𝑚𝑎𝑦

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5. Solve the component equations for the unknowns.

Examples

1. A crate of mass 𝑚 = 100𝑘𝑔 is pushed at a constant speed up a frictionless ramp, placed at 30°
to the horizontal, by a horizontal force 𝐹.
A. What are the magnitudes of horizontal force 𝐹 ?

Solution
Since, crate moves with constant speed on the ramp, the net force on it is zero (i.e., acceleration
of a crate is equal to zero).
The force acting on the crate along the ramp are:
𝐹𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 is the horizontal component of the applied force up the ramp.
𝑚𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 is the component of the weight of the crate down the ramp.

From newton’s 2nd law of motion, we have,

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F x  F cos   mg sin   ma, but a  0, because v  constant

F cos   mg sin   0
F cos   mg sin 
sin 
F  mg
cos 
F  mg tan 
 100kg  10 m s 2   tan 300 
F  577.35 N

2. Three blocks mass 𝑚 1 = 10𝑘𝑔, 𝑚 2 = 6𝑘𝑔 and 𝑚 3 = 4𝑘𝑔 are connected by string on smooth
horizontal surface and pulled by a force of 40N. A force F is applied on 𝑚 3 as shown. Find the
tension in the string connected 𝑚 1 and 𝑚 2 .

Solution
The common acceleration of the block is given by;
F  mTot a
F 40 N 40 N
a    2 m s2
m1  m2  m3 1okg  6kg  4kg 20kg
To determine, 𝑇1 , we use free body diagram of mass 𝑚 1
T1  m1a
m1 F F
T1  , where a   2 m s2
m1  m2  m3 m1  m2  m3
T1  10kg   2 m s2   20 N
To determine, 𝑇2 , we use the free diagram body for mass 𝑚 3 ,
F  T2  m3a
T2  F  m3 a
 40 N   4kg   2 m s 2 
 40 N  8 N
T2  32 N

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3. Two mass A and of 10kg and 5kg respectively, are connected with a string passing over a
frictionless pulley fixed at the corner of a table as shown in figure, the coefficient of friction A
with the table is 0.2. the minimum mass (in kg) of C that may be placed on A to prevent it from
moving is:

Given Required

𝑚𝐴 = 10𝑘𝑔 𝑚 𝐶 =?
𝑚 𝐵 = 5𝑘𝑔
𝜇 = 0.2 (between block A and ground)

Solution

The free body diagram for mass 𝑚 𝐵 is as follow,

F y  T  mg  0
T  mg
  5kg   9.8 m s2 
T  49 N i 

And also,the free body diagram for combination of mass 𝑚𝐴 and 𝑚 𝐵 shown as below;

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F x  T  f  ma , but a  0
T  f 0
T   Fn  0, Fn   mA  mc  g
T    mA  mc  g  0
T    mA  mc  g
T   gmA   gmc
T   gmA   gmc
T   gmA
mc  , from Eq.  i  , T  49 N
g
49 N   0.2   9.8 m s 2  10kg 
mc   15kg
 0.2   9.8 m s 
2

4. Two masses 2kg and 3kg are attached to the ends of the string passing over a pulley which is
fixed at the top. The tension and acceleration in the string in terms of acceleration due to
gravity, 𝑔 are;

Solution

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From FBD,
 For 2 kg mass,
T  m1 g  m1a
T  2 g  2a i 
 For 3kg mass,
m2 g  T  m2 a
3 g  T  3a  ii 
 Add the two Equation (Eq. (i) and Eq. (ii), we obtain;
 T  2 g  2a

3 g  T  3a
3g  2 g  2a  3a
g  5a  iii 
g
a  iv 
5
 Put Eq. (iii) into Eq. (i), we obtain;
T  2  5a   2 a
T  10a  2a
T  2a  10a
g
T  12a, where a 
5
12
T g
5
Therefore,
12 g
T g, a
5 5

5. A body is sliding down a rough inclined plane which makes an angle of 30° with the horizontal. If the
coefficient of friction is 0.26, the acceleration in 𝑚/𝑠 2 is ( take 𝑔 = 9.8𝑚/𝑠 2 ).

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Solution
By newton’s 2nd law of motion, the net force along the sliding motion is given as
mg sin   F f  ma
mg sin    N  ma
m g sin    m g cos   m a
g sin    g cos   a
a  g  sin    cos  
 9.8  sin 30  0.26  cos 30  
 9.8  0.5   0.26  0.86  
a  2.7 m s 2

6. A 4kg block is given an initial velocity of 8m/s move up a ramp with an incline of 30°. The
coefficient of friction between the block and ramp is 0.2. How far along the incline does the
block move before it stops?

Given Required

𝑚 = 4𝑘𝑔 𝑑 =?
𝑣𝑖 = 8𝑚/𝑠
𝑣𝑓 = 0
𝜇 = 0.5

Solution

Applying free body diagram

 From newton’s 2 nd
law, the summation of force along x-axis is given by

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F x  ma
Wx  Ff  ma
mg sin    Fn  ma i 
 The summation of force along y-component is given by
F y 0
FN  Wy  0
FN  mg cos   0
FN  mg cos   ii 
 Substituting Eq. (ii) into Eq. (i), we obtain;

 m g sin    m g cos  m a
 g sin    g cos  a
a   g  sin 30o   g cos300 
 10 m s2  0.5  0.2  0.866 
a  6.732 m s 2  iii 
 From kinematic equation, we have
v 2f  vo2  2as
v 2f  vo2
s , but v 2f  0
2a
v 2
 o
2a
 8 m s 
2


2  6.732 m s 2 
64 m
2

 s2

13.464 m s 2
S  4.75m

4.4. Linear momentum

Momentum is a fundamental property of an object in motion and is defined as the product of

an object’s mass and its velocity.
Linear momentum is a vector quantity that represents the quantity of motion possessed by an
object.

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Momentum is a vector quantity, meaning it has both magnitude and direction. The direction
of momentum is the same as the direction of velocity.
Linear momentum is a measure of an object’s resistance to changes in its motion. An object
with a higher momentum will be more difficult to stop or change its direction than an object
with lower momentum.

Mathematically, momentum is given by the equation:

P  mv  4.20 
 Momentum ( 𝑃⃗) is a vector quantity in the direction of the velocity with SI unit 𝑘𝑔𝑚/𝑠.
 the time rate of change of the linear momentum of a particle is equal to the net force acting on
the particle
F  ma
v
m
t
  mv 

t
P
F  4.22 
t
F t  I  P  Pf  Pi  4.22 

 Impulse is defined as the change in momentum of an object. It is equal to the force applied to
an object multiplied by the time interval over which the force acts.

Remark!

When an object collides with another object or experiences a force, its momentum can change
due to the exchange of forces and impulses during the interaction.
Momentum is not about the object itself exerting a force on anything that tries to stop it, but
rather a property that quantifies the object’s motion and its resistance to changes in that motion.

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Law of conservation of Linear Momentum

 Law of conservation of linear momentum states that; “The total momentum of the system
remains constant if no external force acts on an object or system.”

 Pi   p f  4.23

Remark!

Conservation of linear momentum is;

another way of stating Newton’s 1st law, and
an alternative and more general statement of Newton’s 3 rd law

 Consider a body A of mass 𝑚 1 moving with a velocity 𝑢 1 collides head on with another body
B of mass 𝑚 2 moving in the same direction as A with velocity 𝑢 2 as shown in figure below.

 After collision, the velocities of the bodies be changed to v1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 v2 respectively, and both
moves in the same direction.

The momenta of the two ball before collision is given by:

PAi  m1u1 
  2.24 
PBi  m2u2 
Total momentum of the system of two ball before collision is given by:

Pi  PAi  PBi
Pi  m1u1  m2u2  4.25
The momenta of the two ball after collision is given by:

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PAf  m1v1 
  4.26 
PBf  m2 v2 

Total momentum of the system of two ball after collision is given by:

Pf  PAf  PBf
Pf  m1v1  m2 v2  4.27 
 During collision, each body experiences force.
 The force acting on one body is equal to in magnitude and opposite in direction to the force
acting on the other body. Both forces act for the same interval of time.

During collision, 𝐹12 be force ex exerted by A on B (action), and 𝐹21 be force exerted by B on
A (reaction) and t be the time contact of the two bodies during collision.
𝐹12 acting on the body B for a time t, changes its velocity from u2 𝑡𝑜 v2 is given by:

F12  mB aB
 v u 
F12  m2  2 2   4.28
 t 
𝐹21 acting on the body A for a time t, changes its velocity from u1 𝑡𝑜 v1 is given by:

F21  mA a A
 v u 
F21  m1  1 1   4.29 
 t 
By applying Newton’s 3rd law of motion, we can write Eq. (4.28) and Eq. (4.29) as:

F12   F21
 v u   v u 
m2  2 2    m1  1 1 
 t   t 
m2  v 2  u2   m1  u1  v1 
m2 v 2  m2u2  m1u1  m1v1
m1v1  m2 v 2  m1u1  m2u2  4.30 
P  P
i f  4.31

 Eq. (4.30) implies that if no external force acts on the system of two colliding balls, the total
(before and after) is conserve.

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Example

1. A 60-kg archer stands at rest on frictionless ice and fires a 0.50-kg arrow horizontally at 50
m/s. With what velocity does the archer move across the ice after firing the arrow?

Given Required

𝑚 1 = 60𝑘𝑔 v1 =?
𝑢1 = 0
𝑚 2 = 0.5𝑘𝑔
𝑢2 = 0
v2 = 50𝑚/𝑠
Solution
P  P
i f

 0  0
m1u1  m2u2  m1v1  m2 v 2
0  m1v1  m2 v 2
m1v1  m2 v 2
m2 v 2
v1  
m1


 0.5kg  50m / s 
 60kg 
25
 m/s
60
v1  0.42m / s

4.4.1. Collisions

Collisions can refers to the interaction between two or more objects where they come into
contact and exert forces on each other.

Collision is an event where two or more bodies make physical contact for a very short time
and experience impulsive.
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Collision - is an interaction between two different masses in which momentum is conserved

(particles may or may not come in real touch).
Collision is an isolated event in which a strong force acts between two or more bodies for a
short time as a result of which the energy and momentum of the interacting particle change.

Stage of: Before, during and after collision

Types of collision:

There are different types of collisions:

1. Elastic Collision

Elastic collision is a collision in which both momentum and kinetic energy of the system is
conserved.
The total momentum of the system before the collision is equal to the total momentum after
the collision, and the total kinetic energy of the system remains unchanged.

According to law of conservation of momentum

P  P
i f

m1u1  m2u2  m1v1  m2 v 2

m1u1  m1v1  m2 v 2  m2u2
m1  u1  v1   m2  v 2  u2   4.32 

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According to law of conservation of kinetic energy:

 KE   KE
i f

1 1 1 1
m1u12  m2u22  m1v12  m2 v 22
2 2 2 2
m1u12  m2u22  m1v12  m2 v 22
m1u12  m1v12  m2 v 22  m2u22

m1  u12  v12   m2  v 22  u22 

m1  u1  v1  u1 +v1   m2  v 2  u2  v 2  u2   4.33
Dividing Eq. (4.33) by Eq. (4.32), we obtain:
m1  u1  v1  u1 +v1  m2  v 2  u2  v 2  u2 

m1  u1  v1  m2  v 2  u2 

u1 +v1  v 2  u2 

u1  u2  v 2  v1   4.34 

 u1  u2     v1  v2 

 Relative velocity of approach = Relative velocity of separation

2. Inelastic collision

In an inelastic collision, momentum is conserved, but kinetic energy is not conserved.

In an inelastic collision, some of the kinetic energy is transformed into other forms of energy,
such as heat or sound.

P  P
i f

 KE   KE
i f

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3. Perfect Inelastic Collision:

A types of inelastic collision in which the object stick together after colliding and move as one
mass. This types of collision, the two objects become one object and move together with a
common velocity.
In perfect inelastic collision, total momentum is conserved, but total kinetic energy is not
conserved.
This means that the sum of the initial momenta of the two objects is equal to the sum of the
final momentum of the combined objects. However, the initial kinetic energy is not equal to
the final kinetic energy, as it reduces due to internal energy transfer and deformation during
the collision.

P  P
i f

m1u1  m2u2  m1v1  m2 v 2 but v1  v 2  v

m1u1  m2u2  m1v  m2 v
m1u1  m2u2   m1  m2  v  4.35
m1u1  m2u2
v  4.36 
 m1  m2 
Example

1. A block of mass 𝑚 1 = 1.6𝑘𝑔 initially moving to the right with a speed of 4m/s on a horizontal
frictionless track collides with a second block of mass 𝑚 2 = 2.1𝑘𝑔 initially moving to the left
with a speed of 2.5m/s. If the collision is elastic, find the velocities of the two blocks after
collision.

Given Required

𝑚 1 = 1.6𝑘𝑔 A. v1 =?
𝑚 2 = 2.1𝑘𝑔 B. v2 =?
𝑢 1 = 4 𝑚/𝑠
𝑢 2 = −2.5 𝑚/𝑠
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Solution

Hence collision is elastic both momentum and kinetic energy are conserved,
A. we apply law of conservation of momentum:
m1u1  m2u2  m1v1  m2 v 2
1.6kg  4m / s    2.1kg  2.5m / s   1.6kg  v1   2.1kg  v 2
6.4kgm / s  5.25kgm / s  1.6kg  v1   2.1kg  v 2
1.15 kg m / s  1.6v1  2.1v 2  kg
1.15m / s  1.6v1  2.1v 2
1.6v1  2.1v 2  1.15m / s i 
B. we apply the conservation of relative velocity of approach is equal to the velocity of separation:
u1 +v1  v 2  u2
v1  v 2  u2  u1
v1  v 2  2.5m / s  4m / s
v1  v 2  6.5m / s  ii 
Solving equation (i) and (ii) simultaneously

1 1.6v1  2.1v 2  1.15m / s


1.6  v1  v 2  6.5m / s

1.6v1  2.1v 2  1.15m / s

 1.6v1  1.6v 2  10.4m / s
 

 3.7v 2  11.55
3.7v 2  11.55
11.55
v2   3.12 m / s  iii 
3.7

substituting Eq. (iii) into Eq. (ii), we obtain

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v1  3.12m / s  6.5m / s
v1  6.5m / s  3.12m / s
v1  3.38m / s

Activity

1. A 10.0-g bullet is fired into a stationary block of wood (m = 5.00 kg).The bullet sticks into the
block, and the speed of the bullet-plus-wood combination immediately after the collision is
0.600 m/s. What was the original speed of the bullet?

Given Required

𝑚 1 = 10𝑔 = 0.01𝑘𝑔 𝑢 1 =?
𝑚 2 = 5𝑘𝑔
𝑢2 = 0
v1 = v2 = v = 0.6𝑚/𝑠
Solution
We apply perfect inelastic collision formula;

 0
m1u1  m2u2   m1  m2  v
m1u1   m1  m2  v
 m  m2  v
u1  1
m1


 kg  5kg  0.6m / s 
0.01
 0.01kg 

 5.01kg  0.6m / s 
 0.01kg 

 3.006  m / s
 0.01
u1  300.6m / s

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4.5. Center of Mass and moment of inertia

The center of mass (CoM) is a concept used in physics to describe the average position of the
mass distribution in a system.
The center of mass is the point at which the mass of an object or a system can be considered
to be concentrated. The center of mass is often referred to as the "center of gravity" when
discussing gravitational forces
The center of mass is a concept in physics that represents the average position of mass in an
object or system of objects. It is a point that acts as if all the mass of the object or system is
concentrated at that point.
The center of mass does not necessarily coincide with the geometric center or any physical
point of the object.

Centre of mass of a rigid body (circular ring, disc, rod and sphere)

A. Position vector of center of mass for n particle system :

If a system consists of n particles of masses 𝑚 1 . 𝑚 2 , . . . 𝑚 𝑛 , located at position 𝑟1 , 𝑟2 , … , 𝑟𝑛

respectively, the center mass is calculated as:

m1r1  m2 r2  mn rn
rcm   4.37 
m1  m2  ...  mn

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B. Position vector of center of mass for two particle system:

m1r1  m2 r2
rcm    X cm , Ycm   4.38 
m1  m2
m1 x1  m2 x2
X cm 
m1  m2
m1 y1  m2 y2
Ycm 
m1  m2

The center of mass lies between the particles on the line joining them.
If two masses are equal i.e., 𝑚 1 = 𝑚 2 then position vector of center mass is

r1  r2
rcm   4.39 
2

Important points about center of mass:

 The position of center of mass is independent of the co-ordinate system chosen.

 The position of center of mass depends upon the shape of the body and distribution of
mass.

 The center of mass changes its position only under the translational motion. There is no
effect of rotatory motion on center of mass of the body.

 If the origin is at the center of mass, then the sum of the moments of the masses of the
system about the center of mass is zero i.e.∑ 𝑚 𝑖 𝑟𝑖 = 0.

If a system of particles of masses 𝑚 1 , 𝑚 2 , … . 𝑚 𝑛 move with velocity v

⃗ 1, v
⃗ 2, … . v
⃗ n , then the
velocity of center of mass is given by:

vcm 
m v i i

m1v1  m2 v 2  mn v n
 4.40 
m i m1  m2  ...  mn

If a system of particles of masses 𝑚 1 , 𝑚 2 , … . 𝑚 𝑛 move with acceleration a⃗1 , a⃗2 , … . a⃗n , then the
acceleration of center of mass is given by:

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acm 
m a i i

m1a1  m2 a 2  mn a n
 4.41
m i m1  m2  ...  mn

If 𝑟 is a position vector of center of mass of the a system then the velocity of mass is given by:

drcm d  m1r1  m2 r2  mn rn 

vcm      4.42 
dt dt  m1  m2  ...  mn 

Acceleration of center of mass is given by:

2
dv dr cm d 2  m r  m2 r2  mn rn 
acm   2  2 11   4.43
dt dt dt  m1  m2  ...  mn 

Example

1. Suppose that there are three point masses arranged as shown in the figure below. Where is the
center of mass of this three- object- system with respect to the origin?

Given Required

𝑚 1 = 3𝑘𝑔 (𝑥 = 0.5, 𝑦 = 2.5) A. 𝑋𝑐𝑚 =?

𝑚 2 = 4𝑘𝑔(𝑥 = 2, 𝑦 = 0.5) B. 𝑌𝑐𝑚 =?
𝑚 3 = 3𝑘𝑔(𝑥 = 3.5, 𝑦 = 2.5) C. 𝑟𝑐𝑚 = (𝑋𝑐𝑚 , 𝑦𝑐𝑚 ) = 𝑚 (𝑋𝑐𝑚 𝑖̂ + 𝑌𝑐𝑚 𝑗̂) =?

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Solution

m1 x1  m2 x2  m3 x3  3kg  0.5m    4kg  2m    3kg  3.5 

X cm  
m1  m2  m3 3kg  4kg  3kg
1.5kgm  8kgm  10.5kgm 20kgm
 
10kg 10kg
X cm  2mi ˆ
m y  m2 y2  m3 y3
Ycm  1 1
m1  m2  m3


 3kg  2.5m    4kg  0.5m    3kg  2.5 
3kg  4kg  3kg
7.5kgm  2kgm  7.5kgm

10kg
17 kgm

10kg
X cm  1.7 mjˆ

Therefore center of mass of a position 𝑟𝑐𝑚 is given by:

rcm   X cm , Ycm 
  2, 1.7  m


rcm  2iˆ  1.7 ˆj m
2. Four objects are situated along the y axis as follows: a 2.00 kg object is at +3.00 m, a 3.00-kg
object is at +2.50 m, a 2.50-kg object is at the origin, and a 4.00-kg object is at -0.500 m. Where
is the center of mass of these objects?

Given Required

𝑚 1 = 2.5𝑘𝑔 𝑎𝑡 (0, 0)𝑚 𝑌𝑐𝑚 =?

𝑚 2 = 3𝑘𝑔 𝑎𝑡 (0, 2.5)𝑚
𝑚 3 = 2𝑘𝑔 𝑎𝑡 (0, 3)𝑚
𝑚 4 = 4𝑘𝑔 𝑎𝑡 (0, −0.5)𝑚

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Solution
m1 y1  m2 y2  m3 y3  m4 y4
Ycm 
m1  m2  m3  m4
 0
 2.5kg  0m    3kg  2.5m    2kg  3m    4kg  0.5m 

2.5kg  3kg  2kg  4kg
7.5kgm  6kgm  2kgm 11.5kgm
Ycm    1m
11.5kg 11.5kg
3. A ball of mass 0.200 kg has a velocity of 150m/s; a ball of mass 0.300 kg has a velocity of -
0.4m/s. They meet in a head-on elastic collision.

A. Find their velocities after the collision.

B. Find the velocity of their center of mass before and after the collision.

Given Required

𝑚 1 = 0.2𝑘𝑔, 𝑢1 = 150𝑚/𝑠 A) v1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 v2 =?

𝑚 2 = 0.3𝑘𝑔, 𝑢 2 = 0.4𝑚/𝑠 ⃗ 𝑐𝑚 =? 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉⃗𝑐𝑚 =?
B) 𝑈
Solution
A) Hence the type of collision is elastic, we apply conservation of linear momentum:
m1u1  m2u2  m1v1  m2 v 2
 0.2kg 150m / s    0.3kg  0.4m / s    0.2kg  v1   0.3kg  v 2
30kgm / s  0.12kgm / s   0.2v1  0.3v 2  kg

30.12 kgm / s   0.2v1  0.3v 2  kg

30.12m / s  0.2v1  0.3v 2  divided both side by 0.2
30.12m / s 0.2v1 0.3v 2
 
0.2 0.2 0.2
150.6m / s  v1  1.5v 2
v1  150.6m / s  1.5v 2 i 
 And we apply the relations of conservation of kinetic energy and momentum(Relative
velocity of approach = Relative velocity of separation):

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u1  u2  v 2  v1
150m / s  0.4m / s  v 2  v1
149.6m / s  v 2  v1  ii 
Substitute Eq. (i) into Eq. (ii), we obtain

149.6m / s  v 2  150.6m / s  1.5v 2 

149.6m / s  v 2  150.6m / s  1.5v 2
149.6m / s  150.6m / s  v 2  1.5v 2
300.2m / s  1  1.5  v 2
300.2m / s  2.5v 2
300.2m / s
v2 
2.5
v 2  120.08m / s  iii 
Substituting Eq. (iii) into Eq. (i), we obtain:
v1  150.6m / s  1.5 120.08m / s 
 150.6m / s  180.12m / s
v1  29.52m / s  iv 

Therefore,
𝐯⃗𝟏 = −𝟐𝟗. 𝟓𝟐𝒎/𝒔
𝐯⃗𝟐 = 𝟏𝟐𝟎. 𝟎𝟖𝒎/𝒔

 Check the results

u1  u2  v2  v1
150m / s  0.4m / s  120.08m / s   29.52 m / s 
149.6m / s  120.08m / s  29.52 m / s
149.6m / s  149.6m / s  Checked!!

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B) velocity of their center of mass before and after the collision is given by

m1u1  m2u2
U cm 
m1  m2


 0.2kg 150m / s    0.3kg  0.4m / s 
0.2kg  0.3kg
30kgm / s  0.12m / s

0.5kg
30.12kgm / s

0.5kg
U cm  60.24m / s i 
And
m1v1  m2 v2
Vcm 
m1  m2


 0.2kg  29.52m / s    0.3kg 120.08m / s 
0.2kg  0.3kg
5.904kgm / s  36.024kgm / s

0.5kg
30.12kgm / s

0.5kg
U cm  60.24m / s  ii 

4. Two bodies of mass 1kg and 3kg have position vectors 𝑖̂ + 2𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂ and −3𝑖̂ − 2𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂,
respectively. The center of mass this system has a position vector.

Given Required
𝑚 1 = 1𝑘𝑔 𝑟𝑐𝑚 =?
𝑚 2 = 3𝑘𝑔

𝑥 = 𝑖̂ + 2𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂

𝑦 = −3𝑖̂ − 2𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂

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Solution
m1 x  m2 y
rcm 
m1  m2
1kg   iˆ  2 ˆj  kˆ    3kg   3iˆ  2 ˆj  kˆ 

1kg  3kg 


iˆ  2 ˆj  kˆ  9iˆ  6 ˆj  3kˆ  kg
4 kg


1  9  iˆ   2  6  ˆj  1  3 kˆ
4
8iˆ  4 ˆj  4kˆ

4
rcm  4iˆ  ˆj  kˆ

5. Figure shows a composite system of two uniform rods of length as indicated. Then the
coordinate of the center of mass of the system of rods are

Solution

Now, let us assume the mass of rod on X axis be M,

Then the mass of the rod on the Y axis will be 2M, since the rods are of the same density. i.e.,

𝑚 1 = 𝑀 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑚 2 = 2𝑀

We know that the center of mass of a uniformly distributed rod is at its center or mid-point.
Therefore, the center of mass of rod on x axis will be 𝐿/2 as the length of the rod is L
Similarly, the center of mass of the rod on the Y axis will be at L as the length of the rod
is 2L

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𝐿
Now, the coordinates of the center of mass of rod on X axis will be (2 , 0)i.e.,
𝐿
𝑥1 =
, 𝑦1 = 0
2
And the coordinates of the center of mass of rod on Y axis will be (0, 𝐿 ) i.e.,
𝑥 2 = 0, 𝑦2 = 𝐿
 As we know that, for coordinates of center of mass is given by

m1 x1  m2 x2
X cm 
m1  m2
M  L2   2M  0 

M  2M
L
M
 2

3M
X cm  L 1
6

m1 y1  m2 y2
Ycm 
m1  m2
M  0   2M  L 

M  2M
2ML

3M
Ycm  32 L

6. Three identical spheres, each of mass M, are placed at the corners of a right angle triangle with mutually
perpendicular sides equal to 2m. Taking the point of intersection of the two mutually perpendicular
sides as the origin, find the position vector of center of mass.

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Solution

m1 x1  m2 x2  m3 x3
X cm 
m1  m2
M 0  M  2  M 0

M M M
2M

3M
2ˆ
X cm  i
3
m1 y1  m2 y2  m3 y3
Ycm 
m1  m2
M 0  M 0  M  2

M  2M
2M

3M
2ˆ
Ycm  j
3
rcm  X cm iˆ  Ycm ˆj
2ˆ 2 ˆ
 i j
3 3
2 ˆ ˆ
rcm  i  j
3
 

4.5.1. Rotational Inertia and Rotational kinetic Energy

Rotational inertial, also known as moment of inertia, is a measure of an object's resistance to

changes in its rotational motion.
The moment of inertia of a body is a measure of its rotational inertia that is, its resistance to
change in its angular velocity.
Rotational inertial plays the same role in rotational motion as mass plays in linear motion. In
other words, it is similar to mass in linear motion, where the greater the rotational inertia, the
more force is needed to change the object's rotational speed.
The larger the rotational inertia, the more difficult it is to change the object's rotational motion.
Rotational inertia is determined by the distribution of mass around an object's axis of rotation,
with objects with more mass concentrated farther from the axis having a higher rotational
inertia.

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Rotational Inertia or moment of Inertia (I) is defined as the sum of the products of the mass
of each particle in the object and the square of its distance from the axis of rotation.

I  mr 2  4.44
The SI unit of moment of inertia is 𝑘𝑔𝑚2
Dimension of 𝐼 = [𝑀𝐿2 ]

 When there are a number of point masses at different distances from the axis of rotation, the
total moment of inertia of the system is the sum of the momentum of inertia of each point mass.

I  I1  I 2  I 3 ....I n
I  m1r12  m2 r22  m3r32 .... mn rn2
n
I   mi ri 2  4.45
i i

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The moment of inertia of a body depends on several factors:

A. Mass distribution

The way the mass is distributed within the body affects its moment of inertia. For example, a
body with mass concentrated toward the axis of rotation will have a smaller moment of inertia
compared to a body with mass spread out farther from the axis.

B. Mass of the body

The total mass of the body plays a role in determining its moment of inertia. Objects with larger
masses typically have larger moments of inertia.

C. Axis of rotation:

The moment of inertia depends on the choice of axis around which the body is rotating. In
general, the moment of inertia is different for different axes of rotation.

D. Shape and geometry

The shape and geometry of the body also influence its moment of inertia. Objects with a larger
radius of gyration (a measure of how the mass is distributed relative to the axis) have larger
moments of inertia. Different shapes, such as cylinders, spheres, rods, or disks, have different
moment of inertia formulas specific to their geometry.

Example, the moment inertia of:

 A point mass of mass m and distance r from axis is 𝐼 = 𝑚𝑟2

 A disc of mass M and radius R, is 𝐼 = 12 𝑀𝑅 2
 A sphere of mass M and radius R, is 𝐼 = 25 𝑀𝑅 2
 A thin rod of mass M and length L is 𝐼 = 121 𝑀𝐿2

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Moments of inertia of different rigid bodies

Different rigid bodies have different moment of inertia depending on size mass, distribution of
mass, shape of the body and on the position of axis of rotation.

Moment of Inertia of Some Standard Bodies about Different Axes.

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Example

1. Five particles of mass = 4kg are attached to the rim of a circular disc of radius 0.2m and
negligible mass. Find the moment of inertia of the system about the axis passing through the
center of the disc and perpendicular to its plane.

Given required

𝑚 1 = 𝑚 2 = 𝑚 3 = 𝑚 4 = 𝑚 5 = 4𝑘𝑔 𝐼 =?
𝑟1 = 𝑟2 = 𝑟3 = 𝑟4 = 𝑟5 = 0.2𝑚
Solution
5
I   mi ri 2
i i

 m1r22  m2 r12  m3r32  m4 r42  m5 r52

 5mr 2
  5  4  0.2 
2

  20  0.04 
I  0.8kgm 2

2. Four small spheres, each with a mass of 0.2kg, are arranged in a square 0.4m on a side and
connected by light rods. Find the moment of the system about an axis;

A. Through the center of the square, perpendicular to its plane through point O.
B. Bisecting the two opposite sides of the square an axis through line AB as shown in figure.
C. That passes through the center of the upper left and lower right sphere and through point
O.

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Given

Mass of each point sphere 𝑚 = 0.2𝑘𝑔

Side of the square 𝑙 = 0.4𝑚

Solution

A. The distance of the four point masses from the center O is given by

1 2 2
r l l
2
1
  0.4m    0.4m 
2 2

2
0.5656m

2
r  0.2828m

Momentum of inertia of the system above an axis through the center and perpendicular to the
plane of the masses is given by;
I   mi ri 2
i 1

 mr 2  mr 2  mr 2  mr 2
 4mr 2
 4  0.2kg  0.2828m 
2

I  0.064kgm 2

B. The distance of the four point masses from the line AB is given by;
l 0.4m
r   0.2m
2 2
I   mi ri 2
i 1

 mr 2  mr 2  mr 2  mr 2
 4mr 2
 4  0.2kg  0.2m 
2

I  0.032kgm 2

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C. The distance of the two diagonal point masses is given by

1 2 2
r l l
2
1
  0.4m    0.4m 
2 2

2
0.5656m

2
r  0.2828m
I   mi ri 2
i 1

 mr 2  mr 2
 2mr 2
 2  0.2kg  0.2828m 
2

I  0.032kgm 2

3. Three point masses ‘m’ each are placed at the vertices of an equilateral triangle of side a.
moment of inertia of the system about an axis COD passing through a mass m at O and lying
in the plane of AOB and perpendicular to OA is

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Solution

From triangle OBN,

adj. side
os  
hyh.
r
cos 60 
a
1 r

2 a
1
r a
2
Moment of inertial of system is given by
I COD  I O  I B  I A
 0  m  a2   m  a 
2 2

ma 2
  ma 2
4
ma 2  4ma 2

4
5
I COD  ma 2
4

Parallel axis theorem

The parallel axis theorem, also known as the Steiner's theorem, relates the moment of inertia
of an object about an axis parallel to an axis through its center of mass.

The parallel axis theorem states that the moment of inertia of a body about an axis parallel
to and a distance "R" away from an axis passing through the object's center of mass is given
by the sum of two terms:

The moment of inertia about the center of mass (𝐼𝑐𝑚 ), and

The product of the mass of the object (M) and the square of the distance (R) between the
two axes.

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Mathematically, the parallel axis theorem can be written as:

I p  I cm  MR 2  4.46
Where

𝐼𝑐𝑚 : is moment of inertia about the center of mass

𝑀: is mass of the body
𝑅: is distance between the two axes.
𝐼𝑃 : is moment of inertial about any axis that is parallel to the original centeral axis.

Example

2
1. Moment inertia of a solid sphere about an axis through its center is 𝑀𝑅 2. Find moment of
5

inertia of solid sphere about it tangential axis.

Given Requited

2
𝐼𝑐𝑚 = 5 𝑀𝑅 2 𝐼𝑝 =?

Solution
I p  I cm  MR 2
2
 MR 2  MR 2
5
2 MR 2  5MR 2 7
Ip   MR 2
5 5

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2. Three rings each of mass M are radius R are arranged as shown in the figure. The moment of
1
inertia of the system about YY’ will be. (moment of inertia of ring about diameter = 2 𝑀𝑅 2 )

Given Required

𝐼1 = M.I. of ring about diameter 𝐼𝑝 =?

𝐼2 = 𝐼3 = M.I of ring about a tangent in a plane.

Solution
I p  I1  I 2  I 3

MR 2   I cm  MR 2    I cm  MR 2 
1

2

MR 2  2  I cm  MR 2 
1

2
1 1 
 MR 2  2  MR 2  MR 2 
2 2 
1  MR 2  2 MR 2 
 MR 2  2  
2  2 
1  3MR 2 
 MR 2  2  
2  2 
1 6
 MR 2  MR 2
2 2
7
Ip  MR 2
2

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3. The moment of inertial of a uniform rod of mass M and length L about an axis passing through
1
its center is given by 𝐼 = 𝑀𝐿2. What would be the moment of inertia of the rod about an
12

axis passing through its end?

Solution
I p  I cm  MR 2
1 L
 ML2  M  
12 2
1 1
 ML2  ML2
12 4
ML  3ML2
2 .

12
4 ML2

12
1
I p  ML2
3

4. Two identical rods each of mass M. and length l are joined in crossed position as shown in
figure bellow. Find the moment of inertia of this system about a bisector.

Given Required

Mass of each rod = 𝑀 𝐼𝑝 =?

Length = 𝑙
𝑀 𝑙2
The moment of inertia of a rod about an axis perpendicular and passing its cents is 𝐼𝑧 = 12

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Solution

 For two similar rods, moment of inertia is given by

 ML2 
I  2 
 12 
ML2
I
6

 Now, by perpendicular axes theorem

I  I x  I y , by symmetry , I x  I y
I  Ix  Ix
I  2I x  2Io
I  2Io
I
Io 
2
1  ML2  ML2
Io   
2  6  12

4.5.2. Rotational kinetic energy

Rotational kinetic energy is the kinetic energy associated with the rotational motion of an
object. It is the energy due to the object's rotation about an axis and is expressed by the formula:
1 2
KErot  I  4.47 
2

Where:

𝐾𝐸𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 is the rotational kinetic energy,

I is the moment of inertia of the object,
𝜔 (omega) is the angular velocity of the object.

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Rotational work done

Rotational work refers to the work done on or by an object due to a torque applied to it,
causing it to rotate. The rotational work done can be calculated using the formula:

Wrot    4.48
Where:

𝑊𝑟𝑜𝑡 is the rotational work done,

𝜏 (tau) is the torque applied to the object,
θ (theta) is the angular displacement of the object.

Rotational power (P)

Rotational power, on the other hand, is the rate at which rotational work is done or the
amount of rotational work done per unit of time. It is calculated as the product of the torque
(rotational force) and the angular velocity (rate of rotation) of an object.

W 
P    4.49 
t t

Torque in terms moment of inertia and angular acceleration

Torque ): is the vector product of lever arm and the force applied. It is given by:

  rF
 rF sin  , if   90o ,sin 90 o  1
 rF
 r  mat  , at  r
 r  mr 
 mr 2
  I  4.50 

Where 𝜏 − torque, I-moment of inertia and 𝛼 −angular acceleration

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Example

1. A 50Nm torque acts on a wheel of moment of inertia 200𝑘𝑔𝑚2 . If the wheel starts from rest,
how long will it take the wheel to reach an angular speed of 1 rad/s?

Given Required

𝜏 = 50𝑁𝑚 𝑡 =?
𝜔𝑖 = 0
𝜔𝑓 = 1𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠

𝐼 = 200𝑘𝑔𝑚2

Solution
 50 NM
   0.25 rad s2
I 200kgm 2
 f  i

t
 f  i 1 rad s  0 100
t   sec  4sec
 0.25 rad s2 25

Rolling Without Slipping

Rolling without slipping is a type of motion where an object, such as a wheel or a ball, is both
rotating and translating simultaneously without any slipping between the object and the surface
it is moving on. In this type of motion, the point of contact between the object and the surface
is at rest relative to the surface, and there is no sliding or slipping between them.

 When an object is rolling without slipping, it experiences both translational motion (linear
movement of the center of mass) and rotational motion (spin around its axis), with the two
motions being synchronized so that the point of contact remains stationary relative to the
surface.

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 The condition for rolling without slipping is that the velocity of the object's center of mass
must be equal to the angular velocity of the object multiplied by the distance from the center
of mass to the axis of rotation (radius). Mathematically, this condition can be expressed as:

v  r

Where:

v = linear velocity of the center of mass

ω = angular velocity of rotation
r = radius of the object

 In the case of rolling without slipping, the total kinetic energy of the object consists of two
components: the translational kinetic energy due to the linear motion of the object's center of
mass and the rotational kinetic energy due to the rotation of the object around its axis. The total
kinetic energy can be expressed as the sum of these two components.

KETotal  KErot  KEtrans

1 1
 mv 2  I  2 , but v  r
2 2
1 1
 m  r   I  2
2

2 2
1 2 2 1 2
 mr   I 
2 2
KETotal    mr 2  I 
1 2
 4.51
2

Rolling Down on Smooth Inclined Plane without Slipping

 When a body of mass m and radius r rolling down on inclined plane without slipping when
released from ‘h’ and angle of inclination with the horizontal is 𝜃, it loses its potential energy.
However it acquires both linear and angular speeds and hence, gains kinetic energy of
translational and that of rotation.

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Worked Example

1. A ball of mass m and radius r is released from ‘h’ on a smooth inclined plane of inclination 𝜃
as shown below. Find it’s a) linear speed in terms of ‘g’ and ‘h’ b) its angular speed in terms
of ‘g’, ‘h’ and radius ‘r’, and c) linear acceleration in terms of ‘g’ and ‘𝜃’.

Solution

𝑴𝑬𝒕𝒐𝒑 = 𝑴𝑬𝒃𝒐𝒕𝒕𝒐𝒏
𝑮𝑷𝑬𝒕𝒐𝒑 = 𝑲𝑬𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒏𝒔 𝒂𝒕 𝒃𝒐𝒕𝒕𝒐𝒎 + 𝑲𝑬𝑹𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒂𝒕 𝒃𝒐𝒕𝒕𝒐𝒎

1 2 1 2
mgh  mv  I ball 2 , I ball  mr 2
2 2 3
1 12  v
 mv 2   mr 2   2 , but v  r ,
2 23  r
2
1 1 v
 mv 2  mr 2  
2 3 r 
1 2 1 v2
 mv  m r 2 2
2 3 r
1 1
 mv 2  mv 2
2 3
 1 1 
    mv 2
 2 3
5
m gh  m v 2
6
6
V 2  gh
5
6
V gh
5
1 6
 gh
r 5

2. A solid disk is rolling without slipping on a level surface at constant speed of 4𝑚/𝑠. How far
it roll up a 30° incline plane before it stop?

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Given Required

𝜃 = 30° 𝑠 =?
𝑣 = 4𝑚/𝑠
𝑔 = 10𝑚/𝑠 2
1
M.I of solid disk 𝐼 = 𝑚𝑟 2
2

Solution
MEi  ME f

 KE 0
 PE    KE  PE 
f
0

1 1 v
mgh  mv 2  I  2 ,  
2 2 r
2
1 2 1  1 2  v 
 mv   mr  
2 2 2  r 
1 v
2
1
 mv 2   m r 2  2
2 4 r
1 1
 mv 2  mv 2
2 4
3
m gh  m v 2

4
3 2
gh  v
4
3v 2 3  4 
2

h   1.2m
4 g 4 10 

 From above traingle,

opp.side
sin  
hyp
h
sin 30 
s
h 1.2m
s   2.4m
sin 30 0.5

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4.6. Torque and angular momentum

4.6.1. Torque (𝝉)

 Torque is a measure of the rotational force or turning effect that can cause an object to rotate
about an axis. In other words, Torque is the measure of the force that can cause an object to
rotate around an axis.

 It is sometimes referred to as the "rotational equivalent of force." When a force is applied to

an object at a distance from the axis of rotation, it creates a torque that tends to cause the object
to rotate.

 It is defined as the product of the force applied to an object and the perpendicular distance from
the axis of rotation to the line of action of the force. Torque is a vector quantity and is typically
measured in units of Newton meters (Nm).

Mathematically, torque is obtained as follows

  r  F sin   4.52 

Where 𝜃 is the angle between the direction of 𝒓 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐹

Dimension : [𝑀𝐿2 𝑇 −2 ]

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Remark!

Torque is an axial vector i.e., its direction is always perpendicular to the plane containing
vector 𝑟 and 𝐹 in accordance with right hand screw rule.
Torque is also called as moment of force
Torque is a vector quantity.
Torque is one of the application of cross product.
A body is said to be in rotational equilibrium if resultant torque acting on it is zero i.e.,∑ 𝜏 = 0
Torque is the cause of rotatory motion and in rotational motion it plays same role as force plays
in translational motion i.e., torque is rotational analogue of force.
If the position and the force vectors are in unit vector notation as,

F  Fxiˆ  Fx ˆj  Fx kˆ and r  rxiˆ  rx ˆj  rx kˆ, then

iˆ ˆj kˆ
  r  F  rx ry rz
Fx Fy Fz
   ry Fz  rz Fy  iˆ   rz Fx  rx Fz  ˆj   rx Fy  ry Fx  kˆ  4.53

 The direction of torque is determined using the right hand rule as follows.

Right hand rule: “if you curl your right hand fingers from vector 𝑟 to vector 𝐹, then your
thumb will point in the direction of the turque (𝜏 ).

Example

1. Force 𝐹 = (−8𝑖̂ + 6𝑗̂)𝑁 acts on the a particle with position vector 𝑟 = (3𝑖̂ + 4𝑗̂)𝑚. What are
A. The torque on the particle
B. The angle between the position and the force vectors.

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Given required

𝐹 = (−8𝑖̂ + 6𝑗̂)𝑁 A. 𝜏 =?
𝑟 = (3𝑖̂ + 4𝑗̂)𝑚 B. 𝜃 =?
Solution

iˆ ˆj kˆ
A.  r F  3 4 0
8 6 0
ˆ
  50kNM
B. r  F  r F sin 
r F 50 Nm 50 Nm
sin     1
r F
  3
2
  4
2
  8
2
  6
2
  510 
  sin 1 1  900

4.6.2. Angular momentum ( ⃗𝑳)

 The turning momentum of a particle about the axis of rotation is referred to as its angular
momentum. It measures the rotational motion of the particle around a specific axis.

 The angular momentum of a particle is defined as the turning momentum or rotational

momentum of the particle about an axis of rotation.

 Mathematically, it is the cross product of the particle's linear momentum and its position
vector from the axis of rotation. If 𝑝 is the linear momentum of particle and 𝑟 its position
vector from the point of rotation then angular momentum is given by
L r P
 r  P , P  mv
=m  r  v 
 mvr sin  nˆ , if   90o ,
 mvr , v  r
 m  r  r
 mr 2
L  I  4.54 

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The SI unit of 𝐿⃗ = 𝑘𝑔𝑚2 /𝑠 = 𝐽. 𝑠𝑒𝑐.

Dimension: [𝑀𝐿2 𝑇 −1 ]
Angular momentum is an axial vector i.e. always directed perpendicular to the plane of rotation
and along the axis of rotation.
In Cartesian coordinates if 𝑟 = 𝑥𝑖̂ + 𝑦𝑗̂, then

iˆ ˆj kˆ
L  r P  x y z
px py pz
L   ypz  zp y  iˆ   zpx  xpz  ˆj   xp y  ypx  kˆ  4.55

Example

1. The position of a particle is given by : 𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂̂ and momentum: 2𝑗̂ + 3𝑘̂.Find the direction of
angular momentum.

Given Required
𝑟 = 𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂ Unit vector of 𝐿⃗ =?
𝑝 = 2𝑗̂ + 3𝑘 ̂
Solution

iˆ ˆj kˆ
L  r P  1 1 1
0 2 3
L  iˆ  3 ˆj  2kˆ

Direction of ⃗𝑳 is its unit vector given by:

L iˆ  3 ˆj  2kˆ iˆ  3 ˆj  2kˆ 1 ˆ 3 ˆ 2 ˆ
uˆ     i j k
1   3   2 
2 2 2
L 14 14 14 14

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Angular Impulse

 Angular impulse, also known as torque impulse or moment impulse, refers to the change in
angular momentum of an object due to an applied torque over a certain period of time. Just like
linear impulse is the change in linear momentum of an object due to a force applied over time,
angular impulse is the change in angular momentum of an object due to a torque applied over
time.

Mathematically, angular impulse is defined as:

J  L  t  4.56 
 The angular momentum of a system of particles is equal to the vector sum of angular
momentum of each particle i.e.,

L  L1  L2  L3  .... Ln  4.57 

Analogy between Translational Motion and Rotational Motion

Translational Motion Rotational Motion

Mass (m) Moment of Inertia (I)
Linear momentum Angular Momentum
p  mv  L  I 

p  2mE 

L  2 IE 
 4.58

Force Torque
F  ma   I  4.59
Kinetic Energy Rotational Kinetic Energy
1 2 1 
KEtran  mv  KER  Iv 2 

2
p 2 
2

L2 
 4.60 
KEtran   KEtran 
2m  2I 

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The Law of Conservation of angular momentum

The law of conservation of angular momentum states that the total angular momentum of a
system remains constant if no external torques act on it. This means that, for an isolated system,
the total angular momentum before an event must be equal to the total angular momentum after
the event.
In other words, if the net external torque acting on a system is zero, then the total angular
momentum of the system remains constant.

 This law is derived from the principle of conservation of momentum, which states that
momentum is conserved in the absence of external forces

Mathematically, the law of conservation of angular momentum can be expressed as:

L  L ,
i f if   0  4.61

Remark!

 When the angular momentum is conserved, then the angular momentum impulse is zero.

Examples of law of conservation of angular momentum:

1. A spinning ice skater pulling her arms inward

 When an ice skater pulls her arms inward during a spin, she decreases her moment of inertia,
resulting in an increase in her angular velocity (spin rate).

 This is an example of the law of conservation of angular momentum because the product of
the initial moment of inertia and angular velocity is equal to the product of the final moment
of inertia and angular velocity.

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2. Satellites in orbit

 Satellites in orbit around a planet or celestial body follow the law of conservation of angular
momentum. As they move closer to the central body, their moment of inertia decreases,
causing an increase in their angular velocity to maintain their angular momentum.

3. Diving or flipping during a gymnastics routine:

 When a gymnast performs a dive or a flip, they tuck their body in to reduce their moment
of inertia, allowing them to rotate faster. This demonstrates the conservation of angular
momentum as the initial angular momentum is equal to the final angular momentum.

4. The swinging motion of a pendulum:

 A swinging pendulum follows the law of conservation of angular momentum. As the

pendulum swings back and forth, its moment of inertia remains constant, and the product
of its moment of inertia and angular velocity remains the same.

5. Figure skaters performing spins:

 When figure skaters perform spins, they bring their arms close to their body to reduce their
moment of inertia, which causes an increase in their angular velocity. This is an example
of the conservation of angular momentum as the product of the initial moment of inertia
and angular velocity is equal to the product of the final moment of inertia and angular
velocity.

6. A person-carrying heavy weight in his hands

 In this scenario, the person carrying the heavy weight on a rotating platform changes their
moment of inertia by folding their arms. By doing so, they decrease their moment of inertia,
causing their angular velocity to increase to conserve the total angular momentum of the
system.

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Example

1. Two discs of moments of inertia 𝐼1 and 𝐼2 about their respective axes (normal to the disc and
passing through the center) and rotating with angular speed 𝜔1 and 𝜔2 are brought into contact
face to face with their axes of rotation coincident.
A. Does the law of conservation of angular momentum apply to the situation? Why?
B. Find the angular speed of the two disc system
C. Calculate the loss of in kinetic energy of the system in the process
D. Account for this loss.

Solution

A. Yes, the law of conservation of angular momentum applies to the situation. This is because no
external torque in involved in bringing the two disc into contact face to face. External forces,
gravitational and normal reaction, act through the axis of rotation producing no torque.
B. If 𝜔 is angular speed of the two disc system, then from conservation of angular momentum,

L f  Li
I1  I 2  I11  I 22
 I1  I 2    I11  I 22
I11  I 22

I1  I 2

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C. Initial KE of two discs, is given by,

1 1
KEi  I112  I 222
2 2
I112  I 222
KEi  i 
2
 Final KE of the system is given by

1 I11  I 22
KE f   I1  I 2   2 , where 
2 I1  I 2

I   I  
2
1
  I1  I 2  1 1 2 22
2  I1  I 2 
I   I  
2

KE f  1 1 2 2  ii 
2  I1  I 2 

 The change in energy (kinetic energy) is given by

KE  KE f  KEi
I   I  
 1 1 2 2
2


I 
1
2
1  I 222 
2  I1  I 2  2
I1212  I 2222  2 I1 I 212  I11  I 22 
2 2

 
2  I1  I 2  2
I1212  I 2222  2 I1 I 212   I1  I 2   I112  I 222 

2  I1  I 2 
I   I   2 I1 I 212   I1212  I1 I 222  I 2 I112  I 2222 
2 2 2 2


1 1 2 2

2  I1  I 2 
I1212  I 2222  2I1 I 212  I1212  I1 I 222  I 2 I112  I 2222

2  I1  I 2 
2 I1 I 212  I1 I 2  I 2 I112
2
 2

2  I1  I 2 
I1 I 2 1  2 
2

KE  
2  I1  I 2 

Therefore, ∆𝐾𝐸 is negative. Hence KE is always lost.

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D. The loss in KE is due to work done against friction between the two disc.

2. A particle of mass 2kg located at the position (𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂)𝑚 has velocity 2(𝑖̂ − 𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂ ). Its angular
momentum about z axis in 𝑘𝑔𝑚2 /𝑠 is

Given Required

𝑚 = 2𝑘𝑔 Component of 𝐿⃗ 𝑧 in z axis=?

𝑟 = 𝑥𝑖̂ + 𝑦𝑗̂ = (𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂)𝑚
v = 2(𝑖̂ − 𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂)m/s
Solution

Lrp
 r   mv 
iˆ ˆj kˆ
L  m r  v  2 1 1 0
2 2 2


 2 2iˆ  2 ˆj  4kˆ 
L  4iˆ  4 ˆj  8kˆ
The component of angular momentum about z-axis is
𝑳𝒛 = −𝟖𝒌𝒈𝒎𝟐/𝒔

4.7. Condition of Equilibrium

In the analysis of equilibrium of a particle it is important to have the idea of the following
terms

A. Concurrent forces:

A concurrent force is a system of forces that act on a single point, with their lines of action
intersecting at a common point. In other words, the forces are applied to the same point or
object from different directions, and their vectors meet at a single point.

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When multiple concurrent forces act on an object, their individual magnitudes, directions,
and points of application can be combined to determine the resultant force at the common
point. This resultant force is found by vector addition, where the forces are added head-to-
tail.

Figure: concurrent forces

Line of action

The "line of action" of a force is an imaginary line that extends in the direction of the force
vector. It represents the path or line along which the force is applied. The line of action of a
force is important because it helps determine the torque or moment produced by the force
about a given point.

B. Coplanar forces

Coplanar forces are forces that act in the same plane. In other words, all the forces lie on a
two-dimensional surface and do not have any components perpendicular to that plane.
Coplanar forces have both magnitude and direction, and can be added together using vector
addition to find the resultant force.

Figure: coplanar force

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Coplanar forces can act at different points on an object, and their lines of action can intersect
or be parallel. It is important to consider the line of action, magnitude, and direction of each
force to accurately analyze the equilibrium or motion of an object.

C. Couple force

A couple force, also known simply as a couple, is a system of forces that consists of two
parallel forces of the same magnitude but opposite direction acting at different points on an
object. The two forces in a couple force system create a moment or torque (a rotational
force) without producing any net linear force on the object. This means that the net force of
a couple is zero, but it generates rotational motion.

Figure: couple force

What is Equilibrium?

Equilibrium has different expressions in different contexts.

Equilibrium, in physics is the state of balance. Here by balance, it refers net force and net
torque.
Equilibrium: is a condition in which the state of motion of a body doesn’t change.

Remark!

A body is said to be in equilibrium when the net force and net torque acting on it are zero.
A body in equilibrium may be at rest or may move with constant velocity.

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Static and Dynamic Equilibrium

Static equilibrium: is a type of equilibrium that occurs when a body is at rest and there is
no net force or net torque acting on it.

Dynamic Equilibrium: is a type of equilibrium that occurs when a body is moving at a

steady (constant) velocity and there is no net force or net torque acting on it.

 Basically, there are two conditions of equilibrium in physics context.

1. First condition for equilibrium (Translational equilibrium)

 The first condition for equilibrium, also known as the translational equilibrium condition,
states that for an object to be in equilibrium, the vector sum of all the external forces acting
on the object must be zero. In other words:

 Fx  0 ,  Fy  0 and F net 0  4.62

 The equilibrium is achieved when the net force acting on the object is zero in both
magnitude and direction.

 This first condition for equilibrium is based on Newton's first law of motion, which states
that an object at rest will remain at rest, and an object in motion will continue moving with
a constant velocity unless acted upon by an external force. When the net force acting on an
object is zero, the object is said to be in translational equilibrium, meaning that it does not
accelerate in any direction.

Remark!

Firs condition of equilibrium is a condition where linear momentum is constant.

1st condition of equilibrium is another way of stating Newton’s 1 st law.

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2. Second condition for equilibrium (Rotational Equilibrium)

The second condition for equilibrium, also known as the rotational equilibrium condition,
states that for an object to be in rotational equilibrium, the sum of all the torques acting on
the object must be zero.

 In order for an object to be in rotational equilibrium, the net torque acting on it must be zero.
This means that the clockwise torques must be balanced by the counterclockwise torques,
resulting in no overall rotational motion of the object.

Mathematical expression of Second condition for equilibrium as follow:

  0    cc c 0  4.63

Where 𝜏𝑐𝑐 → counterclockwise torque and 𝜏𝑐 → clockwise torque

The equilibrium is achieved when the net torque acting on the object is zero.

Remark!

Second condition of equilibrium is a condition where angular momentum is constant.

2nd condition of equilibrium is a condition where a body doesn’t rotate.
Second condition of equilibrium is also known as equilibrium of rigid bodies.
After all, when we say a body or a system is in equilibrium, it must fulfil both conditions of
equilibrium.
We treat counter clockwise torque (𝜏𝑐𝑐 )as positive (+) and clockwise torque (𝜏𝑐 )as negative
(−).

 When two children balance a seesaw as shown in figure below, they satisfy the two condition
for equilibrium. Most people have perfect intuition about seesaws, knowing that the lighter
child must sit father from the pivot and that a heavier child can keep a lighter one off the ground
indefinitely.

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From the above figure, two children balancing a seesaw satisfy both conditions for equilibrium.
The lighter child sits father from the pivot to create a torque equal in magnitude to that of the
heaver child.

States of equilibrium

There are three states of equilibrium:

Stable Equilibrium
Unstable Equilibrium
Neutral Equilibrium

1. Stable Equilibrium

1. Stable Equilibrium:

 In stable equilibrium, when a system is displaced from its original position, it tends to return
to that position. In other words, a system is said to be in stable equilibrium if, after a small
disturbance, it returns to its original position or state.

 In other words, it experiences a restoring force that brings it back to equilibrium. The system
is balanced, and any deviation from the equilibrium position creates a force that acts to restore
it. For example, a ball sitting at the bottom of a concave-shaped bowl is in stable equilibrium.
If the ball is displaced slightly, it will roll back to the bottom of the bowl due to the gravitational
force.
A body is said to be in stable equilibrium, if the line joining the center of gravity and center of
each mass falls within the base of the body after it has been lightly disturbed.

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When a body is disturbed from its equilibrium position, gravity exerts a restoring force that
tends to bring the body back to its original position. The stability of the equilibrium is
determined by the relationship between the center of gravity and the base of support. If the
center of gravity falls within the base of support, the body will be stable because the restoring
force provided by gravity will help bring the body back to its original position.

Example

A cone resting on its base

A book lying on a flat surface

Figure: stable equilibrium

2. Unstable Equilibrium

 A system is in unstable equilibrium if, after a small disturbance, it moves away from its original
position or state. In this case, the system does not possess a restoring force that brings it back
to equilibrium but rather experiences a force that drives it further away.
 When the center of gravity of a body lies above the point of suspension or support, the body is
said to be in unstable equilibrium. Here the line joining the center of gravity and center of earth
falls outside its base, after being lightly disturbed by an external force.
 For example, a ball perched precariously at the top of a hill is in unstable equilibrium. If the
ball is displaced even slightly, it will roll down the hill with no force acting to bring it back to
the top.

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Example

A cone resting on its apex

A bottle standing on the edge of its mouth.

Figure: unstable Equilibrium

3. Neutral Equilibrium

A system is in neutral equilibrium if, after a small disturbance, it remains in its new position
or state without experiencing any restoring force or any force that drives it further away. The
system is balanced, but there is no tendency to return to the original position.

 For instance, a ball placed at the center of a flat, horizontal surface is in neutral equilibrium. If
the ball is displaced to any other position on the flat surface, it will remain there without
experiencing any force pulling or pushing it back.
When the center of gravity of a body lies at the point of suspension or support, the body is said
to be in neutral equilibrium.
In neutral equilibrium the line joining the center of gravity and center of earth falls within the
base of the body on the application of an external force.

 The height of its center of gravity does not change even after the application of an external
force.

Example

Rolling ball
A cone resting on its side

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Figure: Neutral Equilibrium

Notice that the center of gravity of a body is the point at which the body’s entire weight can be
regarded as being concentrated. A body can be suspended in any orientation from its center of
gravity without tending to rotate.

Strategy for solving problems on the static equilibrium i.e., for both first and second
condition.

1. Draw a diagram showing the system.

2. Draw a free body-diagram by isolating the system. Clearly show the external forces that are
acting on the system.
3. Select convenient coordinate axes, most commonly the x-axis and y- axis, and find x-and y-
components of all the forces. Now apply the first condition for equilibrium.
4. Choose on appropriate origin (pivot) along which the axis of rotation is assumed to pass.
Through the choice of location of the axis of rotation is arbitrary you are advice to choose one
that will simplify your calculations. Apply the second condition of equilibrium.
5. The first and second conditions for equilibrium will give a set of simultaneous equations to be
solved for the unknown items of the known quantities.

Worked Examples

1. Gamachu is standing in an elevator, ascending at a constant velocity, what is the resultant force
acting on her as a particle?

 Answer: Assume that Gamachu is considered as a particle. For a particle at rest, or moving
with constant velocity relative to an inertial frame, the resultant force acting on the isolated
particle must be zero, must vanish.

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2. If the vector sum of the external forces acting on it is zero, a particle is in equilibrium. What
criterion must be satisfied for a particle in equilibrium in this situation?

Answer:

 It can be at rest and remains at rest. Static Equilibrium

 It can move with constant velocity. Dynamic Equilibrium

3. If there are only two forces acting on a particle that is in equilibrium, what can we say about
these two forces?

Answer

 The two forces must be equal in magnitude and opposite in direction to each other.

4. If three forces act on a particle that is in equilibrium, then what can we say about these three
forces?
Answer

When the three forces are placed end to end, they must form a triangle.
Problems involving 3 or more forces can also be solved in a variety of ways, including
the sine and cosine rules (Resolving the forces as 𝒊̂ , 𝒋̂ unit vector notation

5. A body of mass m is suspended by two strings making angles 𝛼 and 𝛽 with the horizontal.
What are the tensions in the strings?

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We apply free body diagram as follow

Since the system is static equilibrium, the resultant force on the isolated particle must vanish.
A. The net force acting on the x-axis is given by:

F x 0
T2 x  T1x  0
T1x  T2 x  0
T1 cos   T2 cos   0
T1 cos   T2 cos 
 cos  
T1    T2 i 
 cos  
A. The net force acting on the y-axis is given by:

F y 0
T1 y  T2 y  T3  0, but
T1 sin   T2 sin   mg  0
T1 sin   T2 sin   mg  ii 
Substituting Eq. (i) into Eq. (ii), we obtain:

 cos  
  T2 sin   T2 sin   mg
 cos  
 cos  sin  
  sin   T2  mg
 cos  
 cos  sin   cos  sin  
  T2  mg
 cos  
mg cos 
T2  , but sin      cos  sin   cos  sin 
cos  sin   cos  sin 
mg cos 
T2   iii 
sin    

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Eq. (iii) into Eq. (i) , we obtain:

 cos    mg cos  
T1     
 cos    sin     

mg cos  cos 

cos   sin     
mg cos 
T1   iv 
sin    

Therefore,

mg cos  mg cos 
T1  , T2  and T3  mg
sin     sin    

6. The system in the figure below is in equilibrium, with the string in the center exactly horizontal.
Block A weights 40N, block B weights 50N, and angle 𝜙 is 35°. Find

A. Tension 𝑇1
B. Tension 𝑇2
C. Tension 𝑇3
D. Angle 𝜃

Solution

A. From FBD1

F y 0
T1 y  mg  0
T1 cos 35  40 N , cos 35  0.8
0.8T1  40 N
40 N
T1   50 N
0.8

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B. From FBD2

F x 0
T2  T1 y  0
T2  T1 sin 35, sin 35  0.6
T2  0.6T1 , but T1  50 N
  0.6  50 N 
T2  30 N
C. From FBD3, we obtain;

F x 0
T3 sin   T2  0
T3 sin   T2  30 N

F y 0
T3 cos   mg  0
T3 cos   50 N  0
T3 cos   50 N

 Therefore, 𝑇3 is obtained by using Pythagoras theorem;

T32  T3 sin    T3 cos  

2 2

T3   30 N    50 N 
2 2

 3400 N 2
T3  58 N
D. The angle 𝜃 is given by,
T3 cos   50 N
50 N 50 N
cos     0.862
T3 58 N
  cos 1  0.862   300
or
T sin  30 N
tan   3   0.6
T3 cos  50 N
  tan 1  0.6   300

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7. Suppose that a uniform beam of negligible mass is pivoted about “O” and supports two masses
as shown in the figure below. Find the torque due to the two weights?

Given Required

𝐿 = 80𝑐𝑚 = 0.8𝑚 A. 𝜏𝑐𝑐 =?

𝑚 1 = 4𝑘𝑔 B. 𝜏𝑐 =?
𝑟1 = 40𝑐𝑚 = 0.4𝑚 C. ∑ 𝜏 = 0
𝑚 2 = 5𝑘𝑔
𝑟2 = 32𝑐𝑚 = 0.32𝑚

Solution
A. Torque due to 𝑤2 = 𝑚 2 𝑔 has a counterclockwise sense. Thus,

 cc  w 2 r2
 m2 gr2
  5kg  10 m s2   0.32m 
 cc  16 Nm
B. Torque due to 𝑤1 = 𝑚 1 𝑔, has a clockwise sense. Thus,

 c  w 2 r2
 m2 gr2
  4kg  10 m s 2   0.4m 
 c  16 Nm
 net   cc   c  0
 net  16 N   16 N   0

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C. Therefore, the net torque ( 𝜏𝑛𝑒𝑡 ) acting on a system as,

 net   cc   c  0

 net  16 N   16 N   0

8. A 1m long of negligible mass beam is pivoted at its center as shown in the figure below.

A. Determine the weight W if the system is to be in equilibrium?

B. How large a force is exerted on the pivot?

Given Required

1
𝑟1 = 4 𝐿 A. 𝑊 =?

𝑚 2 = 200𝑁 B. 𝐹𝑦 =?
1
𝑟2 = 2 𝐿

Solution

A. Counterclockwise torque is equal to clockwise torque,

 cc   cc
m1 gr1  Wr2
 200 N   L4   W  L2 
W
50 N 
2
W  100 N

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B. The net force acting along y- axis is given by

F y 0
200 N  Fy  W  0
Fy  200 N  W
 200 N  100 N
Fy  300 N

9. A 600N uniform rod is hinged at P. find

A. The tension in the rope
B. The component of forces exerted by the hinge on the rod

Solution

Free body diagram

A. The net torque on the system is given

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  0
 cc   c  0, but   rF sin 
 34L  T sin 40    600 N   L2   800 N  L   0
 34L   0.643T   300 NL  800 NL  0
 3 0.643
4 LT  1100 NL  0
1.93
4 L T  1100 N L
1.93
4 T  1100 N
1.93T   4 1100 N 
4400 N
T  2279.8 N  2280 N
1.93

B. The net force along x-axis or horizontal force is given by

F x 0
T cos 40  Fx  0
Fx  T cos 45   2280 N  0.766   1746 N

The net force along y-axis is given by

F y 0
T sin 40  Fy  600 N  800 N  0
T sin 40  Fy  1400 N  0
Fy  1400 N  T sin 40

 1400 N   2280  0.643

 1400 N  1466 N
Fy  66 N

10. A uniform ladder of length L and weight 50N rests against a smooth, vertical wall. If the
coefficient of static friction between ladder and a ground is 𝜇 = 0.4.
A. Draw the free body diagram of all the forces relevant to this problem
B. Find the minimum angle such that the ladder will not slip.

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Solution

A. Free body diagram

From above FBD,

50N is the weight of ladder (𝑊𝐿 ) acts center ( L/2) points of ladder.
𝑁𝐹 is the normal reaction force acting on the ladder due to the ground.
𝐹𝑓 is the force friction acting on the ladder due to the ground.
𝑁𝑊 is the normal reaction force acting on the ladder due to the wall.

B. As ladder is at rest (in the transnational equilibrium), the net force on the ladder must be
zero. i.e.,

F x 0
Ff  NW  0
Ff  NW i 
F y 0
N F  WL  0
N F  WL  50 N  ii 

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 For ladder to be in rotational equilibrium, the net torque on the ladder (sum of all torque) about
the point p should be zero.

 Note that: torque due to frictional force 𝐹𝑓 and normal reaction force acting on ladder due to
ground 𝑁𝐹 = 0

 Only we take torque due to normal reaction force acting ( 𝑁𝑤 ) on the ladder due to the wall
and weight of ladder (𝑊𝐿 ) acts center L/2 points of ladder.

 cc  WL   L2  cos   iii 

 c   NW  L sin    iv 
From equilibrium of torque we have

  0
 cc   c  0
WL   L2  cos   NW  L sin    0
WL   L2  cos   NW   L sin    0
1
WL cos   NW sin 
2
WL sin 
 , from Eq.(i ) & Eq.(ii ),WL  N f & NW  F f
2 NW cos 
Nf
tan   , but Ff   N F
2 Ff
Nf

2 N F
1 1 1
tan      1.25
2   2  0.4  0.8
  tan 1 1.25   51.3o

11. A 10m uniform ladder weighing 200N rests against a frictionless wall. It makes an angle of
53° with horizontal. If it’s just on the on the verge of slipping when a 600N firefighter is 6m
along it from bottom. What is the coefficient of static friction between the ladder and the
ground?

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Solution

Free body diagram;

Counterclockwise torque is given by:

 cc  WL  5m  cos 53o  Wm  6m   cos 53o 

  200 N  5m  0.6    600  6m  0.6 
 600 Nm  2160
 cc  2760 Nm i 

Clockwise torque is given by’

 c   F 10m   sin 53o 

 
 F 10m  0.8 

 c  8 Fm  ii 

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The net torque on the ladder (sum of all torque) about the point A should be zero.

  0
 cc   cc
2760 Nm  8Fm
2760 Nm
F
8m
F  345 N

The net force on the ladder must be zero. i.e.,

  Fx  0
F  Ff  0
F  Ff  345 N
  Fy  0
N F  WL  Wm  0
N F  WL  Wm  200 N  600 N
N F  800 N
 F   NF
F 345 N
   0.431
N F 800 N

4.8. Dynamics of circular motion

 Dynamics of circular motion refers to the study of the forces and acceleration involved in the
motion of an object moving in a circular path. Circular motion occurs when an object moves
around a curve or circle at a constant speed

 Key concepts related to the dynamics of circular motion include centripetal force, centripetal
acceleration, and the role of these forces in keeping an object moving in a circle.

1. Centripetal Force:

In circular motion, there must be a force acting towards the center of the circle to keep the
object moving along its curved path. This force is called the centripetal force. It is always
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directed towards the center of the circle and is responsible for continuously changing the
direction of the object's velocity and keeping it in its circular path. It is always directed
towards the center of the circle and its magnitude is given by the equation:

mv 2
Fc  mac   4.64 
r

2. Centripetal Acceleration:

Centripetal acceleration is the acceleration experienced by an object moving in a circular

path. It is always directed towards the center of the circle and is determined by the
centripetal force acting on the object. The magnitude of centripetal acceleration depends on
the object's speed and the radius of the circular path. The magnitude of centripetal
acceleration can be calculated using the formula:

v2
ac   r 2  4.65
r

Where:

𝑎𝑐 is the centripetal acceleration,

v is the velocity of the object, and
𝑟 is the radius of the circle
𝜔 is angular velocity

A. Tangential velocity

Tangential velocity is the velocity of the object along the tangent to the circle at any given
point. The tangential velocity remains constant throughout the motion, as the speed of the
object does not change. The tangential velocity is perpendicular to the centripetal force and
is responsible for the object's linear motion along the circular path.

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B. Angular Velocity:

Angular velocity is a measure of how quickly an object rotates or moves in a circular path.
It is defined as the rate of change of angular displacement with respect to time and is
typically denoted by the symbol 𝜔 (omega). The relationship between linear velocity (v)
and angular velocity (ω) is given by:

v  r  4.66 
Where:

v is the linear velocity,

r is the radius of the circle, and
𝜔 is the angular velocity.

⃗ 𝒕)
3. Tangential acceleration (𝒂

Tangential acceleration is the rate of change of the magnitude of an object's velocity along
its curved path. It is a measure of how quickly an object's speed is changing as it moves
along a curved path.
Tangential acceleration is always directed tangent to the circle at any given point and is
perpendicular to the centripetal acceleration.

Key points about tangential acceleration:

a) Tangential acceleration is responsible for changes in the speed of an object moving in a circular
path.
b) It can cause an object to speed up (positive tangential acceleration) or slow down (negative
tangential acceleration) as it moves along the circular trajectory.

Tangential acceleration is calculated using the formula:

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dv v
at    4.67 
dt t

where:

𝑎𝑡 = tangential acceleration
v = tangential velocity
t = time
c) Tangential acceleration can be influenced by external forces acting on the object, such as
friction, propulsion, or air resistance.
In circular motion, the tangential acceleration contributes to changes in the speed of the object
as it moves along the curved path. It is important to consider both the centripetal acceleration
and tangential acceleration together to fully understand the overall acceleration experienced
by an object in circular motion.
The total acceleration of an object in circular motion can be found by combining the centripetal
acceleration and tangential acceleration vectors. The magnitude and direction of the total
acceleration provide a comprehensive view of how the object's velocity is changing as it moves
along the circular path.
Tangential acceleration 𝑎𝑡 and centripetal acceleration are perpendicular to each other.

 Total acceleration is given by

a 2  at2  ac2

a  at2  ac2  4.68

Remark!

The centripetal acceleration is due to change in the direction of tangential velocity, whereas
the tangential acceleration is due to any change in the magnitude of the tangential velocity.

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4. Role of Friction:

Friction can also play a role in circular motion. When an object moves in a circle on a
surface with friction, the frictional force between the object and the surface can act as the
centripetal force, allowing the object to maintain its circular path. However, too much or
too little friction can impact the object's motion and stability.

5. Other Forces:

In addition to centripetal force, other forces may also be present in circular motion. These
forces, such as gravity or tension in a string, can influence the dynamics of circular motion and
need to be considered when analyzing an object's motion in a circular path.

In the dynamics of circular motion, we can consider two types of circular motion:

Horizontal circle motion and

Vertical circle motion.

1. Horizontal Circle Motion:

Horizontal circle motion refers to an object moving in a circular path on a horizontal plane. In
other words, in a horizontal circle, the object moves in a plane parallel to the ground. In this
type of motion, the centripetal force required to keep the object moving in a circle is provided
by friction or tension in the string or any other force acting towards the center of the circle.

 The centripetal force required to keep the object moving in a horizontal circle is provided by
the tension in a string, the normal force from a surface, or frictional force.

 The weight of the object acts vertically downward and does not affect the centripetal force as
long as the tension, normal force, or frictional force is sufficient to provide the centripetal force
needed.

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Remark!

 If the centripetal force is not provided by a force like tension or friction, the object will move
tangentially to the circle and leave its circular path.

 When an object is moving in a horizontal circle, its speed remains constant because the
centripetal force required to keep it moving in a circular path is provided by another force (such
as tension in a string or friction). The centripetal force acts perpendicular to the velocity of the
object, changing the direction of motion but not the speed.

Example

1. Consider q conical pendulum with a bob of mass 𝑚 = 80𝑘𝑔 on a string of length 𝐿 = 10𝑚
that makes an angle of 𝜃 = 5°. Determine
A. The horizontal and vertical component of the force exerted on the pendulum.
B. The radial acceleration of the bob.
(use cos5° = 0.087, sin5° = 0.996 and take 𝑔 = 10𝑚/𝑠 2 )

Given Required

𝑚 = 80𝑘𝑔 A. ∑ 𝐹𝑥 =? And ∑ 𝐹𝑦 =?
𝐿 = 10𝑚 B. 𝑎𝑐 =?
𝜃 = 5°
𝑔 = 10𝑚/𝑠 2

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Solution

A. Applying free body diagram

The two forces acting on the bob are

Due to weight (mg) → verically downward.
Due to tension (T)→ directed along the string towards the center.
For equilibrium of the bob, the tension is resolved into two components
𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 → is acting along the vertical direction.
𝑇𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 → is acting along the horizontal direction
 The component 𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 is balanced by weight (mg). From Newton’s 2 nd law in the y-
direction is given by

F y 0

T cos50  mg  0
T cos50  mg

mg 80kg  10 m s2 
T   803 N
cos50  0.996 

Therefore, the horizontal and vertical component of force acting on the bob is given by

Tx  T sin 50   803N  0.087   70 N

Ty  T cos50   803N  0.996   800 N

 
T  Tx iˆ  Ty ˆj  70iˆ  800 ˆj N

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B. The component of 𝑇𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 is balanced by necessary centrifugal force.

The component of 𝑇𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 provides the necessary centripetal force which is required for circular
motion. From Newton’s 2nd law in the x- direction is given by

F x  mac
T sin   mac

T sin 5o  803N  0.087  70 N

ac    kg  0.88 m s 2
m 80kg 80

2. What is the maximum speed at which can round a curve of 25m radius on a level road if the
coefficient of static friction between the tires and road is 0.8?

Given Required
𝑟 = 25𝑚 v =?
𝜇𝑠 = 0.8

Solution

F net 0
Ff  Fc  0
Ff  Fc

 N f  mrv
2

 mg  m v2
r

 g  vr
2

v 2   gr

v   gr   0.810  25    0.8 10  25   200  14.14 m s

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2. Vertical Circle Motion:

Vertical circle motion refers to an object moving in a circular path in a vertical plane. In this type
of motion, gravity plays a significant role in providing the centripetal force required to keep the
object moving in a circle. The object's weight provides the centripetal force as it moves in a vertical
circle.

When analyzing vertical circle motion, it is essential to consider the forces acting on the object at
different points along the circle. At the top of the circle, the tension or normal force must provide
enough centripetal force to overcome gravity and keep the object moving in a circle. At the bottom
of the circle, gravity assists in providing the necessary centripetal force.

When an object is moving in a vertical circle, its speed varies due to changes in gravitational
potential energy and kinetic energy. As the object moves upward in the vertical circle, it gains
potential energy and loses kinetic energy, causing its speed to decrease. At the top of the circle,
where the object is momentarily at rest, its speed is zero. As the object moves downward in the
vertical circle, it loses potential energy and gains kinetic energy, causing its speed to increase.

In a vertical circle, the velocity of an object is maximum at the lowest point and minimum at the
highest point. This is due to the interplay between gravitational potential energy and kinetic energy
as the object moves along the vertical path.

At the lowest point of the vertical circle, where the object is closest to the ground, its kinetic energy
is at a maximum because it has lost most of its potential energy to gravity. This results in a higher
speed or velocity at the lowest point.

Conversely, at the highest point of the vertical circle, where the object is farthest from the ground,
its potential energy is at a maximum while its kinetic energy is at a minimum. As the object moves
upward, it gains potential energy at the expense of kinetic energy, resulting in a lower speed or
velocity at the highest point.

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The weight mg of the body at P is resolved along the string as 𝑚𝑔𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 and 𝑚𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃,
perpendicular to the string.

 When the body is at P, the following forces acts on it along the string.

1. 𝑚𝑔𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 acts along OP (outwards)

2. Tension T acts along PO (inwards)

 The net force on the body at P acting along PO is given by

F net  T  mg cos  mac

T  mg cos   mac
mv 2
T  mg cos 
r
 v2 
T  m  g cos    4.69 
 r 

Remark!

 Centripetal and gravitational forces:

Acts in the same direction at the top of the circle, 𝜃 = 180°.
Acts in opposite directions at the bottom of the circle, 𝜃 = 0°.
Acts at right angle to each other, half way up the circle, 𝜃 = 90°.
The tension has maximum value at bottom and minimum value at the top of the circle.

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 The tension of the moving mass along a vertical circle will maximum at the bottom position
and is determined by;

Tmax  mg cos  mac

mv 2ma
Tmax   mg cos , but   00
r
 v 2ma 
Tmax  m  g  4.70 
 r 

 And the maximum speed at which mass can be circulate is given by

2
mvmax
Tmax  mg 
r
r Tmax  mg   mv max
2

r
Tmax  mg   vmax
2

m
r
v max  Tmax  mg   4.71
m

Example

1. A 0.32kg ball swings a vertical circle on a 0. 65m long string at constant speed of 2.6m/s. what
is the tension at the bottom of the loop?

Given Required

𝑚 = 0.32𝑘𝑔
𝑟 = 65𝑚
v = 2.6𝑚/𝑠
𝑔 = 10𝑚/𝑠 2

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Solution
 v2 
Tmax  m  ma  g 
 r 
  2.6 m s 2 
  0.32kg    10 m s 2 
  0.65m  
 
 6.76 m s 2 
2

  0.32kg    10 m s 2 
 0.65 
  0.32kg  10.4 m s 2  10 m s 2 

  0.32kg   20.4 m s 2 
Tmax  6.53 N

2. A mass of 0.5kg is whirled attached to a cord of length of radius 2m. if the cord has a tension
of 54N .(Take 𝑔 = 10𝑚/𝑠 2 )

Given Required

𝑚 = 0.5𝑘𝑔 vmax =?
𝑇 = 54𝑁
𝑟 = 2𝑚
Solution
r
v max  Tmax  mg 
m


2m
0.5kg

54 N   0.kg  10 m s 2  
 4 m kg  54 N  5 N 


 4 m kg 49 kg m s 2 
 196 m
2

s2

v max  14 m s

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3. A boy swing a 300gm ball attached to the end of a string in a vertical circle of radius 0.5m. if
the speed of the ball at the highest point is 4m/s.
Calculate
A. The speed of the ball at the lowest point.
B. The magnitude of the acceleration at the lowest point.
C. The tension in the string at the highest and at the lowest point?

Given Required

𝑚 = 300𝑔 = 0.3𝑘𝑔 A. 𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 =?

𝑟 = 0.5𝑚 B. 𝑎𝑐 =?
𝑣𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 4𝑚/𝑠 C. 𝑇𝑏 & 𝑇ℎ =?
𝑔 = 10𝑚/𝑠 2

Solution

A. By using conservation of mechanical Energy,

ME at highest point  ME at lowest point

1 2 0 1 2
mgh  mvmin  mgh  mvmax
2 2
1 1
m gh  m vmin 2
  m vmax2

2 2
1 2 1 2
gh  vmin  vmax
2 2
2 gh  vmin
2
 vmax
2
,sin ce h  2r
2
vmax  4 gr  vmin
2

vmax  4 gr  vmin
2

  4 10  0.5   4 
2

vmax  36 m  6ms
2

s2

B. Centripetal acceleration is given by

 6 m s  36 m s2
2 2 2
vmax
ac     72 m s2
r  0.5m  0.5m

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C. The tension in the string at highest point is given by,

Th  mg  mac
Th  m  2
vmin
r
g 
Th   0.3kg    4m s 

 10 m s2   0.3kg   32 m s2  10 m s2   6.6 N
2

 0.5 m 

And the tension in the string at lowest point is given by

Tb  mg  mac
Th  m  2
vmax
r
g 
Th   0.3kg   6m s 

 10 m s 2   0.3kg   72 m s 2  10 m s 2   24.6 N
2

 0.5 m 

Review question

Choose the correct answer

1. A ladder of length 𝑙 and mass m is placed against a smooth vertical wall, but the ground is
not smooth. Coefficient of friction between the ground and the ladder is 𝜇. The angle 𝜃 at
which the ladder will stay in equilibrium is
A. 𝜃 = tan−1 (𝜇) C. 𝜃 = tan −1 ( 2𝜇)
𝜇 1
B. 𝜃 = tan−1 ( ) D. 𝜃 = tan−1 ( )
2 2𝜇

2. A body experiencing two forces of equal magnitude remains in translational equilibrium.

Which of the following is the angle between the lines of the force.
A. 0° B. 45° C. 90° D. 180°
3. The necessary and sufficient condition for a rigid body to be in equilibrium is the sum of:
A. All torque acting on it zero
B. All forces acting on it should be zero
C. All forces should be equal in magnitude, but opposite in direction to the sum of all
torque acting on it.
D. All forces and the sum of all torque be zero.

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4. The point of intersection of the lines of action of the weight of all the points of body is called
A. center of the body C. center of mass of the body
B. center of gravity of the body D. none of the above
5. Two forces which are equal in magnitude but opposite in direction and not acting along the
same line is a
A. Couple B. Rotation C) Torque D. Motion
12. A body is said to be in dynamic equilibrium when it
A. Possess instantaneous velocity.
B. Is in uniform motion along a straight line.
C. is moving with changing acceleration
D. Is in uniform motion along a circular path.
13. The torque is the vector product of two vectors force and displacement and is a vector
A. At 180° to the plane of the force and displacement.
B. At 45 ° to the plane of the force and displacement.
C. At 90° to the plane of the force and displacement.
D. At 0° to the plane of the force and displacement.
14. A plank, 6 m long and weighing 400 N has its center of gravity 4 m from one end as shown in
figure below. It is supported near each end and two painters are standing on it. One weighs 500
N, and is at the center. The other weighs 350 N, and is standing 1 m from the light end. What
is the value of FB?

A. 575N B. 320 C. 456 D. 350N

15. In an orbital motion, the angular momentum vector is
A. Along the radius vector
B. Parallel to the linear momentum

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C. In the orbital plane

D. Perpendicular to the orbital plane
16. A bob of mass m attached to an inextensible string of length 𝑙 is suspended from vertical
support. The bob rotates in a horizontal circle with an angular speed 𝜔 rad/s about the
vertical. About the point of suspension:
A. Angular momentum is conserved
B. Angular momentum changes in magnitude but not in the direction
C. Angular momentum changes in direction but not in magnitude.
D. Angular momentum changes both in direction and magnitude
17. The angular momentum of a particle is
A. Independent of the specific origin of coordinate
B. Zero when its position and momentum vectors are parallel
C. Zero when its position and momentum vectors are perpendicular
D. Not zero for none zero position and momentum vectors
18. Which of the following objects has the largest moment of inertia assuming they all have the
same mass and radius?
A. A solid disk C. A circular loop
B. A solid sphere D. A solid cylinder
19. A 1.5kg particle moves in xy plane with velocity v = (4.2𝑖̂ − 3.6𝑗̂)𝑚/𝑠. What is the angular
momentum its position vector is 𝑟 = (1.5𝑖̂ + 2.2𝑗̂)𝑚?
A. −22𝑘̂𝑘𝑔𝑚2 /𝑠 C. −14.6𝑘̂𝑘𝑔𝑚2 /𝑠
B. 14.6𝑘̂𝑘𝑔𝑚2 /𝑠 D. 22𝑘̂𝑘𝑔𝑚2 /𝑠
20. A 50Nm torque acts on a wheel of moment of inertia 200𝑘𝑔𝑚2 . If the wheel stars from rest,
how long will it take the wheel to reach ab angular speed of 1𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠?
A. 4sec B. 2sec C. 3.1sec D. 0.25sec
21. Moment of inertia is:
A. the rotational equivalent of mass
B. The point at which all forces appear to act.
C. The time at which inertia occurs.
D. An alternative term for moment arm.

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22. A man is sitting on a rotating table with his arms stretched outwards. When he suddenly folds
his arms inside, then
A. His angular velocity will decrease
B. His angular velocity remains constant
C. His moment of inertia decreases
D. Angular momentum increases
23. Moment of inertia of an object does not depend upon
A. Mass of object C. angular velocity
B. Mass of distribution D. axis of rotation

24. Three solid spheres each of mass M and radius R are arranged as shown in figure. The
moment of inertia of the arrangement about YY’ axis

7 14 16 5
A. 𝑀𝑅 2 B. 𝑀𝑅 2 C. 𝑀𝑅 2 D. 𝑀𝑅 2
5 5 5 14

25. An automobile engine develops 100KW when rotating at a speed of 1800rev/min. what
torque does it deliver?
A. 350Nm B. 440Nm C. 531Nm D. 628Nm
26. When a torque acting upon a system is zero, then which of the following will be constant.
A. Force C. angular momentum
B. Linear momentum D. linear momentum
27. The rotational KE of a body is E and its moment of inertia is I. The angular momentum is

A. 𝐸𝐼 B. 2√(𝐸𝐼 ) C. √(2𝐸𝐼 ) D. 𝐸/𝐼

28. The motion of planets in the solar system is an example of the conservation of :
A. Mass C. Angular momentum
B. Linear momentum D. Energy
29. If a person standing on a rotating disc stretches out his hands, the angular speed will
A. Increase C. remain same

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B. Decrease D. none of these

30. Angular momentum of a body is defined as the product of
A. Mass and angular velocity C. linear velocity and angular velocity
B. Centripetal force ad radius D. momentum of inertia and angular velocity
31. A round disc of the moment of inertia 𝐼2 about its axis perpendicular to its plane and passing
through its center is placed over another disc of the momentum of inertia 𝐼1 rotating with an
angular velocity 𝜔 about the same axis. The final angular velocity of the combination of
discs is
𝐼2 𝜔 𝐼1𝜔 ( 𝐼1 +𝐼2 ) 𝜔
A. B.𝜔 C. 𝐼 D.
𝐼1 +𝐼2 1 +𝐼2 𝐼1

32. The law of conservation of angular momentum is valid when

A. The net force is zero and the net the net torque is non zero
B. The net force is non zero and the net torque is non zero
C. Net force may or may not be zero and net torque is zero
D. Both force and torque must be zero

Answers

1. D 6. B 11. B 16. C 21. C 26. C

2. D 7. C 12. D 17. D 22. C
3. D 8. A 13. A 18. C 23. B
4. B 9. D 14. A 19. C 24. D
5. A 10 C 15. A 20. C 25. C

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Chapter Five

5. Work, Energy and Power

5.1. Work (W)

Work done is a term used in physics to describe the transfer of energy that occurs when a force
is applied to move an object over a certain distance. In other words, Work done refers to the
amount of energy transferred or transformed by a force acting on an object, causing it to move
a certain distance in the direction of force.

 Work is the process of transforming energy. In other words, work done is a measure of the
energy transferred to or from an object.

It is the scalar (dot) products of force and displacement.

Its SI unit is Joule (J) and its dimensional formula is given by [𝑀𝐿2 𝑇 −2 ].

W  F  r  F r cos   5.1

If a number of forces 𝐹1 , 𝐹2 , … 𝐹𝑛 are acting on a body and it shifts from position vector 𝑟1 𝑡𝑜 𝑟2
then,

 
W  Fnet  r  F1  F2  ....  Fn   r2  r1   5.2 

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Relation between different units:

1J  107 erg 

1kwh  3.6  106 J 
  5.3
1ev  1.6  1019 J 

1calorie  4.18 J  

Remark!

For work to be done on an object, three essential conditions should be satisfied:

Force must be exerted on the object
The force must cause a motion or displacement
The force should have a component along the line of displacement
The work done by a given force on a body depends only on:
The forces
The displacement
The angle between them
Work done can be positive, negative and zero based on the direction of applied force and
displacement.

A. Positive work

 Positive work is done when the force applied to an object and the displacement of the object
are in the same direction. This means that the force and the direction of motion are aligned,
causing the object to move in the direction of the force.

 When a force acts on an object and causes it to move in the direction of the force, work is
considered positive. When positive work is done, energy is transferred to the object, increasing
its kinetic energy.

 If the angle between the force and displacement vectors is less than 90 degrees, the cosine of
theta will be positive, resulting in positive work.

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Example of positive work

1. A body pulling a box towards herself. In this example, the force and displacement have the
same direction, hence the work done is positive.

2. An apple falling from the tree. In this example, the gravitational force is pulling the apply
downward, and the apple displaces in the same direction, hence the work done is positive.

3. When a spring is stretched, work done by the external (stretching) force is positive.

If a spring is stretched, the direction of applied force and the direction of displacement are
the same. And the angle between the force and the displacement is zero.

4. When a person lifts a body from the ground, the work done by the upward lifting force is
positive.

 This is because the lifting force is acting in the same direction as the motion of the body being
lifted. As the person exerts an upward force to lift the body, the work done by the lifting force
is positive because it is in the same direction as the displacement of the body. The lifting force
is doing positive work on the body as it helps move the body upwards against the force of
gravity.

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B. Negative Work done

Negative work is done when the force applied to an object and the displacement of the object
are in opposite directions. This means that the force and the direction of motion are opposite,
causing the object to move in the opposite direction of the force.
When a force acts on an object and causes it to move in the direction opposite to the force,
work is considered negative.
When negative work is done, energy is taken away from the object, decreasing its kinetic
energy.

 If the angle between the force and displacement vectors is greater than 90 degrees, the cosine
of theta will be negative, resulting in negative work.

Example of negative work

1. When a person lifts a body from the ground, the work done by the downward force of gravity
is negative.

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 This is because the force of gravity is acting in the opposite direction to the motion of the body
being lifted. As the person exerts an upward force to lift the body, gravity is pulling the body
downward. The work done by gravity is negative because it is in the opposite direction of the
displacement of the body. Gravity is doing negative work on the body as it resists the upward
motion and tries to pull the body back towards the ground.

Force of gravity is in the downward direction but, the displacement of the body is in the
upward direction. So, work done by the force of gravity is negative,

2. When a body is made to slide over a rough surface, the work done by the frictional force is
negative.

Work done by a frictional force when a body slides over a rough surface is negative.

C. Zero Work Done

Zero work is done when the force applied on an object is perpendicular to the displacement
of the object. In this case, the force and the displacement are at right angles to each other,
resulting in no work being done on the object. This means that even though a force is applied
to the object, it does not result in any change in the object's energy. Therefore, the work
done in such a scenario is zero.

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When the work done on an object is zero, it means that there is no net transfer of energy to
or from the object. This can occur in a few different scenarios:

Under three conditions, work done becomes zero 𝑊 = 𝐹 𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 0

1. If the force is perpendicular to the displacement [𝐹 ⊥ 𝑠].

The angle between the direction of force and displacement is 90°: whenever the applied
force on the body is perpendicular to the direction of the displacement of the body, then the
work done by the force on the body is zero.

Example

 When we hold an object and walk, the force acts in downward direction whereas
displacement acts in forward direction, then there is no work is done because the angle
between the force exerted and the displacement is 90°

 When we hold a bag in our hands and walk horizontally such that the angle between the
displacement and the gravitational force is 90°, thus, work done is zero.
 When a body moves in a circle the work done by the centripetal force is always zero.

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 When a body moves in a circle the work done by the centripetal force is always zero, because,
the centripetal force on the body at any instant, is directed towards the center of the circular
path and the direction of displacement (velocity) at that instant is along the tangent drawn to
the circular path, i.e., perpendicular to the direction of the force on the body.

2. If there is no displacement[ 𝑠 = 0].

If a body acted upon by a force but the net displacement is zero, then the work done will
also zero.
Example

When we stand holding a bag in our hands and do not move it, as there is no displacement,
thus the work done is zero.

When a person tries to displace a wall or heavy stone by applying a force then it does not
move, the work done is zero.

If you push a wall and it does’t move, work is not done as there is no displacement.

3. If there is no force acting on the body [ 𝐹 = 0].

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Example:

Motion of an isolated body in free space.

An isolated system is a system that force 𝐹 is free from the influence of a net external force
that alters the momentum of the system.

Remark!

When the work done on an object is zero, it means that there is no net transfer of energy to or
from the object. This can occur in a few different scenarios:

1. No force is applied: If no force acts on an object, or the applied force is perpendicular to the
displacement, no work is done. This happens when an object moves horizontally while being
pushed vertically, or when an object moves in a circular path and the force is directed toward
the center of the circle.

2. Constant speed: If an object moves with a constant speed, the net work done on the object is
zero. This is because the energy provided by the applied force is exactly balanced by the energy
lost due to friction or other resistive forces.

3. Equal and opposite forces: If two equal and opposite forces act on an object, with one force
displacing the object in one direction and the other force displacing it in the opposite direction,
the work done by each force cancels out, resulting in zero net work.

Work done by different constant forces on a body moving on rough surfaces:

 Work done by applied force

W  F S cosθ  5.4 
 Work done by frictional force
W f  F f S cos1800   F f S  5.5 
 Work done by normal (reaction) force
WR  FN S cos900  0  5.6 

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 Work done by weigh (mg)

Ww  mg S cos900  0  5.7 

5.2. Work done by a constant and variable force

When dealing with work done by a force, the distinction between constant force and variable
force is important.

1. Constant force

The force whose magnitude and direction do not change (remain constant) throughout the
motion of the body is called constant force.
A constant force is a force that remains consistent in magnitude and direction over time.
This means that the force does not change in strength or direction while acting on an object.
When a constant force acts on an object, it results in uniform or constant acceleration, as
the force causes a constant change in the velocity of the object.

Examples of constant forces are:

A. Kinetic Friction:

Kinetic friction is the resistance force that opposes the motion of an object sliding or moving
over a surface. The force of kinetic friction remains constant regardless of the speed of the
object. It is proportional to the normal force acting on the object and is characterized by a
coefficient of kinetic friction (𝜇𝑘 ). The formula for kinetic friction is: 𝐹𝑘 = 𝜇𝑘 𝑁, where 𝐹𝑘 is
the force of kinetic friction, μk is the coefficient of kinetic friction, and N is the normal force.
Since the coefficient of kinetic friction and the normal force remain constant for a given
surface, the force of kinetic friction is constant as well.

B. Hydrostatic Force

Hydrostatic force is the pressure force exerted by a fluid (liquid or gas) on an object submerged
in the fluid. The magnitude of hydrostatic force depends on the area of the object in contact
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with the fluid, the depth of immersion, and the density of the fluid. In many cases, the
hydrostatic force acts perpendicular to the surface of the object, resulting in a constant force
regardless of the object's orientation or shape underwater.
C. Weight or Gravitational Force:

The weight of an object is the force exerted on it due to gravity. Near the surface of the
Earth, the weight of an object is approximately constant (assuming negligible changes in
altitude) and directed towards the center of the Earth. The formula for weight is: W = mg,
where W is the weight, m is the mass of the object, and g is the acceleration due to gravity.
Since the mass of an object and the acceleration due to gravity (approximately 9.81 𝑚/𝑠 2
on Earth) are considered constant for most practical purposes, the weight of an object is
typically treated as a constant force.

2. Variable force

 The force whose magnitude and direction changes during the motion of the body is called
variable force.
 A variable force is a force that changes in magnitude and/or direction as it acts on an object.
The force may increase, decrease, or vary unpredictably over time and space.

 When a variable force acts on an object, the acceleration and motion of the object may not
be uniform. The object's velocity and position can change in complex ways depending on
how the force varies.

Examples of variable forces are:

A. Spring Force:

The force exerted by a spring is directly proportional to the displacement of the spring from
its equilibrium position. This force follows Hooke's Law, which states that the force is equal
to the negative of the spring constant (k) multiplied by the displacement (x): 𝐹 = −𝑘𝑥. As
the displacement changes, the force exerted by the spring also varies.

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B. Electrostatic Force:

The force between two charged particles is known as the electrostatic force. According to
Coulomb's Law, the force between two charged particles is directly proportional to the product
of their charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. The
formula for electrostatic force is: 𝐹 = 𝑘(𝑞1 𝑞2 /𝑟2 ), where k is the electrostatic constant,
𝑞1 and 𝑞2 are the charges of the particles, and r is the distance between them. As the charges
or the distance between the particles change, the electrostatic force also varies.

C. Magnetic Force:

The force exerted on a charged particle moving in a magnetic field is known as the magnetic
force. The magnitude and direction of this force depend on the velocity of the particle, the
magnetic field strength, and the angle between the velocity and the magnetic field. The formula
for magnetic force is: 𝐹 = 𝑞(𝑣 𝑥 𝐵), where q is the charge of the particle, v is its velocity,
and B is the magnetic field. Since the velocity and/or the magnetic field can change, the
magnetic force experienced by the charged particle can vary.

D. Tension in a rope:

The force exerted by a rope tied to a moving object can vary as the object accelerates,
decelerates, or changes direction.

5.2.1. Work done by a constant force

 In this case, the force will be constant throughout the displacement.

Work is said to be done by a constant force when a body is moving with a constant
acceleration due to the force applied to displace the body through a certain distance in the
direction of the net force applied.

W  F S  5.8

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Work done by a force is equal to the area of the region bounded by component of the force
parallel to the displacement axis.

W  Area  FS  5.9 

Remark!

 Work done by a constant force is path independent, because all constant force are conservative
in nature.

 Since work done is the dot product of two vectors, it is a scalar quantity. That is why it does
not depend on the path taken but only depend on the initial and final states of the object.

Force Versus Distance Graph of Work Done by Constant force

Example

1. A 15kg block is pulled from rest by a force of 50N at angle of 37° across a horizontal rough
surface over a distance of 20m. The coefficient of kinetic friction between the block and the
surface is 0.1. What is the net work done of the block?
(𝑔 = 10𝑚/𝑠 2 , cos 37° = 0.8, 𝑠𝑖𝑛37° = 0.6)

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Given Required
𝑚 = 15𝑘𝑔 A. 𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 =?
⃗⃗⃗𝐹 = 50𝑁
𝜇 = 0.1

Solution

 There is no motion along the vertical direction. Thus, the normal force 𝑁𝐹 balances both
the weight (𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔) of the object and the component of force 𝐹 acting downward, that
is

F y 0 Free body diagram

N F  F sin   mg  0
N F  mg  F sin 37 0
 15kg  10 m s 2    50 N  0.6 
 150  30 N
N F  120 N

 Applying Newton’s 2nd law of motion for the horizontal, we will obtain:

F x  Fnet  ma
F cos   F f  Fnet
Fnet  F cos 37 o   k N F
  50 N  0.8    0.1120 N 
 40 N  12 N
Fnet  28 N

 Therefore, the net work done on the object is:

Wnet  Fnet S  where F

net and Sare parallel 
  28 N  20m 
Wnet  860 N

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2. How much work is required to accelerate an automobile of mass 2000kg from rest to a speed
of 30m/s in a distance 0f 180m and parallel to the force doing the work?

Given Required
𝑚 = 2000𝑘𝑔 𝑊 =?
vi = 0
vf = 30𝑚/𝑠
𝑠 = 180𝑚

Solution

F  ma v 2f  vi2
a
  2000kg   2.5 m s 2  2s
 30 m s   0
2
F  5000 N 
W  FS  2 180m 
  5000 N 180m 
2
900 m s 2

W  900000 J  900 KJ 360m
a  2.5 m s 2

3. A body of mass 4kg is placed at the origin, and can move only on the x-axis. A force of 10N
is acting on it in a direction making an angle of 53° with the x-axis and displaces it along the
x-axis by 12 meters. Find the work done by the force

Given Required
𝑚 = 4𝑘𝑔 𝑊 =?
𝑠 = 12𝑚
𝜃 = 53°
Solution
W  Fs cos 

 10 N 12m   cos 530 

 120 Nm  0.6 
W  72 J

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4. Find the work done if a particle moves from a position 𝑟1 = 𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂ − 2𝑘̂ to a position 𝑟2 = 2𝑖̂ +
3𝑗̂ + 4𝑘̂ under the effect of force 𝐹 = 2𝑖̂ + 4𝑗̂ + 6𝑘̂

Given Required

𝐹 = 2𝑖̂ + 4𝑗̂ + 6𝑘̂ 𝑊 =?

𝑟1 = 𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂ − 2𝑘̂
𝑟2 = 2𝑖̂ + 3𝑗̂ + 4𝑘̂

Solution
W  F  r  F   r2  r1 

  
 2iˆ  4 ˆj  6kˆ  2iˆ  3 ˆj  4kˆ  iˆ  ˆj  2kˆ 
  2iˆ  4 ˆj  6kˆ    iˆ  2 ˆj  6kˆ 

  2 1 iˆ  iˆ   4  2  ˆj  ˆj   6  6  kˆ  kˆ
 2  8  36
W  46 J

6. A horizontal force of 5 N is required to maintain a velocity of 2 m/s for a block of 10 kg mass

sliding over a rough surface. Calculate the work done by this force in one minute.

Given Required

𝐹 = 5𝑁 𝑊 =?
v = 2𝑚/𝑠
𝑚 = 10𝑘𝑔
𝑡 = 1𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 60𝑠𝑒𝑐.
Solution
W  Fs, s  vt
  5 N  2 m s  60 s 
W  600 J

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7. A 10 kg satellite completes one revolution around the earth at a height of 100 km in 108
minutes. The work done by the gravitational force of earth will be

Solution

Work done by the satellite at any instant is zero because the force (gravitational force) or
centripetal force to go around the Earth is perpendicular to the displacement at any instant of
its motion.

W  Fg S cos  ,   90

W  Fg S cos 900  0

8. A particle moving in the 𝑥𝑦 plane under goes a displacement 𝑠 = (3𝑖̂ + 4𝑗̂)𝑚 with
displacement 𝐹 = (6𝑖̂ + 8𝑗̂)𝑁
Calculate:
A. The work done.
B. An angle 𝜃 between Force and displacement.

Solution

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A) W  F S

 
 6iˆ  8 ˆj  3iˆ  4 ˆj Nm 
  6  3 iˆ  iˆ   8  4  ˆj  ˆj
 18  32  J
W  50 J
B) W  F S cos 
W 50 N
cos   
F S
  6   8
2 2
  3
2
 42 
50 J 50 J 50 J
   1
 100 N 2
  25m  2 10  5  J 50 J
  cos 1 1  0o

5.2.2. Work Done by a Variable Force

Calculation of the work done by variable force is a bit more complex than calculation of work
done by a constant force.
Work done by a constantly varying force is equal to the area under the curve of a graph of force
versus displacement.

Work done by a spring

 Work done a spring: is the force exerted by a spring is an example of variable force.
A spring force is sometimes said to be a restoring force. This is because if you stretch or
compress a neutral spring, the spring force always tends treats) to restore the equilibrium
position.

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The relationship between the force exerted by a spring and its extension 𝑥 is given by

F  kx  known as Hooke's law  5.10

Where k is called the spring constant. The minus sign in Hooke’s law indicates that the
spring’s force is always opposite in direction from displacement of its free end.
If spring is stretched from initial position 𝑥 𝑖 to a final position 𝑥𝑓 then the work done by
spring on the block is given by

W  Area   k x 2   k  x 2f  xi2   k  xi2  x 2f 

1 1 1
 5.11
2 2 2

The work done is positive if 𝑥 𝑖2 > 𝑥𝑓2 and negative 𝑥 𝑖2 < 𝑥𝑓2. If 𝑥 𝑖 = 0 and if we call the final
position 𝑥; then

W  kx 2  5.12

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 To find work done by non-linear varying force we divide the region under in to very small
rectangle and take the scalar sum of each area under the graph or integration.

 When the force is neither constant nor varying constantly , the work done is obtained as:
Shade Area=Fx Δx
W  Fx x
W  F1x1  F2 x2  ...  Fn xn
n
W   Fi xi  5.13
i 1

xf

W  F dx x  5.14 
xi

 Suppose that a force varies from 𝐹𝑖 𝑡𝑜 𝐹𝑓 to displaces a body from position 𝑥 𝑖 to 𝑥𝑓, then
the work done by variable force is given by:

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 Fi  F2   x f  xi 
1
W  Fav x   5.15
2

Worked Example:

1. A force of 100N is required to stretch a spring that obeys Hook’s law by 100cm. What is the
work done in stretching the spring?

Solution

 Applied force on stretched spring is linearly varying force with position

Work done = area under the graph

W   Fav  x 


1
2
 Fi  Ff  x f  xo 
1
  0  100 N 1m  0  , hence 100cm  1m
2
  50 N 1m 
W  50 J

2. A particle is subject to a force 𝐹𝑥 that varies with position as shown in Figure below. Find the
total work done by the force over the distance from 𝑥 = 0 to 𝑥 = 15𝑚?

Solution

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Work done = area of the region bounded by component of the force

W  Fx x  A
W  A1 Triangle   A2  rec tan gle   A3 Triangle 
1 1
  3N  5m    3N 10m  5m    3N 15m  10m 
2 2
1 1
  3 N  5m    3 N  5m    3 N  5m 
2 2
1 1
 15  Nm  15  Nm  15  Nm
2 2
 7.5 J  15 J  7.5 J
W  30 J

3. A force 𝐹 = (3𝑥 + 2)𝑁 acts on a particle in the x- direction. Find the work done by this force
during a displacement 𝑥 = 2𝑚 to 𝑥 = 6𝑚

Given Required

𝐹𝑥 = (3𝑥 + 2)𝑁 𝑊 =?
𝑥 1 = 2𝑚
𝑥 2 = 6𝑚

Solution

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at x1  2m, Fx  3  2   2  N   6  2   8 N

at x2 , 6m Fx  3  6   2  N  18  2  N  20 N
1 1 28 N
Fav   F1  F2   8  20  N   14 N
2 2 2
W  Fav x  Fav  x2  x1 
 14 N  6  2  m
 14 N  4  m
W  56 J

9. What work is done by a force 𝐹 = (2𝑥𝑖̂ + 3𝑗̂)𝑁 that moves a particle from a position 𝑟𝑖 =
(2𝑖̂ + 3𝑗̂)𝑚 to 𝑟𝑓 = (−4𝑖̂ − 3𝑗̂)𝑚?

Given Required

𝐹 = (2𝑥𝑖̂ + 3𝑗̂)𝑁 𝑊 =?
𝑟 = 𝑥𝑖̂ + 𝑦𝑗̂
𝑟𝑖 = (2𝑖̂ + 3𝑗̂)𝑚 , 𝑥𝑖 = 2𝑚𝑖̂, 𝑦𝑖 = 3𝑚𝑗̂
𝑟𝑓 = (−4𝑖̂ − 3𝑗̂)𝑚, 𝑥𝑓 = −4𝑚𝑗̂, 𝑦𝑓 = −3𝑚𝑗̂

Solution

Variable force is only along x – axis (𝑖̂)

⃗ 𝒙 𝒊̂ = 𝟐𝒙𝒊̂ , where x-is a position in the unit vector of 𝒊̂

𝑭=𝑭

F  Fx iˆ  2 xiˆ
at x  2 m, Fx   2  2  Nmiˆ  iˆ  4 N

at x  4m, Fx   2  4  Nmiˆ  iˆ  8 N
1 1 4N
Fav   F1  F2    4  8 N    2 N
2 2 2

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 Total work done (wok done by 𝐹𝑎𝑣 𝑖̂ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐹𝑦 𝑗̂) is given;

W  Fav iˆ xiˆ  Fy ˆj yjˆ

  Fav    x f  xi  iˆ  iˆ   Fy    y f  yi  ˆj  ˆj  Nm , sin ce ˆj , iˆ  iˆ  ˆj  ˆj  1

  2  4  2  Nm   3 3  3 Nm
 12  18  Nm
W  6 J

10. A block of mass 200g is attached to the end of spring whose spring constant is 𝑘 = 50𝑁/𝑚.
The block slides on a horizontal surface for which coefficient of fiction 𝜇 = 0.1. the spring is
extended by 5cm and then released
A. Find the work done by the spring up to the point at which it is compressed by 3cm.
B. Find the net work done on the block up to this point.

Given Required

𝑚 = 200𝑔 = 0.2𝑘𝑔 A. 𝑊 =?
𝑘 = 50𝑁/𝑚 B. 𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 =?
𝑥 𝑖 = 5𝑐𝑚 = 0.05𝑚 = 5 × 10−2 𝑚
𝑥𝑓 = −3𝑐𝑚 = −3 × 10−2 𝑚 (𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑑)

Solution

A. the work done by spring is given by

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Wsp   k  x 2f  xi2 
1
2
   50 N m   3  102 m    5  102 m  
1 2 2

2  
 25 N m  9  104  25  10 4  m 2
  25   16  104  Nm
 400 104
Wsp  0.04 J

B. the work done by the force of friction is

W f  f k S cos   f k S cos180o   f k S , but f k  k FN  k mg

  k mgS
   0.1 0.2  9.8   8 102 
W f  0.016

The net work done on the block is

Wnet  Wspring  W f
  0.04  0.016  J
Wnet  0.024 J

11. A box of mass 𝑚 = 20𝑘𝑔 is to be pushed up the inclined plane with an angle of the incline
𝜃 = 30° by a horizontal force 𝐹 at a constant speed. If the kinetic friction coefficient is 𝜇𝑘 =
0.2. Find the work on the box by the force as the block moves 𝑆 = 15𝑚 up the inclined

Given Required
𝑚 = 20𝑘𝑔 𝑊 =?
𝑣 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡, 𝑎 = 0
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𝑠 = 15𝑚
𝜇𝑘 = 0.2
𝜃 = 30°

Solution

Free body diagram of a block

Where

𝐹𝑥 = 𝐹𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝐹𝑦 = 𝐹𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝐹𝑔𝑥 = 𝑚𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝐹𝑔𝑦 = 𝑚𝑔𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

 Elements in the diagram

𝑥 − 𝑦 =Reference system of orthogonal axes
𝐹𝑓 = frictional force
𝐹𝑔 = Gravitational force (weight of the box)

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𝐹𝑔𝑥 = component of Gravitational force in x- direction

𝐹𝑔𝑦 = component of Gravitational force in y- direction
𝑁𝐹 = Normal force (Reaction of incline’s surface to 𝐹𝑔𝑦 )

𝐹 = Horizontal force
𝐹𝑥 = Component of F in x- direction
𝐹𝑦 = Component of F in y- direction

 We apply Newton’s 2nd law using the free body diagram to identify the force

F x  ma
Fx  Fgx  Ff  ma, but constant speed  a  0
Fx  Fgx  Ff  0
F cos   mg sin    k N F  0 i 
 Summation of a force in y-direction is given by

F y 0  there is no vertical motiom 

FN  Fy  Fgy  0
FN  F sin   mg cos   0
FN  F sin   mg cos   ii 
 Substituting Eq. (ii) into Eq. (ii), we obtain:

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F cos   mg sin    k  F sin   mg cos    0

F cos   mg sin    k F sin    k mg cos   0
F cos   k F sin   mg sin    k mg cos   0
F  cos   k sin    mg sin   k mg cos 
mg sin   k mg cos 
F
 cos   k sin  
mg  sin   k cos  
F   iii 
 cos   k sin  
 20kg  10 m s  0.5   0.2  0.866 
2

0.866   0.2  0.5 
200  0.5  0.1732 
 N
0.866  0.1

 200  0.327   65.4 N
0.766 0.766
F  85.38 N

 Therefore, work done by an inclined plane is given by

W  FS  85.38N 15m   1280.7 J

5.3. Energy

Energy: is the capacity (ability) to do work

It is a scalar physical quantity

Dimension: 𝑀𝐿2 𝑇 −2 it is the same as the work or torque.
Units: joule J

Forms of Energy:

There are several different forms of energy.

These include:

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Kinetic energy, gravitational potential energy, elastic potential energy, heat energy, sound
energy, electrical energy… etc.

5.3.1. Kinetic Energy (KE)

It is the capacity of an object to do work by virtue of its motion.

The energy possessed by a body by virtue of its motion is called kinetic energy.
Kinetic energy depends on frame of reference: The kinetic energy of a person of mass m, sitting
1
in a train moving with speed v, is zero in the frame of train but 𝑚𝑣 2 in the frame of the earth.
2

For an object of mass m and moving with speed v, the kinetic energy is calculated as:

1
KE  mv 2  5.16 
2

 Kinetic energy possessed in terms of linear momentum as follow:

1 2 p
KE  mv , P  mv, v 
2 m
2
1  p
 m 
2 m
1 mp 2

2 m2
p2
KE   5.17 
2m

Various graphs of kinetic Energy

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Work done and kinetic energy are related using the work energy theorem

Work Energy Theorem: states that “work done by a net force is equal to the change in
kinetic energy of the body”.

W  KE , W  Fs cos  , KE  KE f  KE f

W  Fs cos   KE f  KE f

W  Fs cos   m  vf2  vi2 

1
 5.18
2

 Speed increase if the net work done is positive as speed decrease if the net work done is
negative.
 This theorem is valid for a system in presence of all types of forces (external or internal,
conservative or non-conservative).
 If kinetic energy of the body increases, work is positive i.e. body moves in the direction of the
force (or field) and if kinetic energy decreases work will be negative and object will move
opposite to the force (or field).

Examples:

i. In case of vertical motion of body under gravity when the body is projected up, force of gravity
is opposite to motion and so kinetic energy of the body decreases and when it falls down, force
of gravity is in the direction of motion so kinetic energy increases.
ii. When a body moves on a rough horizontal surface, as force of friction acts opposite to motion,
kinetic energy will decrease and the decrease in kinetic energy is equal to the work done against
friction.

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Example

1. A 0.600-kg particle has a speed of 2.00 m/s at point A and kinetic energy of 7.50 J at point B.
what is
A. Its kinetic energy at A?
B. Its speed at B?
C. The total work done on the particle as it moves from A to B?

Given Required

𝑚 = 0.6𝑘𝑔 A. 𝐾𝐸𝐴 =?

vA = 2𝑚/𝑠 B. vB =?

𝐾𝐸𝐵 = 7.5𝐽 C. 𝑊 = ∆𝐾𝐸 =?

Solution

A B C

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W  KE  KEB  KE A  m  v2B  v A2 

1 1 2 1
KE A  mv 2A KEB  mv B
2 2 2
1
  0.6kg   2 ms 
2 2 KEB  mv 2B  7.5 J  1.2 J
2
v 2B 
2 KEB W  6.3J

  0.3kg  4 ms2
2
 m
KE A  1.2 J 2 KEB
vB 
m


 2  7.5 J 
0.6kg
v B  5m / s

2. Prove that the change in kinetic energy of a body is equal to the work done by an external force
acting on the body?

Solution
W  Fs
v f  vi  vi  v f 
 mas, a  & s  vav t   t
t  2 
 v f  vi   vi  v f 
 m  t
 t  2 


1
2

m v f vi  v 2f  vi2  vi v f 
m  v 2f  vi2 
1

2
1 2 1 2
 mv f  mvi
2 2
 KE f  KEi
1 2 1 2
W  KE  KE f  KEi  mv f  mvi
2 2

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3. A car of mass 1,400 kg accelerates from 2 m/s to 24m/s. The force of the engine acting on the
car is 6,000N. Over what distance did the force act?

Given Required

𝑚 = 1,400𝑘𝑔 𝑆 =?
𝑣𝑖 = 2𝑚/𝑠
𝑣𝑓 = 24𝑚/𝑠

𝐹 = 6,000𝑁
Solution

KE  m  v 2f  vi2 
1
2
1
 1400   24    2  
2 2

2
  700  572 
KE  400400 J
W  Fs  KE
KE 400400 J
S   66.73m
F 6000 N

4. A running man has half the kinetic energy of that of a boy of half of his mass. The man speeds
up by 1m/s so as to have same K.E. as that of boy. Find the original speed of the man

Given Required

Mass of man = 𝑚 𝑚 when man speed up by 1m/s or (𝑣𝑚 + 1), vm =?

Velocity of man = 𝑉𝑚
Mass of boy= 𝑚 𝑏
Velocity of boy = 𝑉𝑏
𝑚𝑚
𝑚𝑏 = 2
1
𝐾𝐸𝑚 = 2 𝐾𝐸𝑏

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Solution
1
KEm  KEb
2
1 11  1
mm vm2   mb vb2  , but mb  mm
2 22  2
1 11 1 
mm vm2   mm vb2 
2 22 2 
1 2 1 2
vm  vb
2 8
1 2
vm2  vb
4
vb2  4vm2

vb2  4vm2
vb  2vm i 
 When the man speed up by 1m/s, then we get

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KEm  KEb
1 1
mm vm2  mb vb2 , if v m speed up1 m s
2 2
1 1
mm  vm  1  mb vb2 , mm  2mb & vb2  4vm2
2

2 2
1 1
 2mb  vm  1  mb 4vm2
2

2 2
 vm  1  2vm2
2

 vm  1  2vm2
2

2vm  vm  1

2vm  vm  1

vm  2 1  1 
 1 m  1 m  1 m
vm    s   1.4142  1  s   0.4142  s  2.412 s
m

 2  1     

 And also the speed of boy is given by

vb  2vm  2  2.412  m s  4.824 m s

5. A 300g mass has a velocity of (3𝑖̂ + 4𝑗̂)𝑚/𝑠 at a certain instant. What is its kinetic energy?

Given Required

𝑚 = 300𝑔 = 0.3𝑘𝑔 𝐾𝐸 =?
𝑣 = (3𝑖̂ + 4𝑗̂)𝑚/𝑠

Solution

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1 1
KE  mv 2  mv  v
2 2


1
2
 
 0.3kg  3iˆ  4 ˆj  3iˆ  4 ˆj  m2
s2

1
  0.3  3 3 iˆ  iˆ   4  4  ˆj  ˆj  kg m2 s2
2
1
  0.3 25 J
2
KE  3.75 J

5.3.2. Potential Energy (PE)

It is the energy that is stored in an object due to its position relative to some zero position.
An object possesses gravitational potential energy if it is positioned at a height above (or
below) the zero height.
It is the energy possessed by a body because of its position or configuration.
The potential energy associated only for forces which are called conservative forces.
Conservative forces are forces whose work done is path independent. E.g. gravitational force.
Frictional force is not a conservative force as its work done is not recoverable or retainable.
 Potential energy generally is of three types:
Elastic potential energy,
Electric potential energy and
Gravitational potential energy etc.

Gravitational potential Energy

 Gravitational energy can be gained because of gravitational force.

Gravitational Potential Energy: is the energy of a body due to its position from a given
Height

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GPE  mg h 5.19

Remark!

The work done to move a body upward is equal to the increase in gravitational potential
energy, and the work done to move the body downward is equal to the decrease in
gravitational potential energy of the body.

Gravitational Potential Energy VS Work Done

When an object undergoes vertical displacement, the gravitational force does work on the
object, work done against gravity is equal to the rise in gravitational potential energy of the
object and the work done by the object is equal to the fall in its gravitational potential
energy.
Thus the work done by the object is the negative of the change in gravitational potential
energy.

Wg  Fg h  Fg h cos1800

  Fg h

Wg  mg h  5.20 

 Work done by weight (gravity) on the ball as it falls a distance “h” towards the earth is
positive.

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Wg  mgh  5.21

This equation is valid only for objects near the surface of the Earth, where g is approximately
constant.

Elastic Potential Energy: is the energy of a body due to its configuration

 Elastic Potential Energy: is the energy of a body due to its configuration

 Elastic potential energy is a restoring energy that a spring uses to do work in attaining its
original state of shape or size.

1 2
EPE  kx  5.22 
2

Where k is force constant, x- extension.

The work done by the elastic force is equal to the change in elastic potential

kx f  kxi  k  x 2f  xi2 
1 2 1 2 1
Ws  EPE   5.23
2 2 2

The effective force constant for spring in parallel and spring in series.
Parallel spring

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 This of two parallel spring is equivalent to a single Hoke’s spring, of spring constant k. The
value of k can be found from formula that applies to capacitors connected in parallel in an
electric circuit.

k  k1  k2  5.24
Series spring

 This two system two spring in series is equivalent to a single, of spring constant k. the value
of k can be found from the formula that applies to capacitors connected in series in an electrical
circuit.
1 1 1
 
k k1 k2
1 k1  k2

k k1k2
k1k2
k  5.25
k1  k2

5.3.3. Conservation of Energy

Mechanical Energy (ME): is the sum of kinetic energy and potential energy.
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ME  KE  PE  5.26

Law of conservation of Energy

States that “in the absence of dissipative force, mechanical energy remains constant”.
MEi  ME f
KEi  PEi  KE f  PE f  (Conservation of mechanical energy)
ME  KE  PE  0  5.27 

Work Done and Elastic Potential Energy

If spring is stretched from initial position 𝑥 𝑖 to a final position 𝑥𝑓 then work done = Increment in
elastic potential energy

 Work done by applied force in stretched mass-spring system:

𝑊𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 = 𝑃𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒

𝑊𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 = 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒

Work done by the elastic/restoring force in terms of change in elastic potential energy from
𝑥 𝑖 to 𝑥𝑓 is given by:

Ws  EPE  U   k  x 2f  xi2 
1
 5.28
2

In the absence of external force, including friction total mechanical energy of the mas spring
system at 𝑥 𝑖 and 𝑥𝑓 are equal:
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MEi  ME f
KEi  EPEi  KE f  EPE f
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
mvi  kxi  mv f  kx f  5.29 
2 2 2 2

At maximum displacement (extreme position, 𝑣 = 0, 𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑚𝑎𝑥 ) and at the equilibrium

position ( 𝑣 is maximum, 𝑥 = 0)

MEequilibrium  MEextreme position

1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
mvi  kxi  mv f  kx f
2 2 2 2
1 2 1 1 1 2
mvmax  k  0   m  0   kxmax
2 2 2 2
1 2 1 2
mvmax  kxmax
2 2
2
mvmax  kxmax
2

2
kxmax
v2
max 
m
2
kxmax k
vma   xmax  5.30 
m m

Conservation of Mechanical Energy and Interchange between Kinetic and Gravitational

potential Energy for an Object Rising up Falling Down:

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At point A: 𝑣𝐴 = 0, and ℎ𝐴 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚, then 𝐾𝐸𝐴 = 𝑜 and 𝐺𝑃𝐸𝐴 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚.

At point C: ℎ𝑐 = 0 and 𝑉𝐶 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 then 𝐺𝑃𝐸𝐶 = 0 and 𝐾𝐸𝐶 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚.

Applying conservation of Energy;

ME A  MEB  MEC , if
ME A  MEC
0 0
KE A  GPE A  KEC  GPEC

GPE A  KEC
1
m gh  m v2
2
1 2
gh  v
2
v 2  2 gh

v  2 gh  5.31

Conservation of Mechanical Energy and Interchange between Kinetic and Gravitational

potential Energy For to-and-fro Oscillating Pendulum

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A swinging simple pendulum is an example of conservation of energy.

This is because a swinging (to and fro) simple pendulum is a body whose energy can either
be potential and kinetic energy, or a mixture of potential and kinetic energy.
At every point in the motion of the pendulum, the total mechanical energy is conserved.

h  L  L cos   L 1  cos   5.32

When the pendulum bob is at position B, it has only potential energy (but no kinetic
energy).
As the bob starts moving down from position B to position A, its potential energy goes on
decreasing but its kinetic energy goes on increasing.
When the bob reaches the center position A, it has only kinetic energy (but no potential
energy)
As the bob goes from position A towards position C, its kinetic energy goes on increasing.
On reaching the extreme position C, the bob stops for a very small instant of time. So that
position C, the bob has only potential energy (but no kinetic Energy)

From conservation of Energy, we have;

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ME A  MEB  MEC , if we take

ME A  MEB
0 0
KE A  GPE A  KEB  GPEB
GPE A  KEB
1
m gh  m v2
2
v 2  2 gh, h  L 1  cos  

V  2 gh  2 gL 1  cos    5.33

Conservative and dissipative forces (non-conservative)

Work Done by Conservative Forces

Conservative force: is a force that does not work when a body moves on a closed path.
e.g. Gravitational force, restoring(spring) forces, electrostatic forces
Work done by conservative force is path independent i.e., the work done along path ‘a’ and
‘b’ is the same and equal to the change in potential Energy.
If the net work done by a force does not depend on the path taken between two points, we
say that the force is a conservative force.

Completely recoverable. i.e., the magnitude of the work done in the upward or downward
direction is the same.
For such forces it is also true that the net work done on a particle moving on around any closed
path is zero.
Mechanical energy is conserved ∆𝑀𝐸 = 0. i.e., the work done when the body come back to
its initial position is zero.

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ME  KE  PE  0 5.34

Conservative forces have these two equivalent properties:

1. The work done by a conservative force on a particle moving between any two points is
independent of the path taken by the particle.
2. The work done by a conservative force on a particle moving through any closed path is
zero. (A closed path is one in which the beginning and end points are identical).

 A force is a conservative force if the network it does on a particle moving around every closed
path is zero.

Example: Work done by gravitation for a ball thrown upward that then falls back down

Wnet  ME  Wg  Waa  Wab  Wba

Wnet  KE  PE  0

KE  m  v 2  v 2   0,  vi  v f  v
1
2
PE  mgh  mgh  0

Work done by non-Conservative Forces

Dissipative force

Dissipative force that does work when a body moves on closed path.
Examples: friction force, drag force (air or liquid resistance).
Non-conservative forces acting within a system cause a change in the mechanical energy of
the system.

ME  KE  PE  W f   fd  5.35

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Remark!

 Work done by dissipative force is path (length) dependent. i.e., work done by frictional force
along path ‘a’ is less than along path ‘b’.

 Work done by dissipative force is not recoverable. i.e., there is lose, mechanical energy is not
conserved.

 The loss in mechanical energy is equal to the work done by against friction.
 Mechanical energy is only conserved when no dissipative or non- conservative force act on a
body
Strategy for solving problem using conservation of energy principle
1. Select a horizontal level for zero gravitational potential energy.
2. Define two points: one as an initial point and the other as a final point.
3. Find the potential energy and kinetic energy at these two points.
4. If there is a spring, then the total potential energy of the system is 𝑷𝑬 = 𝑮𝑷𝑬 + 𝑬𝑷𝑬 or
𝑼 = 𝑼𝒈 + 𝑼𝒔.
5. If there are friction forces, then calculate 𝑾𝒏𝒄. If not then 𝑾𝒏𝒄 = 𝟎.
6. Now use Eq. (5.34) and Eq. (5.35) to find the unknown.

Example

1. A 3.00-kg crate slides down a ramp. The ramp is 1.00m in length and inclined at an angle of
30.0°, as shown in the figure below. The crate starts from rest at the top, experiences a constant
friction force of magnitude 5.00 N, and continues to move a short distance on the horizontal
floor after it leaves the ramp. Use energy methods to determine the speed of the crate at the
bottom of the ramp.

Given Required

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𝑚 = 3𝑘𝑔, vi = 0, ℎ𝑓 = 0, ℎ𝑖 = 0.5𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓 = 5𝑁 𝑣𝑓 =?

Solution

Since the non-conservative force (friction force) exists in the system,

ME  KE  PE  Wnc

KE f  KEi  PE f  PEi   f k d
1
2 mv f2  12 mvi2  mgh f  mghi   f k d
1
2 mv f2  mghi   f k d
1
2 mv f2  mghi  f k d
v f2  2
m  mghi  f k d 
2
v  ghi  f k d 
m


2 
3kg   
3kg  9.8 sm2  0.5m   5 N 1m  

2 2
 14.7  5  m2 s2   9.7 
3 3
v  2.54m / s

2. A 5kg block moving at a velocity of 3m/s move up a rap with an incline of 25°. The coefficient
of friction between the block and ramp is 0.5. How far along the incline does the block move
before it stops? (take 𝑔 = 10𝑚/𝑠 2 , cos25° = 0.906, 𝑠𝑖𝑛25° = 0.423)

Given Required
𝑚 = 12𝑘𝑔 𝑑 =?
𝑣𝑖 = 3𝑚/𝑠
𝑣𝑓 = 0
𝜇 = 0.5
ℎ𝑖 = 0

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𝑂𝑝𝑝. 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑑
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = =
ℎ𝑦 ℎ
ℎ = 𝑑𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
Solution

Net force in the y direction is given by

mg cos  N F  0
N F  mg cos

Now,appling conservation of Energy;

ME  KE  GPE  Wnc
KE  GPE  Wnc
0
1 2 1 0
mvB  mv A2  mghB  mghA   F f d , F f   N F d
2 2
1 2
 mv A  mghB    N F d , but N F  mg cos  & hB  d sin 
2
1
 m v A2  mgd sin     m g cos  d
2
1 2
 v A  gd sin     g cos  d
2
1
gd sin    g cos  d  v A2
2
2 gd  sin    cos    v A2
v A2
d
2 g  sin    cos  
3 m s 
2 2
9m
d  s2
 0.403m
 2  10 s  0.906   0.5  0.423
m
2 22.35 m s 2
3. A 4kg block is given an initial speed of 8m/s at the bottom of 30° incline plan. The frictional
force that retards, its motion is 25N. if the block is directed up the inclined plan how far will it
moves before it stops?

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Solution
ME  KE  GPE  Wnc
KE  GPE  Wnc   F f d
0
1 2 1 0
mvB  mv A2  mghB  mghA   Ff d , hB  d sin 
2 2
1 2
 mv A  mgd sin    F f d
2
1
mgd sin   F f d  mv A2
2
2d  mg sin   F f   mv A2
mv A2
d
2  mg sin   F f 
 4kg 8 m s 
2 2
256 m s
d   3.66m
2

 2   4kg  10 m s   sin 25  15 N  70 m s

2 2

4. A bead slides without friction around at loop-the-loop apparatus as shown below. The bead is
released from rest at a height ℎ = 3.5𝑅 . What is its speed at point B?

Given Required

𝑣𝐴 = 0 𝑣𝐵 =?

ℎ𝐴 = 3.5𝑅

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ℎ𝐵 = 2𝑅

Solution
Applying conservation of Energy
ME A  MEB
0
KE A  GPE A  KEB  GPEB
GPE A  KEB  GPEB
1
m ghA  m vB2  m ghB
2
1
ghA  vB2  ghB
2
2 ghA  vB2  2 ghB
vB2  2 ghA  2 ghB
 2 g  3.5 R   2 g  2 R 
 7 gR  4 gR
 g  7 R  4R 

vB2  3 gR

vB  3 gR

5. A 7.26-kg bowling ball hangs from the end of a 2.5-m rope. The ball is pulled back until the
rope makes an angle 45° with the vertical.

A. What is the increase in the ball’s gravitational potential energy when it is lifted?
B. How fast will the ball be moving at bottom of its swing?
C. If the ball is released from rest and swings downward like pendulum, how much kinetic energy
will the ball have at the bottom of its swing?

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Given Required

𝑚 = 7.26𝑘𝑔 A. 𝐺𝑃𝐸 =?
𝐿 = 2.5𝑚 B. 𝐾𝐸 =?
𝜃 = 45° C. 𝑉 =?
ℎ = 𝐿 − 𝐿𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝐿(1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 )
𝑔 = 10𝑚/𝑠 2
𝑐𝑜𝑠45° = 𝑠𝑖𝑛45° = 0.707

Solution

A. Gravitational potential energy at point B is given by

GPE  mgh

 mgL 1  cos 45o  , L  2.5m, cos 45o  0.707

  7.26kg  10 m s 2   2.5m 1  0.707 

  7.26kg  10 m s 2   2.5m  0.293

GPE  53.18 J

B. From conservation of Energy, we have;

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ME A  MEB
0 0
KE A  GPE A  KEB  GPEB

GPE A  KEB
1
m gh  m v2
2
v 2  2 gh, h  L 1  cos  

V  2 gh  2 gL 1  cos   , but L 1  cos     2.5m 1  cos 45    2.5m  0.93

V  2  10 m s   2.5m  0.93 

2 46.5 m
2

s2
 6.82 m s
C. Kinetic energy at point B is given by

1
KEB  mvB2 , where vB  2 gL 1  cos    6.82 m s
2
1
   
2 2
 m 2 gL 1  cos   , or 2 gL 1  cos     6.82 m s 
2


1
2

m 2 gL 1  cos   
KEB  mgL 1  cos  

  7.26kg  10 m s 2   2.5m 1  0.707 

KEB  53.18 J
6. A rock of mass m is thrown horizontally off a building from a height h, as shown above. The speed
of the rock as it leaves the thrower’s hand at the edge of the building is 𝑣0 . What is the kinetic
energy of the rock just before it hits the ground?

Solution

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 By using conservation of Energy

MEtop  MEbot
0
KEt  GPEt  KEb  GPEb , because, hb  0

1 2
KEb  mvo  mgh
2
7. A 0.2kg stone is thrown horizontally from the top of a building with a speed of 15m/s. what
is the kinetic energy of the ball just after 2sec?

Given Required
𝑣𝑜𝑥 = 15𝑚/𝑠 𝐾𝐸𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚 =?
𝑣𝑜𝑦 = 𝑜
𝑚 = 0.2𝑘𝑔
𝑡 = 2𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑔 = 10𝑚/𝑠 2
Solution
From kinematics equation for horizontal projection, the height of projection is given by
1 2
h  Voy t  gt , but Voy  0
2
1 2 1
 gt    10 m s 2   2 sec 
2

2 2
h  20m i 
By using conservation of Energy

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MEtop  MEbot
0
KEt  GPEt  KEb  GPEb , because, hb  0

1 2
KEb  mvo  mgh
2
1
  0.2kg 15 m s    0.2kg 10 m s  20m 
2

 0.2kg   225 m2 s2   40kg m2 s2

1

2
 22.52kg m  40kg m
2 2

s2 s2

KEb  65.5 J

8. A ball of mass 2kg is thrown up with a speed of 10m/s. Find the potential energy of the ball
at the highest point?

Given Required

𝑣𝑜𝑦 = 10𝑚/𝑠 𝐺𝑃𝐸 =? At ℎ𝑚𝑎𝑥

𝑣𝑦 = 𝑣𝑓 = 0, at ℎ𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑚 = 2𝑘𝑔
Solution

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 From Kinematic equations for vertical projection, maximum height 𝒉𝒎𝒂𝒙 is given
by

10 m s 
2
vo2y 100 m s
2

hmax     5m i 
2

2g  2  10 m s  20 m s
2 2

 Apply conservation of Energy

ME  KE  GPE  0
KEmax  KEmin  GPEmax  GPEmin  0
0
1 2 1
mv y  mvoy2  GPEmax  GPEmin 0  0, b / c hbottom  0 & at hmax , v y  0,
2 2
1
 mvoy2  GPEmax  0
2
1
GPEmax  mvoy2
2
1
  2kg 10 m s 
2

2
 1kg 100 m s 
GPEmax  100kgJ
or
GPEmax  mghmax   2kg  10 m s2   5m   100 J

 We know that when the ball reaches the highest point, its kinetic energy is converted into
potential energy.

9. A ball is thrown vertically upwards with a velocity v and an initial kinetic energy KE. When
half way to the top of its flight, it has a velocity and kinetic energy respectively of:

Solution

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1
Half way you gained half of the height so you gained of potential energy.
2
1
Therefore, you must have lost of the initial energy.
2

1 1
KE f  KEi  KE
2 2
1 2 1  mv 2 
mv f   
2 2 2 

v2
v 2f 
2
v2
v 2f 
2
v
vf 
2
v 1
 vf  , KE f  KE
2 2

10. A block of mass 3.0 kg is hung from a spring, causing it to stretch 12 cm at equilibrium, as
shown. The 3.0 kg block is then replaced by a 4.0 kg block, and the new block is released from
the position shown, at which the spring is un stretched. How far will the 4.0 kg block fall before
its direction is reversed?

Solution

Use Hooke’s law in the first situation with the 3kg mass to find the spring constant K

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Fsp  k x
mg  k x

mg  3kg  10 m s2 
k   250 N m
x 0.12m

Now do energy conservation with the second scenario (note that the initial height of drop will
be the same as the stretch ∆𝑥)

GPEtop  EPEbot
1
mgh  k x 2 , but h  x
2
1
mg x  k x 2
2
1
mg  k x
2
2mg  k x

2mg 2  4kg  10 m s 2  80

x    m  0.32m  32cm
k 250 N m 250

11. A block of mass 12kg slides from rest down frictionless at an angle of 37° incline and is
stopped by a strong spring with 𝑘 = 3 × 104 𝑁/𝑚. The block slides 3m from the point of
release to the point where it comes to rest against the spring. When the block comes to rest,
how far has the spring been compressed? (use 𝑔 = 10𝑚/𝑠 2 , cos37° = 0.8, sin37° =0.6 )

Given Required

𝑘 = 3 × 104 𝑁/𝑚 ∆𝑥 =?

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𝑥𝑖 = 0
𝑑 = 3𝑚
𝑜𝑝𝑝.𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 ℎ
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = =𝑑
ℎ𝑦𝑝

ℎ = 𝑑𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
Solution
Apply conservation of Energy
GPEtop  EPEbottom
1
mgh  k x 2
2
1
mgh  k x 2
2
2mgh  k x 2
2mgh
x 2  , h  d sin 37 o
k
2mg  d sin 37 o 
x 
k
 2 12kg  10 m s   3m  0.6 
2

 3  10 4 N
m 
x  0.12m

12. A block of mass 12kg is released from rest on a frictionless incline of angle 𝜃 = 30°. Below
the block is a spring that can be compressed 2cm by the force of 270N. The block momentarily
stops when it compresses the spring by 5.5cm. ( (use 𝑔 = 10𝑚/𝑠 2 , cos30° = 0.866, sin30° =
0.5)

A. How far does the block move down the incline from its rest positon to this stopping point?
B. What is the speed of the block just as it touches the spring?

Given Required

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∆𝑥 = 2𝑐𝑚 = 0.02𝑚 𝑥𝑓 = 𝑥 =?
𝐹 = 270𝑁
𝐹 270𝑁
𝑘 = ∆𝑥 = = 13500𝑁/𝑚
0.02𝑚

𝑑 = 3𝑚
𝑥 = ∆𝑥 = 5.5𝑐𝑚 = 0.055𝑚 → Compressed at bottom by block
Solution

A. Applying conservation of Energy at point A and C;

E A  MEC
0 0
KE A  GPE A  KEC  GPEC
GPE A  GPEC
1
mgh  k x 2 , x  0.055m
2
2mgh  k x 2 ,
k x 2
h
2mg
13500 N m  0.055m 
2


2 12kg 10  m s 2

40.8375
h  0.170m i 
240
opp.side h
sin   
hypo dx
h   d  x  sin 
h 0.170
d  x  o
 m  0.34m  ii 
sin 30 0 .5

B. We use conservation of energy when the speed of the block just as it touches the spring at
point B is given by

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Opp.side Y
sin   
hyp d
Y  d sin  , but from Eq.(ii),
d  x  0.34m
d  0.34m  x, but x  x  0.055m
d  0.34m  0.055m  0.285m  0.29m
Y  d sin   0.29sin 30o
ME A  MEC
0 0
KE A  GPE A  KEc  GPEC

1
m gY  m vB2
2
2 gY  vB2
vB2  2 g  d sin  

vB  2 g  d sin 30o 

  2  10 m s   0.29m  0.5 

2

 2.9 m
2

s2

vB  1.70 m s

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5.4. Power

Power of a body is defined as the rate at which the body can do the work or time rate of energy
is transferred.
The average power is given by:
w E KE PE
pav      5.36 
t t t t

The instantaneous power P is defined as the limiting value of the average power as
𝛥𝑡 approaches zero.

lim w
Pin 
t  0 t
lim F r

t  0 t
lim r dr
F F
t  0 t dt
Pin  F v  5.37 

Mechanical power can be taken as one of the applications of dot product.

P  F v  Fx v x  Fy v y  Fz v z  Fv cos   5.38

Example

1. A truck of mass 1000 kg accelerates uniformly from rest to a velocity of 15 m/s in 5 seconds.
Calculate the average power of the engine during this period, neglect friction.

Given Required

𝑚 = 1000𝑘𝑔 𝑃 =?
𝑣𝑖 = 0
𝑣𝑓 = 15𝑚/𝑠
𝑡 = 5𝑠𝑒𝑐

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Solution

 From work energy theorem

W  KE

m  v 2f  vi2 
1

2
1
 1000kg  15 m s   0 
2

2
  500kg   225 m 
2

s2

W  112500 gk m
2

s2
2
W 112500kg m
P  s2
 22500W  22.5 KW
t 5sec

2. A 1500kg car accelerated uniformly from rest to a speed of 20m/s in 4 sec. find the
instantaneous power delivered by the engine at𝑡 = 2𝑠𝑒𝑐?
Given Required
𝑚 = 1500𝑘𝑔 𝑃 =? 𝑎𝑡 𝑡 = 2𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑣𝑖 = 0
𝑣𝑓 = 20𝑚/𝑠

𝑡 = 4𝑠𝑒𝑐

Solution

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P  FV
V V f  Vi 20 m s  0
a    5 m s2
t t 4sec
F  ma  1500kg   5 m s 2   7500 N
V  V f  Vi  at , t  2sec

 20 m s   5 m s2   2sec 
 20 m s  10 m s
V  30 m s
P  FV   7500 N  30 m s   225000W  225 KW

Review question

1. When a body moves a constant speed along a circle

A. No work is done on it
B. No acceleration is produced in the body
C. No force acts on the body
D. Its velocity remains constant
2. A particle moves from 𝑟𝑖 = 3𝑖̂ + 2𝑗̂ − 6𝑘̂ to position 𝑟𝑓 = 14𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂ + 3𝑘̂ under the action of
force (4𝑗̂ + 𝑗̂ + 3𝑘̂)𝑁. The work done will be
A. 100J B. 50J C. 200J D. 75J
3. A particle moves under the effect of a force 𝐹 = 𝑐𝑥 from 𝑥 = 0 to 𝑥 = 𝑥 1. The work done in
the process is
1
A. 𝑐𝑥 12 B. 2 𝑐𝑥 12 C. 𝑐𝑥 1 D. zero

4. A force F at an angle θ above the horizontal is used to pull a heavy suitcase of weight mg a
distance d along a level floor at constant velocity. The coefficient of friction between the floor
and the suitcase is μ. The work done by the frictional force is:

A. – 𝐹𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 B. – 𝜇 𝐹𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 C. −𝜇𝑚𝑔𝑑 D. −𝜇𝑚𝑔𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃

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5. A 2 kg ball is attached to a 0.80 m string and whirled in a horizontal circle at a constant speed of 6
m/s. The work done on the ball during each revolution is:

A. 90 J B. 72 J C). 16 J D. zero

6. A football is kicked off the ground a distance of 50 yards downfield. Neglecting air resistance,
which of the following statements would be INCORRECT when the football reaches the
highest point?

A. all of the balls original kinetic energy has been changed into potential energy
B. the ball’s horizontal velocity is the same as when it left the kickers foot
C. the ball will have been in the air one-half of its total flight time
D. the vertical component of the velocity is equal to zero

7. A pendulum bob of mass m on a cord of length L is pulled sideways until the cord makes an
angle θ with the vertical as shown in the figure to the right. The change in potential energy of
the bob during the displacement is:

A. 𝑚𝑔𝐿 (1–𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃)
B. 𝑚𝑔𝐿 (1–𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃)
C. 𝑚𝑔𝐿𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
D. 𝑚𝑔𝐿 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃

8. A child pushes horizontally on a box of mass m which moves with constant speed v across a
horizontal floor. The coefficient of friction between the box and the floor is 𝜇. At what rate
does the child do work on the box?

A. 𝜇𝑚𝑔𝑣 B. 𝑚𝑔𝑣 C. 𝜇𝑚𝑔/𝑣 D. 𝜇𝑚𝑔/𝑣

9. What is the kinetic energy of a satellite of mass m that orbits the Earth, of mass M, in a circular
orbit of radius R?
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1 𝐺𝑀𝑚 1 𝐺𝑀𝑚 1 𝐺𝑀𝑚 𝐺𝑀𝑚

A. B. C. 2 D.
2 𝑅 4 𝑅 𝑅2 𝑅2

10. A rock of mass m is thrown horizontally off a building from a height h, as shown above. The
speed of the rock as it leaves the thrower’s hand at the edge of the building is v0 . What is the
kinetic energy of the rock just before it hits the ground?
1
A. 𝑚𝑔ℎ C. 2 𝑚𝑣𝑜2 − 𝑚𝑔ℎ
1 1
B. 𝑚𝑣𝑜2 D. 2 𝑚𝑣𝑜2 + 𝑚𝑔ℎ
2

11. Which one of the situations is an example of work done?

A. Lifting a 200g book from the floor to a 1m high table.
B. Holding a bag of arrange and banana while standing still talking to a friend
C. Pushing the wall of a class-room with a force of 100N
D. All of these
12. The work done against in lifting an object through a vertical distance of 50cm with a constant
force of 40N is:
A. 2000J B. 200J C. 20J D. 2J
13. The work done in carrying a 100kg sack of “Teff” from a house to mill is zero. What is the
possible reason?
A. The force applied is zero
B. The displacement is zero
C. The force applied and displacement are at right angles to each other.
D. All of these

Answer key

1. A 6. A 11. A
2. A 7. A 12. C
3. B 8. A 3. C
4. A 9. A
5. D 10. D

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Chapter six

6. Oscillation and waves

6.1. Oscillatory motion

I. Periodic motion

 Any motion that repeats itself by moving back and forth over a fixed (the same) path in equal
time intervals is known as periodic motion.
 Any motion which repeats itself in equal (regular) intervals of time is called period motion.
 The object returns to a given position after a fixed time interval

Examples of period motion

Motion of planets around the sun

Motion of the pendulum of a wall clock.
Motion of hands of clock.
Motion electron around the nucleus.

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Motion of a ball in a bowl

Motion of liquid in a U tube
Uniform circular motion.

Time period of motion

 The constant interval of time after which the motion is repeated is called time period.

Example

Time period of motion of hour’s hand of a clock is 12hours.

The revolution of earth around the sun is a periodic motion. Its period of revolution is
one year

Oscillatory (vibratory) motion

 If a body is moving back and forth, up and down repeatedly about a mean (equilibrium)
position, it is said to be possess oscillatory or vibratory motion.

 A to and fro (or back and forth) motion on the same path is an oscillatory motion.

Examples of oscillatory motion

Motion of the pendulum of a clock.

Vibrations of the string of a sitar etc.
The motion of the prongs of a tuning fork
The motion of a ball in a bowl
The motion of needle of a sewing machine
The motion of a mass hung on a spring

 Some other example of oscillatory motion are

The motion of molecules in a solid around fixed lattice sites,

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The perpetual motion of atoms with molecules

Motion of electric and magnetic fields in an electromagnetic waves

What is the difference between periodic motion and oscillatory motion?

 Consider the motion of the planets around the sun which is only a period motion because a
planet rotates in a circular motion around the sun. The planets do not move back and forth, to
and fro, up and down about a mean position.
 Circular motion is only periodic motion and not oscillatory motion.

Consider the motion of a pendulum that is both oscillatory motion and period motion which
moves to and fro (or back and forth) and this motion repeats in equal intervals of time.

Oscillatory motion is always periodic motion but period motion may or may not be oscillatory
motion.

6.1.1. Simple harmonic motion

Simple harmonic motion (SHM) is aperiodic motion in which a particle moves equal distance
from its equilibrium position.
A special kind of periodic motion occurs in mechanical system when the force acting on the
object is proportional to position of the object relative to some equilibrium position.
If the force is always directed towards the equilibrium position, the motion is called simple
harmonic motion (SHM).
It is special kind of periodic motion, due to linear restoring force (𝐹𝑠 ) = −𝑘𝑥 which obeys
Hooke’s law.
The force that act on the particle is called restoring force, which is always directed towards the
equilibrium position.
SHM is a periodic motion in the absence of friction caused by restoring force.
SHM occurs when linear restoring force acts in order to return a system to equilibrium position.

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Remark

When the restoring force is directly proportional to the displacement from equilibrium, the
oscillation is called simple harmonic motion (SHM).
If there is no friction in harmonic motions, then no energy will be lost and the oscillation will
continue indefinitely. This kind of motion is known as simple harmonic motion.

Example

A motion of mass-spring system.

The mass oscillate back and forth is due to linear restoring force of the spring

Figure: A horizontal mass–spring system

If an object of mass undergoing SHM displaced by a distance x from its equilibrium position
at time t, the restoring force is given by:
F  x
F  kx
ma  kx
k k
a x , where  2  ,   2 f , f  frequency
m m
k
a x    2 x    2 f  x  acceleration in SHM  6.1
2

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Period, frequency and amplitude for a mass spring system

Figure: Variation of displacement with time for simple harmonic motion

Period (T): is the time required to complete one full cycle of oscillation.

2 k k
T , 2  , 
 m m
2 m
T  2
k k
m
2 m
T  2  6.2 
 k

Frequency (𝒇 ): is the number of cycle or oscillation completed per second.

1  1 k
f    6.3
T 2 2 m

Amplitude (A): is the maximum displacement of the particle from the equilibrium position.
Equilibrium position is un stretched or rest position of particle defined by 𝑥 = 0
The object oscillates between 𝑥 = −𝐴 and 𝑥 = 𝐴.
Displacement: the distance moved in a specific direction

Acceleration in SHM

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The acceleration in SHM is proportional to the displacement (𝑥)but opposite in direction to

its displacement.
The acceleration is always towards the equilibrium position.

 The acceleration is maximum when the spring is most extended (extreme position)from the
equilibrium position, i.e.,
k
amax   A   2 A , when x  A  6.4 
m

 The acceleration is maximum when the spring is most extended (extreme position)from the
equilibrium position towards the left side. i.e.,

k
amax   A   2 A , when x   A  6.5 
m

 In general, at amplitude position, acceleration is maximum and at this point the restoring force
is also largest (maximum).
k
a A    2 A   2 f  A  6.6 
2

m
Fnet    m  amax   6.7 

Restoring force is the force that always acts in a direction opposite to that of displacement from
the mean position but is directly proportional to it.
Restoring force is maximum at extreme positions and minimum at the mean position

Acceleration in equilibrium position at 𝑥 = 0 is zero and the net force also zero.
Acceleration and resultant force at any position is given by

k
a x    2 x   2 f  x  6.8
2

m
F   ma   2 x   kx  6.9 

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Equation of simple harmonic motion

 Simple harmonic motion SHM is an oscillation that described by a sinusoidal function. All
system that undergo SHM can be described by the same functional form.

 Sinusoidal: is an oscillation that can be described mathematically using sine or cosine

functions

The equation of displacement, velocity and acceleration in simple harmonic motion

1. Displacement – versus—time graph in SHM

 Which equation for displacement in simple harmonic motion is correct,

𝒙 = 𝑨𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝝎𝒕) 𝒐𝒓 𝒙 = 𝑨𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝝎𝒕)?

Both are correct! In fact, both represents the same harmonic motion. The only difference
between the two is of time that is when we started observing the motion.
Consider a simple pendulum swinging, executing simple harmonic motion.

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Figure: Oscillations of an object

Let say, I started measuring it’s time period when it was at one of the extreme positions. The
displacement-time graph according to me will be similar to that of a cosine graph.
You start measuring the time period or same pendulum when it was at its mean (equilibrium)
position, you will make a displacement time graph that of a sine graph.

 Displacement that oscillates in time can be given by

 2 t   2 t 
x  A sin   or x  A cos    6.10
 T   T 

 Timing starts with system limits equilibrium position or (if the oscillators stars from the limit
of oscillation at 𝑥 = 0), we use sine;

 2 t  1
x  A sin   , where T 
 T  f
 2 t 
x  A sin    A sin  2 ft   6.11
 T 

 When timing starts with system at its maximum displacement or if the oscillators stars from
the limit of oscillation at 𝑥 = 𝐴, we use cosine;

 2 t 
x  A cos  2 ft   A cos    6.12
 T 

Comparison of SHM with circular motion

Displacement in SHM

 The displacement of a particle executing SHM at instant is defined as the distance of particle
from the mean position at that instant.

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 Simple harmonic motion is also defined the projection of uniform circular motion of any
diameter of circle of reference.
There is a very strong analogy between circular motion and simple harmonic motion. Consider
a particle moving with constant angular velocity 𝜔 in a circle of radius A.
As the particle rotates on the circle, the angle 𝜃 that the line OP makes with the x axis changes
with time and projection of P on the x-axis, labeled point OM moves back and forth along the
axis with SHM.

 If the projection of taken on Y- axis, then from the figure:

From the above diagram, the height (Y) from ON is given as

opp.side
sin  
hyp.
y
sin  
A
y  A sin   6.13

Angular displacement (𝝎): is the rate of change angle turned with time


t
  t  6.14 

Substituting Eq. (6.14) into Eq. (6.13), we obtain:

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y  A sin t  ,   2 f
1
 A sin  2 ft  , f 
T
 2 t 
 A sin  
 T 
 2 t 
y  A sin t   A sin  2 ft   A sin    6.15 
 T 

Remark!

𝑦 = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡): when the time is noted from the instant when the vibrating particle is at mean
position.
𝑦 = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑡): when the time is noted from the instant when the vibrating particle is at
extreme position.
𝑦 = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡 ± 𝜙): when the vibrating particle is 𝜙 phase leading or lagging from the mean
position.
The direction of displacement is always away from the equilibrium position; particle is moving
away from or in coming towards the equilibrium position
If the projection of P is taken on x- axis then equation of SHM can be given as

 2 t 
x  A cos t     A cos      A cos  2 ft     6.16
 T 

Therefore, the height Y of point P going round in a circle and the displacement x of an object
performing SHM {Eq. (6.11)} are same;

 2 t 
x  A sin    A sin  2 ft   A sin t   6.17 
 T 

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Figure: displacement versus time graph of simple harmonic motion

2. Velocity versus time in simple harmonic motion

Velocity can be found as the gradient of the displacement–time graph.

The velocity of the oscillating mass is the rate of change of displacement. It becomes zero
at the limits of the oscillation. For example, at the top of a pendulum’s swing.
The velocity at any time is the gradient of the displacement time graph at that time

d d
v x   A sin t 
dt dt
 2   2 t 
v  A cos t   A  2 f  cos  2 ft   A   cos    6.18 
 T   T 

Figure: velocity versus time graph of simple harmonic motion

Velocity in terms of displacement in SHM

From Eq. (6.13) we have,

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v  A cos t 

v 2  A2 2 cos 2 t   6.19 

And from Eq. (6.18), we have

x  A sin t 

x 2  A2 sin 2 t 

x 2 2  A2 2 sin 2 t   6.20 

Add Eq. (6.19) and Eq. (4.20), we obtain:

v 2  x 2 2  A2 2 cos 2 t   A2 2 sin 2 t 

 A2 2 cos 2 t   sin 2 t  

1

v x   A
2 2 2 2 2

v 2  A2 2  x 2 2

v 2   2  A2  x 2 

v   2  A2  x 2 

v   A 2
 x2   6.21

Therefore, velocity of simple harmonic motion is equal to:

v  Acos t    A 2
 x2   6.22 

 The nature (behavior ) of velocity of the oscillating mass, at three position in SMH

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A. At equilibrium position (𝑥 = 0, 𝑡 = 𝑜), velocity is maximum.

The maximum velocity occurs when the oscillating object passes through the equilibrium
position. The gradient of the line is at its greatest when it passes through the equilibrium
position therefore the velocity is greatest at this point.
v max  A cos t  t  0,

 A cos  0  , cos 00  1
v max   A
or

v   A2  x 2 , x  0

v max   A2   A  6.23

B. At amplitude position (at extreme or maximum displacement 𝑥 = ±𝐴), the velocity is zero.

At the maximum displacement (the amplitude) the gradient is zero – consequently the
velocity is zero.

v   A2  x 2 , if x  A

V   A2  A2
V 0  6.24 

C. At any position x.

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v   A2  x 2  6.25

3. Acceleration versus time graph in simple harmonic motion

Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity, or the gradient of the velocity time graph.
This can be shown to give

  A cos t  
dv d
a
dt dt
  A  sin t  

a   A 2 sin t   6.26 

Figure: acceleration versus time graph of simple harmonic motion

The acceleration is always proportional and opposite in sign to the displacement from
equilibrium.

amax   2 A, happens when sin t   1  6.27 

Remark!

 The displacement, velocity and acceleration of simple harmonic motion in three

position:

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A. At equilibrium position (𝒙 − 𝟎)
Velocity is maximum, v𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ±𝜔𝐴
Acceleration is zero
The net force is zero
B. At amplitude position (𝒙 = ±𝑨)
Velocity is zero
𝑘
Acceleration is maximum, 𝑎𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ± 𝑚 𝐴

Force is maximum, 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ±𝑘𝐴

C. At any position x
Velocity: 𝑣 = ±𝜔√𝐴2 − 𝑥 2
Acceleration: 𝑎 = ±𝜔2 𝑥
Force : 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 = ±𝑚𝜔2 𝑥 = ±𝑘𝑥

Characteristic of simple harmonic motion

 The amplitude A is constant

 The frequency and period are independent of the amplitude.
 The fluctuating quantity can be expressed in terms of sinusoidal function of a single
frequency.
For simple harmonic motion to occur;

 There must be a stable equilibrium position

 There must be no dissipation of energy
 The acceleration is proportional to the displacement and opposite in direction

Example

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1. A particle undergoes SHM with a time period of 2 seconds. In how much time will it travel
from its mean position to a displacement equal to half of its amplitude?

Given Required

𝐴
𝑇 = 2𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑡 =?, when 𝑥 = 2

𝑥 = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝜔𝑡)
Solution
A
x  A sin t  , x 
2
A
 A sin t 
2
1
 sin t 
2

t  sin   12   300  300  180 
o rad
6
 2
t  , where  
6 T
2 t 

T 6
2t 1

T 6
12t  T
T 2sec 1
 t   sec
12 12 6

2. The displacement of a particle executing SHM is given by 𝑥 = 0.25sin(200t)𝑐𝑚. the

maximum speed of the particle is:

Given Required
𝑥 = 0.25sin(200t)𝑐𝑚 v𝑚𝑎𝑥 =?
𝜔 = 200𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠
𝐴 = 0.25𝑐𝑚
Solution

vmax   A   200 rad s  0.25cm   50 cm s

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3. The amplitude of a simple harmonic oscillator is A and speed at the mean is 𝑣𝑜 . The speed of
𝐴
the oscillator at position 𝑐 = is:
√3

Given Required

𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑣𝑜 = 𝜔𝐴 𝑣 =?
𝐴 = Amplitude
𝐴
𝑥=
√3

Solution
v   A  x2 2

 
2
  A2  A
3

  A2  A2
3

 3 A2  A2
3

 2 A2
3

 A 2
3 , where  A  vo

vo 2
v
3

4. 1 × 10−20 𝑘𝑔 particle is vibrating with simple harmonic motion with a period of 1 × 10−5
second and the maximum speed of 1 × 103 m/s. the maximum displacement of the particle
from the mean position is?

Given Required

𝑚 = 1 × 10−20 𝑘𝑔 𝑥 = 𝐴 =?

𝑇 = 1 × 10−5 𝑠𝑒𝑐

vmax = 1 × 103 m/s

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Solution
v max   A
vmax
A

2  2  3.14 
  5
 6.28  105 rad
T 110 sec sec
1  10 3 m s
A
6.28 105 rad
sec
 0.159 1035 m
 0.159 102 m
A  1.59 103 m  1.59mm

5. The amplitude of a particle executing simple harmonic motion with frequency of 60Hz is
0.01m. the maximum value of the acceleration of the particle is
Given Required

𝑓 = 60𝐻𝑧 = 60/𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑎𝑚𝑎𝑥 =?

𝐴 = 0.01𝑚

Solution

amax   2 A

amax   2 A

  2 f  A
2

 4 2 f 2 A

  4   2   sec   0.01m 
60 2

  4   2     0.01m 
3600
s2

amax  144 2 m s2

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6. The acceleration of a particle performing SHM is 12𝑐𝑚/𝑠 2 at a distance of 3cm from the mean
position. Its time period is?

Given Required

𝑎 = 12𝑐𝑚/𝑠 2 𝑇 =?
𝑥 = 3𝑐𝑚

Solution

a   2 x
a   2 x   2 x
a  2x
  2T  x
2

a 
2  x
2

2
T

T 
2  x
2
2
a

 2  2 x
 a

T  2 x
a

T   2  3.14  3cm
12 cm 2
s

  6.28  1
4 sec 2

  6.28  0.25 sec 2

T   6.28  0.5sec   3.14sec

7. A particle is performing simple harmonic motion along x- axis with amplitude 4cm and time
period is 1.2sec. the minimum time taken by the particle from 𝑥 = +2𝑐𝑚 to 𝑥 = +4𝑐𝑚 and
back again is given by

Given Required

𝑇 = 1.2𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 =?

𝑥 = +2𝑐𝑚 to 𝑥 = +4𝑐𝑚

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Solution

 Equation of SHM starting from equilibrium position is given by

x  A sin t 
For x  2cm
2cm   4cm  sin t 
2cm
 sin t 
4cm
0.5  sin sin t 
 
t  sin 1  0.5   30o  300  o

180 6

t 
6
2 t 

T 6
T
t i 
12
For x  4cm
4cm   4cm  sin t 
4cm
 sin t 
4cm
1  sin t 
 
t  sin 1 1  900  900  o

180 2

t 
2
2 t 

T 2
T
t  ii 
4

 Time taken for 𝒙 = 𝟐𝒄𝒎 to 𝒙 = 𝟒𝒄𝒎 is

T T 3T  T 2T T
t       iii 
4 12 12 12 6

 Time taken to move back is same as t. Therefore, total time taken is

2T T 1.2sec
ttol  2t     0.4sec
6 3 3

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8. A simple harmonic oscillator has amplitude A and time period T. The time required by it to
𝐴
travel 𝑥 = 𝐴 and 𝑥 = 2 is

Given Required

𝑥=𝐴 ∆𝑡 =?
𝐴
𝑥= 2

Solution

 Equation of SHM starting from equilibrium position is given by

x  A sin t 
For x  A
A  A sin t 
A
A  sin t 
1  sin sin t 
t  sin 1 1  90o  900  180  2 o

t  
2
2t 
T  2

t  T4 i 
For x  A
2
A
2  A sin t 
A
2A  sin t 
1
2  sin t 
t  sin 1  12   300  300  180  6 o

t  6
2t 
T  6

t  1T2  ii 
t  T4  12T  3T T
12  2T
12  T6

9. A particle is executing SHM along a straight line. Its velocities at distance 𝑥1 and 𝑥2 from the
mean position are 𝑣1 and 𝑣2 respectively. Its time period of oscillation is

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Solution

 For SHM, the velocity of particle at a distance x from the mean position is given by
v   A2  x 2

v1   A2  x12

v12   2  A2  x12  i 
v22   2  A2  x22   ii 
 Subtracting (ii) from (i);
v12  v22   2  A2  x12    2  A2  x22 

  2 A2   2 x12   2 A2   2 x22
  2 x12   2 x22
  2 x22   2 x12

v12  v22   2  x22  x12 

v12  v22
2 
x22  x12

v12  v22

x22  x12

2 v12  v22

T x22  x12

x22  x12
T  2
v12  v22

10. The amplitude of a particle executing SHM is 4cm. At the mean position the speed of the
particle is 16cm/s. The distance of the particle from the mean position at which the speed of
the particle become 8√ 3 cm/s will be

Given Required

𝐴 = 4𝑐𝑚 𝑥 =? 𝑎𝑡 v = 8√ 3
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𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 16𝑐𝑚/𝑠
Solution
x  A sin t 

  sin t  
dx d
v
dt dt
v  A cos t  i 
 At mean position,
vmax  A
vmax 16 cm s
   4 rad sec
A 4cm
v  A cos t  , when v  8 3 cm s
8 3 cm s   4cm  4 rad sec  cos t 
8 3 cm s  16 cm sec  cos t 
8 3 cm s
 cos t 
16 cm sec
3
 cos t 
2
0.866  cos t 
t  cos   0.866   300
 t  30 o
 Therefore,
x  A sin t 
  4cm   sin 30o 
  4cm  0.5 
x  2cm

11. A particle is executing a simple harmonic motion. Its maximum is acceleration is 𝛼 and
maximum velocity is 𝛽 then, its time period of vibration will be

Given Required

𝑎𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝛼 𝑇 =?

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𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝛽

Solution

 For a particle executing SHM, we have maximum acceleration,

amax   2 A, amax  
  2 A i 

 Maximum velocity is given by

vmax   A , vmax  
 A  ii 

 Dividing Eq. (I) by Eq. (ii), we get

 2 A

 A
 2
  , hence  
 T
2 

T 
2
T


12. A particle executes linear harmonic motion with an amplitude of 2cm. when the particle is at
1cm from the mean potion, the magnitude of its velocity is equal to that of its acceleration.
Then its time period in second is

Given Required

𝐴 = 2𝑐𝑚 = 0.02𝑚 = 2 × 10−2 𝑚 𝑇 =?

𝑥 = 1𝑐𝑚 = 0.01𝑚 = 1 × 10−2 𝑚
⃗ = 𝜔√𝐴2 − 𝑥 2
v
𝑎 = −𝜔2 𝑥

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Solution
v a

 A2  x 2   2 x
A2  x 2   x  squareboth side

 
2
A2  x 2   x 
2

A2  x 2   2 x 2
A2  x 2
2 
x2
A2 x 2
 
x2 x2
2
 A
2    1
x
  Ax 
2
1

 
2
2102
 1102
1

  2  10  2  2 2
1

  2 1
2

 4 1
  3 rad sec
1
  2 f , f 
T
2

T
2 2 2
T    sec
 3 3

Energy of the simple harmonic oscillator

 In the absence of friction, the total energy of mass-spring system is constant and equal to the
sum of the kinetic and potential energy.

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E  KE  PE
2 1
E  mv 2  kx 2  6.28
2 2

Energy of simple harmonic motion in three position

A. At the maximum (extreme) position, i.e., at 𝑥 = 𝐴, then v = 0 and total energy becomes;
1 0 1
E mv 2  kA2
2 2
1
E  kA2  6.29 
2
B. At equilibrium(mean) position, i.e., 𝑥 = 0, 𝑣 = 𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 then the total energy is given by
0
1 2 1
E  mvmax  mx 2
2 2
1 2
E mvmax , 2
vmax   2 A2  6.30 
2
1 k
E m 2 A2 ,  2 
2 m
1 mk 2
 A
2 m
1 2
E kA
2
1 2 1
E mvmax  kA2  6.31
2 2

 Or from equation of displacement and velocity of simple harmonic motion, we have

x  A sin t  

dx   4.32 
v  A cos t  
d 

Kinetic Energy of Simple harmonic motion is given by

1 1
KE  mv 2  m  A cos t 
2

2 2
1
KE  mA2 2 cos 2 t   6.33
2

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Potential Energy of simple harmonic motion is given by;

1 1
PE  kx 2  k  A sin t 
2

2 2
1
PE  kA2 sin 2 t   6.34 
2

 The total energy of mass-spring system is constant and equal to the sum of the kinetic and
potential energy as;
E  KE  PE
1 1 k
 mA2 2 cos 2 t   kA2 sin 2 t  , but  2 
2 2 m
1 k 1
 m A2 cos 2 t   kA2 sin 2 t 
2 m 2
1 1
 kA2 cos 2 t   kA2 sin 2 t 
2 2
1  
 kA2 cos 2 t   sin 2 t  
2  
 1 
1
E  kA2  6.35
2
C. At any position x,
E  KE  PE
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
mv  kx  kA  mvmx
2 2 2 2
1 2 1 2 1 2
mv  kx  kA
2 2 2
mv 2  kx 2  kA2
mv 2  kA2  kx 2
mv 2  k  A2  x 2 

v2 
k 2
m
 A  x 2  , mk   2
v 2   2  A2  x 2 

v   2  A2  x 2 

v  A 2
 x2   6.36 
Kinetic energy at any position x, is given by

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KE  m 2  A2  x 2   k  A2  x 2 
1 1
 6.37 
2 2
Potential energy at any position x, is given by
1
PE  m 2 x 2  kx 2  6.38 
2

 Note that the total energy of an oscillator is proportional to the amplitude squared.

Figure: Variation of kinetic energy and potential energy of an oscillator with displacement,
showing that the sum remains constant

Example

1. The potential energy of a particle executing SHM is 2.5J when its displacement is half of the
amplitude. The total energy of the particle is:

Solution

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 Potential Energy of SHM is given by

1 2
PE  kx
2
2
1  A A
2.5 J  k   , when x 
2 2 2
2
1 A
2.5 J  k
2 4
11  1
2.5 J   kA2  , But kA2  E
42  2
1
2.5 J  E
4
E   2.5 J  4 
E  10 J

2. The total energy of simple harmonic motion is E. what will be the kinetic energy of the particle
when the displacement is half of the amplitude?

Given Required

𝐴
𝑥= KE=?
2

Total energy= 𝐸

Solution

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KE  mv 2  m 2  A2  x 2 
1 1
2 2

KE  m 2  A2  x 2  , where x  A
1 1
2 2
1  2  A 2 
 m  A    
2

2   2  

1  A2 
 m 2  A2  
2  4 

1  4 A2  A2  2 k
 m 2  ,  
2  4  m

1 k  3 A2 
 m  
2 m 4 

1  3 A2 
 k 
2  4 

3
    12 kA2 
4
E

3
KE  E
4

3. A particle starts from the mean position. Its amplitude is A and total energy E. At an instant its
3𝐸
kinetic energy is . Its displacement at this instant is?
4

Given Required

3𝐸
𝐾𝐸 = 𝑥 =?
4

Solution

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 Now total energy of a particle executing SHM at any instant is,

1 2
E kA
2
KE  k  A2  x 2  ,
1
2
E  k  A2  x 2  , E  kA2
3 1 1
4 2 2
3 1 2
 k A   k A  x 
1 2 2

4 2  2
3 2
A  A2  x 2
4
3
x 2  A2  A2
4
4 A  3 A2
2

4
2
A
x2 
4
A2 A
x 
4 2

4. A particle is vibrating in SHM with an amplitude of 4cm. at what displacement from the
equilibrium position is its energy half potential and half kinetic energy?

Given Required

1 1
𝐴 = 4𝑐𝑚 𝑥 =? at 𝐾𝐸 = 𝐸 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑃𝐸 = 𝐸
2 2

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Solution
 Now total energy of a particle executing SHM at any instant is
1
E  kA2
2
 KE of a particle executing SHM at any instant is given by
k  A2  x 2  , but KE  E
1 1
KE 
2 2
E  k  A2  x 2 
1 1
2 2
1 1 2
 k A   k A  x 
1 2 2

2 2  2
1 2
A  A2  x 2
2
1
x 2  A2  A2
2
2 A2  A2

2
 4cm   16cm 2  8cm 2
2 2
A
x2  
2 2 2
x  8cm 2  2 2cm
 Or potential Energy is equal to half of total Energy ,
1 2 1
PE  kx , but PE  E
2 2
1 1 2 1
E  kx , where E  kA2
2 2 2
1 1 2 1 2
 kA  kx
2 2  2
1 2
A  x2
2
A2  4cm  16cm 2
2

x 2
   8cm 2
2 2 2
x  8cm 2  2 2cm
1 A
 at x  KE  PE  E
2 2

Remark!

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 The KE and PE of a particle executing SHM are equal when displacement in terms of amplitude
𝐴
A is
√2

5. A particle of mass 2kg is executing simple harmonic motion such that its potential energy is
5J at the mean position. If its total mechanical energy is 9J and the amplitude of oscillation is
1cm, then the time period of oscillation is?

Given Required

𝑚 = 2𝑘𝑔 𝑇 =?
𝑃𝐸 = 5𝐽
𝐸 = 9𝐽
𝐴 = 1𝑐𝑚 = 0.01𝑚 = 1 × 10−2 𝑚
Solution
E  KE  PE
1 2
9 J  mvmax  5 J , vmax
2
 A2 2
2
1
9 J  m 2 A2  5 J
2
9 J  5 J   2kg  1 10 2   2
1 2

2
4 J  1 10 4  2
4
2   40000
1 10 4
  40000  200 rad s ,
2

T
2 2 
T   sec
 200 rad s 100

6. The kinetic energy of a particle executing SHM is 16J when it is in its mean position. If the
amplitude of oscillations is 25cm and the mass 5.12kg, the time period of its oscillation is:

Given Required

𝐾𝐸 = 16𝐽 𝑇 =?

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𝐴 = 25𝑐𝑚 = 0.25𝑚
𝑚 = 5.12𝑘𝑔

Solution

 Kinetic energy at mean position is given by

E  KE  PE
1 2
KE  2
mvmax , vmax  A2 2
2
1
KE  m 2 A2
2
2 KE  m 2 A2
2 KE
2 
mA2
2 KE

mA2


 2 16 
 5.12  0.25 
2

 100 rad
2

s2

  10 rad s
2

T
2 2 
T   sec
 10 rad s 5

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Application of simple harmonic motion

A. The simple pendulum

 A simple pendulum is an idealized (non-existent, theoretical construct) consisting of a point

mass suspended by a massless, in extensible string.
 When the point mass is pulled to one side of its straight- down equilibrium position and
released, it oscillates about the equilibrium position.

Figure: A simple pendulum. A bob of mass m oscillating about equilibrium position.

 When the bob is at position B it is acted upon by following forces.

The weight mg acting vertically downwards and the tension “T” in the string.
The weight mg can be resolved into two components, 𝑚𝑔sinθ long the path of oscillation of
bob and towards the mean position and 𝑚𝑔cosθ along OB.

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 As the string is inextensible, the component 𝑚𝑔cosθ must be balanced by tension in the string.
i.e.,

F y 0
T  mg cos   0
T  mg cos   6.39 
 The component 𝑚𝑔sinθ is directed towards mean or equilibrium position and remains
unbalanced. Therefore it acts as restoring force.

F x 0
 Fs  mg sin   0
Fs  mg sin   6.40 

The negative sign indicated that the force is opposite to angular displacement.

 As angular displacement 𝜃 is very small,

sin     6.41
 Substituting Eq. (6.41) into Eq. (6.40), we obtain

Fs  mg  6.42
 From above figure and geometry of a circle, angular displacement is given by
x
  6.43
L

 Substituting Eq. (6.43) into Eq. (6.42), we obtain;

mgx  mg 
Fs     x  6.44 
L  L 

 The restoring force acting on the bob of simple pendulum is directly proportional to the linear
displacement which is defining a characteristic of simple harmonic motion. Hence the motion
of simple pendulum is linear SHM for small amplitude.

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Fs   x
Fs  kx
Fs
k   6.45 
x

Where k (force constant) is defined as restoring force per unit displacement.

 Substituting Eq. (6.44) into Eq. (6.45), we obtain;

Fs
k 
x
 
mgx

k       L
x

mg x
k
xL
mg
k
L
k g k
 , but  2
m L m
g
2   6.46 
L
g 2
 but  
L T
2 g

T L
T  2 L
g  6.47 
Where 𝐿 =length of a simple pendulum, 𝑔 = acceleration due to gravity.

Eq. (6.47) shows the time period of a simple pendulum.

 Frequency of simple pendulum is given by

g
 but   2 f
L
g
2 f 
L
1 g
f   6.48
2 L

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Remark!

The time period of the simple pendulum is independent of the mass material of the bob
The time period of the simple pendulum is directly proportional to the square root of its length.
The time period of the simple pendulum is inversely proportional to the square root of the
acceleration due to gravity at that place.
The time period of the simple pendulum is independent of the amplitude.

B. Physical pendulum

A physical pendulum is any real pendulum that uses an extended body in motion.
A physical pendulum is any object that is oscillating and does not have all of its mass
concentrated at one point. Also, it does not oscillate about its center of mass, therefore it has a
rotational inertial (I).
If a hanging object oscillate about a fixed axis that does not pass through its center of mass and
the object cannot be approximated as a point mass, we cannot treat the system as a simple
pendulum. In this case the system is called a physical pendulum.

Figure: the bob has been displaced to an amplitude of 𝜃 and will be released to oscillate from
equilibrium position.
When the mass is displaced from equilibrium, the weight acting at the center of mass causes a
torque on the object, which in turn causes it to oscillate.
We need to analyze torque;

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 d 2 
  FL  mgL sin   I  I  2 
 dt 
mgL sin   I max  6.49 

Where 𝛼 = angular acceleration, 𝐼 = moment of inertia, 𝐿 =distance from the pivot to the
center of mass of pendulum.
Assume small angle approximation,

sin    6.50
Substituting Eq. (6.50) into Eq. (6.49), we obtain:

mgL  I max
mgL
 max   6.51
I
If we compare the result for 𝑎𝑚𝑎𝑥 and 𝛼 𝑚𝑎𝑥 , we see that they have similar form,
amax   2 A
 max   2  6.52 
Where 𝜃 = angular displacement, 𝜔 = angular frequency.
Substituting Eq. (6.52) into Eq. (6.51), we obtain:
 mgL
 2 
I
mgL
2 
I
mgL 2
 , but  
I T
2 mgL

T I
I
T  2  6.53
mgL

Eq. (6.53) shows, the time period of physical pendulum.

Frequency of a physical pendulum is given by;

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mgL
 , but   2 f
I
mgL
2 f 
I
1 mgL
f   6.54 
2 I
Examples
1. Calculate the maximum velocity at which an oscillating pendulum of length 1m will attain if
its amplitude is 8cm? (take 𝑔 = 9.8𝑚/𝑠 2 )

Given Required

𝐴 = 1𝑚 𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 =?
𝐿 = 1𝑚
Solution

L
T  2
g
L
T  2
g
2 L  T g
2 g g 2
  , where 
T L L T
g 9.8 m s 2
   3.13 rad s
L 1m
 vmax   A   3.13 rad s  8cm   25.04 cm s

2. A simple pendulum of length 1m has a mass of 10g and oscillates freely with an amplitude of
2cm. find its potential energy at extreme point?

Given Required

𝑚 = 10𝑔 = 0.01𝑘𝑔 𝑃𝐸 =? at 𝑥 = 𝐴

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𝐿 = 1𝑚
𝐴 = 2𝑐𝑚 = 0.02𝑚

Solution
1
PE  m 2 A2
2
g 9.8 m s 2
 
L 1m
 2  9.8 rad 2

s2

1
 PE  m 2 A2
2
  0.01kg   9.8 rad s 2   0.02m 
1 2 2

2
PE  1.96 105 J

3. A pendulum has a length of 2m executes 21 complete vibrations in 1minute what is the

acceleration due to gravity of the location where motion is taking place?

Given Required

𝑡 = 1𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 60𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑔 =?
𝐿 = 2𝑚
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 21
𝑓= = 60𝑠𝑒𝑐 = 0.35𝐻𝑧 = 0.35/𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑

Solution

1 g
f 
2 L
2
 1 g
 f   
2

 2 L 
1 g
f2
4 2 L
g  4 2 f 2 L
g   4  3.14   0.35 sec   2m   9.7 m s
2 2
2

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4. Find the period and frequency of simple pendulum of 1m long?

Given Required

𝐿 = 1𝑚 𝑇 &𝑓 =?
𝑔 = 9.8𝑚/𝑠 2

Solution

T  2
L
  2  3.14 
1m   2.006sec
g 9.8 m s 2
1 1
f    0.498 Hz
T 2.006sec

5. If the period of oscillations of a simple pendulum is 4sec, find its length. If the velocity of the
bob in the mean position is 40cm/s, find its amplitude?
Given Required

𝑇 = 4𝑠𝑒𝑐 A. 𝐿 =?
𝑔 = 9.8𝑚/𝑠 2 B. 𝐴 =? If 𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 40𝑐𝑚/𝑠
Solution

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L
A) T  2
g
2
 L
T    2 
2

 g
L
T 2  4 2
g
T 2 g  4sec   9.8 sec 
2

L 2   3.97 m
4  4  3.14 
2 2 
B) vmax   A, where    
T 4 2

A
vmax

40 cm s

 40cm  2   25.5cm
   rad  
 s
2 

6. When the length of a simple pendulum is decreased by 20cm, the period changes by 10%. Find
the original length of the pendulum?

Given Required

𝐿 2 = 𝐿 1 − 20𝑐𝑚 = 𝐿 2 − 0.2𝑚 𝐿 1 =?
𝑇2 = 𝑇1 − 10%𝑇1
= 𝑇 1 − 0.1𝑇1
= 𝑇1 (1 − 0.1)
𝑇2 = 0.9𝑇1

Solution

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L
T  2
g
T L
L1
T1  i 
g
L1
T2   ii 
g

 Dividing Eq. (i) by Eq. (ii), we get;

T1 L1 g

T2 g L2

T1 L1
 , T2  0.9T1 & L2  L1  0.2
T2 L2
T1 L1

0.9 T1 L1  0.2

1 L1
  squaring both the side
0.9 L1  0.2
1 L1

0.81 L1  0.2
0.81L1  L1  0.2
0.81L1  L1  0.2
 0.81  1 L1  0.2
 0.19L1   0.2
0.2
L1 
0.19
L1  1.053m

7. A hanging object has a mass of 4kg and its length from pivot to center of mass is 25cm. if its
moment of inertia is 3kg𝑚2 , what is the period of such a physical pendulum? (use acceleration
due to gravity 𝑔 = 10𝑚/𝑠 2 )

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Given Required

𝑚 = 4𝑘𝑔 𝑇 =?
𝐼 = 𝑘𝑔𝑚2
𝐿 = 25𝑐𝑚 = 0.25𝑚
𝑔 = 10𝑚/𝑠 2

Solution

I
T  2
mgL

  2  3.14 
 3kgm  2

 4kg  10 m s   0.25m 

2

T  3.45sec

6.1.2. Resonance and Forced oscillation

Free oscillation or Natural vibration

 A free oscillation occurs when an oscillator is displaced from its equilibrium position and
allowed to oscillate without any external forces acting on it.

System continuously executes periodic motion after the removal of initial disturbing
force.
The type of mechanical vibration in which there is no friction.
It oscillate on its own (without external force acting on it).
It will just keep vibrating forever at the same amplitude

 The frequency of free vibration (oscillation) is called free or natural frequency.

 Natural frequency(𝑓𝑜 ): is the frequency of free vibration (oscillation) of a system.

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A. Forced Oscillation

 Forced oscillation occurs when an oscillator is displaced from its equilibrium position and
allowed to oscillate by external force acting on it.

 An oscillating system such as the simple pendulum or loaded spring can be forced to oscillate
at any frequency by an external periodic force. Under the influence of this force, the system is
then said to be performing forced oscillation.

 The frequency of such system is the same as the frequency of the external periodic force, which
is called the driving frequency.

 The external force causes the oscillation of the system to oscillate so it will oscillating at
driving frequency( 𝑓) not at its natural frequency (𝑓𝑜 ).

Resonance

 If the frequency of the driving force is equal to the natural frequency of the oscillating system,
maximum energy will be transferred to the system and its amplitude of vibration becomes
maximum. This phenomena is called Resonance and this frequency is known as resonant
frequency.

 Resonance: is the tendency of a system to oscillate with larger amplitudes when the frequency
of the periodic driving force is the same as the natural frequency of the oscillator
resonant frequency is the natural frequency of an oscillator

 During resonance, with minimum input, there will be a maximum output.

B. Damped oscillation

In real-life mechanical oscillatory systems performing oscillations, there are damping forces
such as air resistance, which causes a loss of energy and a decay of the amplitude of oscillation.
When the energy of oscillating body is gradually dissipated by frictions and resistance is called
damped oscillation.

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When there is a reduction in amplitude over every cycle of oscillation, then the motion is said
to be damped vibration.
The amplitude of a damped vibration will eventually decay to zero.
A simple pendulum is an example of a damped SHM.
Damping force (𝐹𝑑 ) are a resistive force proportional to the velocity and acts in the direction
opposite the velocity.

Fd  bV  6.55

Where 𝐹𝑑 = damping force,

𝑏 = the damping coefficient and is dependent on the medium providing the damping
𝑉 = the velocity of the object through the medium

This equations shows how the resistive force is directly proportional, but opposite, to the
velocity. As a result the amplitude of the oscillation will decay exponentially.

The three level of damping

1. Under damping

The oscillation will continue for many cycle move and back and forth its equilibrium
position before returning to rest (stop).
Underdamping: damping that allows the oscillator to move back and forth through its
equilibrium position before returning to rest.
When resistive force is relatively small the amplitude of vibration decreases in time.
The oscillations damped slowly.

Figure: under damping

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2. Critical damping

The system doesn’t oscillate.

The magnitude of damped force (resistive force) increased the oscillation damping more
rapidly.
Critical damping: the amount of damping that allows the oscillator to return to its equilibrium
position in the shortest possible time.
The time taken for the displacement to become zero is minimum.

Figure: critical damping

3. Over damping

Overdamping: damping that prevents oscillation entirely and only allows the oscillator to
return slowly to its equilibrium position
The system doesn’t oscillate but simply returns to its equilibrium position.
As damping increases, the time it takes to approach the equilibrium position also increases.
That is very slowly return to zero displacement.

Figure: overdamping

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Remark!

The amplitude of a forced, undamped vibration would increase over time until the mechanism
was destroyed.
Damped vibration is a vibration with the presence of retarding force.
Amplitudes gradually comes to zero.
Forced vibration is a vibration that can be maintained by applying force that balance the
retarding (damping) force

Review Question

1. Which of the following statement is true about the magnitude of the acceleration for an object
undergoing simple harmonic motion?
A. Directly proportional to displacement C. Directly proportional to velocity
B. Inversely proportional to displacement D. Inversely proportional to velocity
2. A body executes simple harmonic motion. The potential energy (PE), the kinetic energy (KE)
and total energy (E) are measured as a function of displacement x. which of the following
statement is true?
A. PE is maximum when 𝑥 = 0 C. E is zero when 𝑥 = 0
B. KE is maximum when 𝑥 = 0 D. KE is maximum when x is maximum
3. A particle executes simple harmonic motion along straight line with an amplitude A. the
potential energy is maximum when the displacement is
𝐴 𝐴
A. ±𝐴 B. zero C. ± 2 D. ±
√2

4. The time period of a particle in simple harmonic motion is equal to the time between
consecutive appearances of the particle at a particular point in its motion. This point is;
A. The mean position C. between the mean position and the positive extreme
B. An extreme position D. between the mean position and the negative extreme
5. A SHM has amplitude “A” and time period T. the maximum velocity will be:
4𝐴 2𝐴 𝐴 2𝜋𝐴
A. B. C. 2𝜋√𝑇 D.
𝑇 𝑇 𝑇

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6. During simple harmonic motion of a body, the energy at extreme position is:
A. Both kinetic and potential energy C. Purely kinetic energy
B. Is always zero D. Purely potential energy
7. Choose the incorrect statement
A. All SHM’s have a fixed time period
B. All motion having the same time period are SHM
C. In SHM, the total energy is proportional to the square of the amplitude.
D. Phase constant of SHM depends on initial condition
8. The total energy of particle, executing simple harmonic motion is
A. Directly proportional to 𝑥 C. Independent of 𝑥
1
B. Directly proportional to 𝑥 2 D. directly proportional to 𝑥 2
9. The potential energy of a simple harmonic oscillator when the particle is half way to its end
point is (where E is the total energy):
1 1 1 2
A. 𝐸 B. 𝐸 C. 𝐸 D. 𝐸
8 4 2 3

10. Which one of the following is correct about a damped oscillation:

A. Run down and stops.
B. Oscillates with resonance frequency.
C. Vibrate at a frequency higher than its normal frequency.
D. Oscillates with increasing amplitude.
11. If oscillating body is to be in resonance with another body, it must:
A. Oscillate with greatest possible amplitude
B. Have a natural frequency close to that of other body.
C. Oscillate faster than usually.
D. Vibrate more slowly than usually.

Answer key

1. A 4. B 7. B 10. A
2. B 5. D 8. C 11. B
3. A 6. D 9. B

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6.2. Wave motion (travelling wave)

Travelling wave is the movement of disturbance which transfer energy and information from
one place to another, in what is called the direction of propagation.
Wave is a type of disturbance produced in a medium, in which energy is transmitted while
medium still staying without any movement.
A wave is disturbance that produced at some part of the medium and transporting energy or
sometimes information from one place to another place.
Waves are a series disturbance (vibration) that travels through a medium.
Wave is transporting energy without transporting matter.

6.3. Types of waves

 Based on the direction of energy propagation or direction of vibration, in relative to the

direction of wave movement, wave classified into two. These are
1. Transvers wave and
2. Longitudinal wave

 On the bases of the requirement of medium, wave can be classified into two types. These
are
1. Mechanical wave
Requires a medium to propagate
2. Electromagnetic wave
Do not require a medium to propagate.

Mechanical wave

Wave that disturb and propagate through a medium is called mechanical waves.
Waves that require a medium to propagate are called mechanical wave.

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The source of any wave is a vibration which propagates and constitutes a wave.

Examples of mechanical waves are;

Sound wave
Water wave
Pressure wave

Remark

 All mechanical waves requires:

Some source of disturbance
A medium that can be disturb and
Physical medium through which elements of medium can influences each other

Electromagnetic wave

Electromagnetic waves are that do not require a medium in order to propagate.

A waves characterized by the oscillation of electromagnetic field
A wave can propagate through vacuum as well as through matter (medium).
All electromagnetic waves propagating with the speed of the light (𝑣 = 3𝑥108 𝑚/𝑠) in
vacuum.

Examples of electromagnetic waves are:

Radio wave Visible wave

Micro wave ultraviolet wave
Infrared wave x-ray
gamma-ray

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6.3.1. Transvers wave and longitudinal wave

The wave in which particle of the medium vibrates perpendicular to the direction of
propagation of wave are said to be transverse wave.
If the displacements or oscillations of particles of a medium is in the direction perpendicular
to the direction of wave propagation, wave is called transverse.
Wave direction means the direction in which wave is travelling or the direction in energy
propagating.
It is a wave in which the particle in the medium move perpendicular to the direction of the
wave velocity.

 Transverse wave moves in the form of crest (up) and trough (down), which is possible only
in elastic material or solid and liquid medium.
Crest is the maximum point of the transverse wave.
Troughs is the minimum point of the transverse wave.

Examples of transverse waves are:

All electromagnetic waves

Wave along a stretched string

Figure: Waves along a slinky

Longitudinal wave

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Longitudinal wave is a wave where the oscillations of the particles forwards and backwards
along the wave motion.
If the displacement or oscillation of a particles of a medium is in the direction parallel to the
direction of wave propagation, the wave is called longitud inal wave.
A longitudinal wave is a wave where the particles in the medium move parallel to the direction
of propagation of the wave.
Longitudinal waves are waves that transfer energy in the same direction as the disturbance in
the medium of propagation.
Longitudinal waves can travel through a medium such as, solid, liquid and gases, plasma.
All longitudinal waves consists of regions of high and low density known as condensations
and rarefactions that oscillates around local positions of equilibrium.
A compression is a region in a longitudinal wave where the particles are closer together.
A rarefaction is a region in a longitudinal wave where the particles are further apart.

Examples of longitudinal waves are:

Sound waves
Pressure waves
P- Wave in earth quakes

Figure: longitudinal wave

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6.3.2. Characteristic of waves

The following terms are used to express any type’s waves

Period (T)

Period is the time required to complete one full cycle of oscillation. Period is measured in
second (s).
Period is the time elapsed between two successive crest and troughs passing by the same point
in space.

Frequency ( 𝒇)

A wave frequency is the number of oscillation or cycles per unit time.

The frequency tells us how frequently or rapidly an oscillation takes place.
1 1
f  or T  6.56 
T f

Amplitude (A)

Amplitude is the maximum distance from equilibrium position.

Amplitude is highest crest or trough measured from equilibrium position.

Wavelength ( )

The wave length is distance of one complete wave cycle.

The wavelength is the distance between two identical points’ on adjacent waves.
Wavelength is the distance between two successive crests or trough.

Wave speed (v)

Wave speed is the speed at which a wave moves (propagating).

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Wave speed is the speed at which wave crest/troughs moves.

Wave crest/troughs travels a distance of one wavelength 𝜆 in one period T, thus:


v f  6.57 
T

 The speed v of a transverse wave travelling on a strung depends on:

The tension force (T) in the string and
The linear mass density (mass per unit length) 𝜇 of the string.

 The speed v of a transverse wave travelling on a string is given by

T
v  6.58

𝑚
Where 𝜇 = is called linear mass density
𝐿

Phase velocity of wave

Phase speed of wave: is the rate at which the phase of the wave travel through space.
When a single wave of a definite wavelength travels in a medium, then its velocity of
propagation are called wave velocity (phase velocity).
The velocity with which planes of equal phases, crest or troughs, propagates through the
medium.
The phase velocity (𝑣𝑝 ) of the wave is given by

 
vp   f    6.59 
k T
Where 𝜔 = angular velocity, 𝑘 = wave number.

Example

1. A steel wire 70cm long has a mass 7g. If the wire is under tension of 100N, what is the speed
of transverse wave in the string?

Given Required

𝑚 = 7𝑘𝑔 = 0.007𝑘𝑔 = 7 × 10−3 𝑘𝑔 𝑉𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 =?

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𝐿 = 70𝑐𝑚 = 0.7𝑚
𝑇 = 100𝑁

Solution

T
v

m 7  103 kg
   1 103 kg m
L 0.7 m
T 100 N
v   100 m s
 1 10 3 kg
m

2. Transverse waves travels with a speed of 20m/s in a string under a tension of 6N. What tension
is required for a wave speed of 30m/s in the string?

Given Required

𝑣1 = 20𝑚/𝑠 𝑇2 =?
𝑇1 = 6𝑁
𝑉2 = 30𝑚/𝑠
Solution

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 The two wave speeds can be written as

T1
v1 

T1
v12  i 

T
v2  2

T
v 22  2  ii 


 Dividing Eq.(ii) by Eq. (i), we get

v 22 T2 

v12  T!
v 22 T2

v12 T1
2 2
v   30 m s 
T2   2  T1     6 N   1.5   6 N   13.5 N
2

 v1   20 s 
m

6.3.3. Travelling wave equation

 Any one dimensional motion wave travelling with speed v in the positive x- direction ca be
represented by a wave function of the form;
y  f  x  vt 
y  A sin b  x  vt  or,  6.60 
y   A sin b  vt  x   6.61
Eq. (6.60) shows wave is a sine wave
Where A and b are constant.

 From simple harmonic motion, the equation of motion is given by;

y  A sin t   6.62

Comparing Eq.(6.60) with Eq. (6.62), we can get the value of constant “b”:

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t  bvt
  bv
 2 f
b  , vf
v v
2 f

f
2
b  6.63


Substituting Eq. (6.63) into Eq. (6.60), we obtain:

y  A sin 2  x  vt  ,

 A sin 2  x  v t  , v
  f

 A sin 2  x  ft  , f  T1

 A sin 2  x  Tt 

y  A sin  2 x  2T t   6.64 

From wave number, we have;
2
k  6.65

2
  6.66 
T
Substituting Eq. (6.65) and Eq. (6.66) into Eq. (6.64), we get:

y  A sin  kx  t   6.67 

Therefore, a wave function for a one dimensional sinusoidal wave travelling to the positive
x-direction can be expressed as;

y  A sin  2 x  2T t   A sin 2  x  t   A sin  kx  t   6.68

and wave function in terms of phase constant is given by

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y  A sin  2 x  2T t     A sin  kx  t     6.69

where 𝜙 is called the phase constant and can be determined from the initial conditions.
This equation used to find the displacement y at any instant ‘t’ at any path position x.

Example

1. The equation of a wave travelling in a string can be written as 𝑦 = 0.2𝑠𝑖𝑛0.4𝜋 (𝑥 − 60𝑡). Were
all distances are measured in centimeters and time t in second. Find its wavelength and
frequency?

Given Required

𝐴 = 0.2 A. 𝜆 =?
𝑣 = 60𝑐𝑚/𝑠 B. 𝑓 =?
Solution
A. Wavelength of travelling string is
y  A sin 2  x  t  i 
y  0.2sin0.4  x  60t   ii 
Comparing two equations, we obtain

2
 0.4 

2
 0.4

2
  5cm
0.4
B. Frequency of a travelling wave is given by;
vf
v 60 cm s
f    12 Hz
 5cm

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2. A string is producing transverse vibration whose equation is 𝑦 = 0.021𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑥 − 30𝑡), where x

and y are in meters and t is in second. If the linear density of the string is 1.3 × 10−4 𝑘𝑔/𝑚 ,
then the tension in the string in N will be:

Given Required

2𝜋
𝑦 = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑥 − 𝑣𝑡) 𝑇 =?
𝜆

𝑦 = 0.021𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑥 − 30𝑡)

𝐴 = 0.021𝑚

𝑣 = 30𝑚/𝑠
𝑚
𝜇= = 1.3 × 10−4 𝑘𝑔/𝑚
𝑙

Solution

T
v

T
v2 

T  v2

  30 m s  1.3 10 4 kg m 
2

T  0.117 N

6.4. Wave behavior

 All types of waves have four properties in common. These are:

Reflection

 Reflection occurs when the waves bounce off a fixed surface and change direction

 A turning back of the wave from the give surface

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 A ray coming to the reflecting surface is called incident ray and that leave the reflecting
surface is called reflected ray. e.g.,

The law of reflection

The law of reflection is state that: ‘the angle of incident (𝜃𝑖) of a wave is equal to the angle of
reflected (𝜃𝑟) of a wave.

𝜃𝑖 = 𝜃𝑟

Refraction

As the waves enters different medium, its speed may change so the wave bends in one particular
direction. This bending of the wave is called refraction.
The light ray (wave) is bent away from the normal line as its pass from lighter to denser medium.
The light ray (wave) is bent away from the normal line as its pass from denser to lighter medium.
E.g.,

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The law of refraction

The law of refraction state that “the ratio of the sine angle of incident to the sine angle
refraction is constant”.

Mathematically
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑖
= 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 (∗)
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑟
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑖 𝑛2
= 𝑛 = 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑛 = 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑛 =
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑟 𝑛1

𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃𝑖 𝑛2 𝜆1
= = →this called Snell’s law (∗∗)
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑟 𝑛1 𝜆2

Note that; the refractive index of the light in the vacuum is 1

Diffraction

Diffraction is the spread out of the wave when the wave passes through gap or around obstacle.

Supper position and interference

When two waves come together, the two waves pass through each other unchanged where they
overlap, we get super position.

Supper position principle

Principle position: states that if two or more travelling waves are moving through a medium
and combine at a given point, the displacement of the medium at the point is the sum of the
displacement of the individual wave.
When a particle of medium oscillates under effect of two or more than two waves, then the
resultant displacement will be equal to vector sum of individual displacement by each wave is
known as supper position principle.
When two waves overlap, it produces interference. Supper position of two waves are called
interference.
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Interference is the mixing up of two or more waves either to add up or cancel out each other.
There are two types of interference. These are:
Constructive interference and
Destructive interference
 If we have two waves the result in an oscillation whose amplitude depends on the relative phase
of the two waves.

1. Phase difference: is angular difference in timing between two waves

2. In phase: two waves are said be in phase when corresponding points of each reach maximum
or minimum displacement at the same time.
Two wave of the same sign pulse (or crest to crest or trough to trough) coincide to each
other, then the maximum amplitude is formed. Thus, two waves are in phase.

Figure A: Pulses of the same sign crossing.

3. Anti-phase (out of phase)

Two wave of the opposite sign pulse (or crest to trough or trough to crest) coincide to
each other, then the minimum (zero) amplitude is formed. Thus, two waves are out of phase.
The phase difference between them is 180°.

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Figure: pulse of opposite sign crossing

Constructive and destructive interference

Constructive interference

It occurs where two waves that are in phase combine to make a large amplitude.
 constructive interference: is the production of large oscillations by the superposition of two
waves that are in phase with each other
It occurs when two identical waves meet their crest to crest or trough to trough this give a
large oscillation.

Destructive interference

 Destructive interference the cancelling out of oscillations caused by the superposition of two
waves that are in antiphase
 It occurs where two waves that are out of phase combine to cancel each other.
 It occurs when a crest of one wave coincide with a trough of another waves, a wave small or
zero oscillation is established.

6.4.1. Standing wave

 Two travelling waves moving in opposite direction creates standing wave.

 Standing (stationary) waves are produced by superposition of two progressive wave of equal
amplitude and frequency, travelling with the same speed in opposite direction.

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 Waves with equal amplitude, wave length, and frequency traveling in opposite directions in
the same medium is called standing wave.

6.4.2. Standing wave on strings

 The oscillation of a guitor is a standing wave.

 A standing wave is naturally produced on string when both ends are fixed.

 The individual points on the string oscillate up and down, but the wave itself does not travel.
It is called standing wave because the crest and trough “stand in place” as it oscillates.

Suppose we have a string that is attached to wall or other fixed support. The wall is called a
boundary it is the end of medium.

 A wave that travels in one direction along the string reflects at the end and returns inverted
because of the fixed ends. These two identical waves travelling in opposite direction from the
standing wave on the string.

 Reflections at the ends of the string cause waves of equal amplitude and wavelength to travel
in opposite directions along the string, which results in a standing wave.

Remark!

 Standing waves has the same wavelength ( 𝜆), amplitude (A) and frequency (f).
 It has certain points (called nodes) where the amplitude is always zero and other points (called
anti nodes) where the amplitude fluctuates with maximum amplitude (intensity).

Node and anti-node in standing wave

Nodes (N)
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The point where the amplitude of oscillation is zero.

At nodes the waves does not travel. Any position where the string is held fixed must be
Node.
𝜆
The distance between two successive nodes is equal to half wavelength apart.
2

The two waves have equal displacement but opposite sign.

Antinode (A)

The point where the amplitude of oscillation is maximum.

The two waves are in phase.
The two waves have equal displacement and the same sign at all time.
𝜆
The distance between successive anti node (A) is half wavelength (2 ) apart
𝜆
The distance between a Node to next antinode (node and consecutive antinode) is 4 .

Equations of standing wave

 The wave function for the two waves of equal amplitude, frequency in the same medium and
travelling in opposite direction is known as standing wave.

2
y1  A sin x  vt   A sin  kx  t   6.70 

Eq. (6.70) shows, when wave traveling to the right (incident)
2
y2  A sin  x  vt   A sin  kx  t   6.71


Eq. (6.71) shows, when wave travelling to the left (reflect back).

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 According to the principle of superposition, adding these two wave function gives the
resultant wave function.

y  A sin  kx  t   A sin  kx  t   6.72

 From trigonometric identity,
sin  A  B   sin A cos B  cos A sin B  6.73

 Therefore, Eq. (6.72) can be written as:

y  A sin  kx  t   A sin  kx  t  

 A sin kx cos t  cos kx sin   sin kx cos t  cos kx sin t 

 A  sin kx cos t  sin kx cos t 

y  2 A sin kx cos t  6.74 

Eq. (6.74) shows equation of standing wave.

 The disturbance 𝑦 = 2𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑘𝑥 )𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑡)is called standing wave because the wave does not
travel along the x-axis.
 The resultant amplitude of oscillation A at any value x is given by

A  2 A sin kx  6.75

 At the antinode, y reach maximum amplitude, Y=2A, when 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑥 = ±1, where

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 3 5 2
kx  , , ,...., but k 
2 2 2 
2 x  3 5
 , , ,....
 2 2 2
2 x
  n  12   , n  0,1, 2,3,....

2x
  n  12 

2 x   n  12  

x   n  12   position of antinodes  6.76 
2

The position of maximum amplitude is called antinodes.

At the Nodes, 𝒀 = 𝟎, usually called zero oscillation. This happens when 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑥 = 0, where
2
kx  0,  , 2 ,3 ....., but k 

2 x
 0,  , 2 ,3 ....

2 x
 n  , n  0,1, 2,3,....

2x
n

n
x  position of nodes  6.77 
2

Minima oscillation occurs is called zero oscillation.

Example

𝜋𝑥
1. For the stationary wave 𝑦 = 4𝑠𝑖𝑛 (15 ) 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (96𝜋𝑡), the distance between a node and the next

antinode is

Given Required

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𝜋𝑥
𝑦 = 4𝑠𝑖𝑛 (15 ) 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (96𝜋𝑡) 𝜆 =? b/n node and next antinode

𝐴=4
𝜋𝑥
𝑘𝑥 = (15 )

Solution

y  A sin  kx  cos t 

x 2
kx  ,k
15 
2 x  x

 15
2 1

 15
  30

𝜆
The distance between anode to the next antinode is equal to
4

 30
x    7.5
4 4

𝜋𝑥
2. The equation of a stationary wave is 𝑦 = 0.8𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( ) 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (200𝜋𝑡), where x is in cm and t is in
20

seconds. The separation between a successive nodes is

Given Required

𝜋𝑥
𝑦 = 0.8𝑐𝑜𝑠 (20 ) 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (200𝜋𝑡), ∆𝑥 =?

𝑦 = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝑘𝑥 )𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡), comparing

𝜋𝑥
𝑘𝑥 = 20

Solution

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x 2
kx  , but k 
20 
2 x x

 20
2 1

 20
  40cm

The distance between consecutive nodes is

 40cm
x    20cm
2 2

3. A standing wave is represented by 𝑌 = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛 (0.01𝑥 )𝑐𝑜𝑠(100𝑡), where y and A are in

millimeters, t in seconds and x in meters.

Given Required

𝑌 = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛 (0.01𝑥 )𝑐𝑜𝑠(100𝑡) 𝑣 =?

𝑘 = 0.01
𝜔 = 100𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠
Solution
2
k

2
 i 
k
  2 f

f   ii 
2
 2   
vf   
 k   2 
 100 rad s
v   10000 m s  1 10 4 m s
k  0.01
m 

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4. Two waves travelling in opposite directions produce a standing wave. The individual wave
functions are given by 𝑦1 = 4𝑠𝑖𝑛 (3𝑥 − 2𝑡) cm and 𝑦2 = 4𝑠𝑖𝑛(3𝑥 + 2𝑡)cm, where x and y
are in cm. determine

A. The maximum displacement when 𝑥 = 2𝑐𝑚

B. The position of antinode and node
C. The wavelength (𝜆), frequency (f) and speed of interfacing wave
D. The distance between node

Given Required

𝑦1 = 4𝑠𝑖𝑛 (3𝑥 − 2𝑡) A. 𝑦𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑜𝑟 𝐴𝑚𝑎𝑥 =?

𝑛𝜆 𝑛𝜆
𝑦2 = 4𝑠𝑖𝑛(3𝑥 + 2𝑡) B. 𝑥 = =?, 𝑥 = =?
4 2

C. 𝜆, 𝑓 & 𝑣 =?

Solution

A. From superposition principle;

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y  y1  y2
 4 sin  3 x  2t   4 sin  3x  2t 

 4 sin  3 x  2t   sin  3 x  2t  

 4 sin 4 x cos 3t  cos 4 x sin 3t  sin 4 x cos 3t  cos 4 x sin 3t 

 4  sin 4 x cos 3t  sin 4 x cos 3t 

 4  2sin 4 x cos 3t 
y  8sin 4 x cos 3tcm
 Amax  8sin 4 x
 Amax  8sin 4 x  8sin  4  2  cm  8sin 8  8  0.139   1.112cm

B. The position of antinode and node is given by

From wave number we have;

2
k , but k  4 rad s

2
 4 rad s

2 
 cm  cm
4 2
The antinode are located;
n 1    n
x  n   cm
4 4 2 8
The node are located,
n 1    n
x  n   cm
2 2 2 4

C. The wavelength (𝜆), frequency (f) and speed of interfacing wave

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2
k , but k  4 rad s

2
 4 rad s

2  3.14
  cm  cm  cm  1.57cm
4 2 2
  2 f ,   3 rad sec
 3 rad sec
 f    0.478 Hz
2  2  3.14 
 v   f  1.57cm  0.478 sec   0.75cm
or
 3 rad sec
v   0.75cm
k 4 cm
D. The distance between successive node is given by
kx  4 x
2 x
4x

2 
 
4 2

𝜋𝑥
5. A medium is disturbed by an oscillation described by 𝑦 = 3𝑠𝑖𝑛 (10 ) 𝑐𝑜𝑠(50𝜋𝑡) 𝑐𝑚.

Determine the amplitude of the components whose superposition is procedures this result.

Given Required

𝜋𝑥
𝑦 = 3𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( ) 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (50𝜋𝑡) 𝑐𝑚 𝐴 =?
10

Solution

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From equation of standing wave we have,

Y  2 A sin  kx  cos t  i 
x 
Y  3sin   cos  50 t   ii 
 10 
Comparing Eq. (ii) and Eq. (ii), we obtain:
2 A  3cm
3
A cm  1.5cm
2

6.4.3. Standing waves on a string with two fixed ends

 A stretched string can be vibrate in different frequencies and form stationary wave. This
mode of vibrations are known as Harmonics.
 If it vibrates in one segment, which known as “Fundamental Harmonic” and the higher
Harmonics are called the “overtones”.
 It vibrates in two segments then the second harmonic is called first overtone.

Figure: Modes of vibration of a string fixed at both ends

If the string vibrates in “n” segments and “L” is its length then length of each segment is
given by:

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L 
Ln  , but L 
n 2
L 
  6.78
n 2
Wavelength and frequency of standing of string with length L is given by;
L n

n 2
2L
n   nth wavelength  6.79 
n
n
L  n  length of string  6.80 
2
Harmonic frequency of standing waves are multiples of fundamentals frequency, the frequency
of the lowest mode (𝑛 = 1). The higher modes are the harmonic.

 fundamental frequency 1st harmonic 

v v
f1  
 2L
 v  v
f 2  2 f1  2     2nd harmonic
 2L  L
3 v 
f3  3 f1     3nd harmonic
2 L
 v 
f n  nf1  n    n nd harmonic  6.81
 2L 
The natural frequency of vibration of a stretched string of length L fixed at both ends are
given by:

 v  T
f n  nf1  n   , but v 
 2L  
 v  n T
fn  n   , n  1, 2,3,...  6.82 
 2L  2L 
𝑚
Where T is tension in the string and (𝜇 = ) linear density of mass.
𝐿

The fundamental frequency of a stretched string is given by:

v 1 T
f1    6.83
2L 2L 

Example

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1. A string has a length of 0.4m and a mass of 0.16g. If the tension in the string is 70N, what are
the tree lowest frequencies it produces when plucked?

Given Required

𝐿 = 0.4𝑚 𝑓1 , 𝑓2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓3 =?

𝑚 = 0.16𝑔 = 0.16 × 10−3 𝑘𝑔

𝑚 0.16×10 −3 𝑘𝑔
𝜇= = = 0.4 × 10−3 𝑘𝑔/𝑚
𝐿 0.4𝑚

Solution
n T
fn  ,n 1
2L 

1 T 1 50 N
f1    523Hz
2 L  2  0.4m  0.4 103 kg m
f 2  2 f1   2  523Hz   1046 Hz
f3  3 f1   3 523Hz   1566 Hz

2. The first overtone of a stretched wire of given length is 330Hz. Determine the first harmonic?

Given Required

First overtone (second harmonic) 𝑓2 = 320𝐻𝑧 𝑓1 =?

Solution

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If a wire vibrates I n segments, then its frequency is given by

 v  n T
fn  n  
 2L  2L 
The frequency of the first harmonic is given by
v
f1  i 
2L
The frequency first overtone (second harmonic) is given by
2v
f2 
2L
v
f 2   320 Hz  ii 
L
Dividing Eq.(ii) by Eq. (i), we obtain
f2  v   2L 
   
f1  L   v 
f2
2
f1
f 320 Hz
f1  2   160 Hz
2 2

3. A string of length 2m is fixed at both ends. If this string vibrates in its fourth normal mode
with a frequency of 500Hz, then the waves would travel on it’s with velocity of_____?

Given Required

𝐿 = 2𝑚 v =?
𝑛=4
𝑓4 = 500/𝑠𝑒𝑐
Solution
nv
fn 
2l
2 Lf n
v
n

 2  2m  500 sec 
4
v  500 m sec

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4. A string fixed at both ends is vibrating in two segments. The wavelength of the corresponding
wave is:

Given Required

𝑛 = 2 (𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑠𝑒𝑔𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡) 𝜆 =?

Solution
2L
n 
n
2L
2  L
2

5. The tension in a piano wire is 10N. What should be the tension in the wire to produce a note
of double the frequency?

Given Required

𝑇1 = 10𝑁 𝑇2 =?
Initial frequency of note 𝑓1
Final frequency of the note 𝑓2 = 2𝑓1
Solution

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1 T1
f1  i 
2L 
1 T2
f2   ii 
2L 
Diving Eq.(ii) by Eq. (ii), we obtain:
 T1   2L  
f1  

f 2  2 L    T2 
  
f1 T
 1 , but f 2  2 f1
f2 T2
f1 T
 1  square both side
2 f1 T2
1 T1

4 T2
T2  4T1   4 10 N   40 N

6.4.4. Standing wave in organ pipe

A standing sound wave in a tube can have different boundary conditions. The boundary
conditions determine which standing wave frequency and wavelength are formed. The
boundary conditions:

Open-open and
Open-closed

Open-open boundary

A pipe which is open at both ends is called open pipe.

When stationary wave formed in open pipe (both ends are open), antinodes are formed at open
ends.
If the column is open at both ends the natural frequency of the oscillation form harmonic series.
There is large net of oscillation and the sound wave is reflected with no phase shift.

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Figure: Resonant modes of vibration for air in a narrow column with both ends open.

 Wavelength and frequencies of standing sound wave mode in an open-open tube is given by;
2L
n 
n
 v 
f n  nf1  n    6.84 
 2L 

Open closed tube boundary

If one end of tube is open and the other end is closed, we will get a node at closed end and an
antinode at open end.

Figure: Resonant modes of vibration for air in a narrow column with one end closed and one end
open.

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The harmonic series consists of only odd-integer multiples of the fundamental frequency. i.e.,
𝑓, 3𝑓, 5𝑓 ….
Wavelength and frequency of standing sound wave modes in an open –closed tube is given by:
4L
n 
n
 v 
f n  nf1  n   , n  1,3,5, 7,... or  6.85 
 4L 
 v 
f n   2n  1   , n  1, 2,3,....  6.86 
 4L 

Example

1. If the velocity of sound in air is 350m/s. Then the fundamental frequency of an open organ
pipe of length 50cm, will be

Given Required

𝑣 = 350𝑚/𝑠 𝑓1 =?
𝐿 = 50𝑐𝑚 = 0.5𝑚

Solution
nv
fn 
2L
v
f1 
2L
350 m s

 2  0.5m 
f1  350 m s

2. The second overtone of an open pipe has the same frequency as the first overtone of a closed
pipe L meter long. The length of the open pipe will be?

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Solution
For second overtone(third harmonic ) in open organ pipe is given by;
nv
fn  , for 2nd overtone, n  3
2 LO
3v
f3  i 
2 LO
For first overtone (third harmonic) in closed organ pipe is given by
v
f n   2n  1 , for1st overtone, n  2
4 LC
v
f 3   4  1 , Lc  L
4 LC
3v
f3   ii 
4L
Equating Eq. (i) and Eq. (ii), we obtain:
3v 3v

2 LO 4 L
1 1

LO 2 L
LO  2 L

3. If the length of a closed organ pipe is 1.5m/s and the velocity of sound is 330m/s, then the
frequency of the second note is:

Given Required

𝐿 = 1.5𝑚 Second overtone (3rd harmonic)=?

𝑣 = 330𝑚/𝑠

Solution
nv
fn  , n3
4L
f3 
 3 330 m s  
990 m s
 165Hz
 4 1.5m  6m

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4. The two nearest harmonics of a tube close at one end and open at the other end are 220Hz and
260Hz. What is the fundamental frequency of the system?
Solution
Frequency of 𝒏𝒕𝒉 harmonic vibration in closed pipe is given by:
v
f n   2n  1  220 Hz i 
4L
Frequency of (𝒏 + 𝟏)𝒕𝒉 harmonic vibration is given by:
f n 1   2  n  1  1
v
 260 Hz  ii 
4L
Subtracting Eq. (ii) by Eq.(i) , we get
f n 1  f n  260  220
f n 1  f n  40
 2  n  1  1   2n  1 
v
 40
4L
 2n  2  1  2n  1 v
4L
 40
2v
 40
4L
 v 
2   40
 4L 
2 f  40
40 Hz
f 
2
f  20 Hz

5. Consecutive frequencies emitted from an organ pipe are 75Hz, 125Hz, 175Hz. The frequency
of the tenth overtone will be:

Given Required

𝑓 = 75𝐻𝑧, 125𝐻𝑧, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 1755𝐻𝑧 Frequency of tenth overtone (11th harmonic)=?

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Solution
The frequencies increases by change of 50 Hz.

50 Hz
f1   25 Hz
2
f 3   3 25 Hz   75 Hz  3 f1
f 5   5  25 Hz   125 Hz  5 f1
f 7   7  25 Hz   175 Hz  7 f1

The given harmonic are in the ratio 3:5:7, so an organ pipe is closed at one end.
As the common maximum frequency in the harmonic is 25Hz, so fundamental frequency
𝒇𝟏 = 𝟐𝟓𝑯𝒛
The formula to calculate 𝒏𝒕𝒉 harmonic of an organ pipe closed at one end is given by

v
f n   2n  1 ,  for10 th over tone, n  11
4L

f11   2 11  1
v v
, but  25 Hz
4L 4L
  22  1 25 Hz 
  21 25 Hz 
f11  525 Hz

6. A string is stretched between fixed points separated by 75cm. it is observed to have resonant
frequencies of 420Hz and 315Hz. There are no other resonant frequencies between these two.
Then, the lowest resonant frequency for this string is?

Given Required

𝑓1 = 420𝐻𝑧 Fundamental (lowest resonant) frequency

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𝑓2 = 315𝐻𝑧

Solution
The formula to calculate 𝒏𝒕𝒉 harmonic for fixed points end is given by

nv
fn 
2L

Calculation for 𝒏𝒕𝒉 lowest resonant frequency is given

nv
fn   315Hz i 
2L

Calculation for (𝒏 + 𝟏)𝒕𝒉lowest resonant frequency is given by:

v
f n 1   n  1  420 Hz i 
2L

Subtracting Eq. (ii) by Eq.(i) , we get

f n 1  f n 
 n  1 v  nv
 420 Hz  315 Hz
2L 2L
 
 n  1  n  nv  105 Hz
  2L
v
 105 Hz
2L
f lowest  105 Hz

7. A student determines the velocity of sound with the help of a closed length for fundamental
frequency is 24.7m, the length for third harmonic will be?

Given Required

𝐿 1 = 24.7𝑚 𝐿 3 =? For 3rd harmonic

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Solution
The length of one end organ pipe open and the other end is closed is given by
n
Ln 
4
length for fundamental frequency is given by

L1  , for n  1 i 
4
the length for 3rd harmonic is given by
3
L3   ii 
4
dividing Eq.(ii) by Eq. (i), we obtain:
L3  3    4 
  
L1  4    
L3
3
L1
L3  3L1
  3 24.7 m 
L3  74.1m

 For 𝒏𝒕𝒉 length of one end open and other end is closed organ pipe is given by
Ln  nL1

Phenomena of beat

The physical effect of the superposition of two or more waves is called interference.
The phenomena of beats is an example of interference in time because in this case, we consider
the variation in intensity of sound with time at a given place.

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When two sound waves having equal amplitudes but slightly different frequencies travel in a
medium in the same direction and arrive at a point simultaneously, they interfere and we hear
alternate maxima and minima in the result intensity of sound.
The maximum of sound is called “Waxing” and the minimum of sound is called “waning”.

 The formation of periodic waxing and waning of sound due to interference (superposition) of
two sound waves of the same amplitude but slightly different frequencies, is called beats.
One waxing and one waning which are consecutive form one beat.

Figure: Beats produced by the addition of two sine waves of the same amplitude but slightly
different frequencies.
Periods of Beats

The time interval between two successive maxima or minima (waxing or waning) is called the
period of beats.

Frequency of Beats

The number of beats heard per second is called the frequency of beats.

Conditions of Formation of Beats

 The amplitude of the two interfering waves should be the same.

 The difference between the frequencies of interfering waves should be small. The beats
can be heard only if the frequency difference is less than 10.

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Application of Beats

Beats are used in tuning musical instruments like sitar, violin, etc. The musical instrument is
sounded with another instrument of known frequency. Generally, the beats are heard. Then it
is slightly adjusted so that there are no beats. This is called tuning.
In the sonometer experiment, beats can be used to adjust the vibrating length between the two
bridges.
To find the frequency of the given tuning fork beats can be used.
Detection of harmful gases in mine. Two identical organ pipes, one filled with pure air and the
other filled with air from mine are blown together. If there are no beats then the mine air is
pure but if beats are heard the mine-air is impure.

Equation of beats

Consider two sources of sound emitting sound waves of equal amplitude “A” and travelling in
the same direction at the same speed. They have slightly different frequencies 𝑓1 and 𝑓2 where
𝑓1 > 𝑓2 . The displacements produced by two waves is given by

y1  A sin 1t  A sin 2 f1t  6.87 

y2  A sin 2t  A sin 2 f 2t  6.88
By the principle of superposition of waves, the resultant displacement is given by;

y  y1  y2
y  sin 2 f1t  sin 2 f 2t  6.89 
Now, from trigonometric identity, we have;

sin C  sin D  2sin  C 2D  cos  C 2D   6.90

Then, Eq. (6.89) can be rewritten as

y  2 A cos 2  f1  f 2
2  t sin 2  f1  f 2
2 t  6.91
Let

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f1  f 2 f1  f 2
fA  and f av   6.92 
2 2

Substituting Eq. (6.92) into Eq. (9.91), we obtain:

y  2 A cos  2 f At  sin  2 f avt   6.93

 A beat, that is maximum or minimum intensity, will occur when ;

cos 2 f At  1 or zero
 3 5
2 f At  0,  2 ,3 ,.... or , , ,....
2 2 2
0  2 3  3 5
t , , ,.... or , , ,....
2 f A 2 f A 2 f A 2 f A 2  2 f A  2  2 f A  2  2 f A 
1 2 3 1 3 5
t  0, , ,.... or , , ,....  6.94 
2 fA 2 fA 2 fA 4 fA 4 fA 4 fA

 So time interval between two consecutive beats is given by

t  tn  tn 1
3 2
 
2 fA 2 fA
1
t   6.95
2 fA
So, Frequency beats 𝑓𝐵 i.e., number of beats per second will be given by:

1 f f
fB   2 f A , where f A  1 2
t 2
 f f 
fB  2  1 2 
 2 
f B  f1  f 2 , if f1  f 2 or f B  f1  f 2  6.96 
 The number of beats is found from the difference in frequencies of two interfering waves.

The time interval between two consecutive peaks or minima is called the Beat period ( 𝑇𝐵 ). It
is also equivalent to the Beat frequency reciprocal.

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1 1
TB    9.97 
fB f1  f 2

 The time period is given by:

Beat period TB
Time period    6.98
2 2

Example

1. Beats are produced by two waves given by 𝑦1 = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛200𝜋𝑡 and 𝑦2 = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛2008𝜋𝑡 . The
number of beats heard per second is

Given Required

𝑦1 = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔1 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛200𝜋𝑡 𝑓𝐵 =?
𝜔1 = 200𝜋
𝑦2 = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔2 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛2008𝜋𝑡
𝜔2 = 2008𝜋
Solution
1  2 f1
1 200 rad s
f1    100 Hz
2 2
2  2 f 2
2 2008 rad s
f2    104 Hz
2 2
f B  f 2  f1
 104 Hz  100 Hz
f B  4 Hz  4 beats s

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2. Each of the two strings of length 51.6cm and 49.1cm are tensioned separately by 20N force.
Mass per unit length of both the strings is same and equal to 1g/m when both the strings vibrate
simultaneously the number of beats is

Given Required

𝐿 1 = 51.6𝑐𝑚 = 0.516𝑚 Beat= difference in frequencies =?

𝐿 2 = 49.1𝑐𝑚 = 0.491𝑚
𝜇 = 1𝑔/𝑚 = 10−3 𝑘𝑔/𝑚
𝑇1 = 𝑇2 = 20𝑁

Solution

 The frequency of the transverse wave f is related to the tension in the string as follow:
v 1 T
f  
2L 2L 

T 20 N
v  v1  v 2    20000 m s2  141.42 m s
2

 3 kg
10 m

 Beat is equal difference in frequencies, then it is given by

f B  f1  f 2

v v
 
2 L1 2 L2

141.42 m s 141.42 m s
 
 2  0.516m   2  0.491m 
 137 beats s  144 beats s
 7 beats s
f B  7 beats s  7 Hz

3. A couple of tuning forks produce 2 beats in the time interval of 0.4sec. Determine the beat
frequency?

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Given Required

𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑠 = 2 𝑓𝐵 =?
∆𝑡 = 0.4𝑠𝑒𝑐

Solution
number of beats
fB 
t
2beats

0.4sec
f B  5 beats sec  5 Hz

4. Two tuning forks have frequencies 380Hz and 384Hz respectively. When they are sounded
together, they produce 4 beats. After hearing the maximum sound, how long will take to hear
the minimum sound?

Given Required

𝑓1 = 380𝐻𝑧 The time required to hear minimum sound=?

𝑓2 = 384𝐻𝑍
𝑓𝐵 = 4𝐵𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑠/𝑠
Solution
1 1 1
TB     0.25sec
f 2  f1 384 Hz  380 Hz 4 Hz
TB 0.25sec
Time period    0.125sec
2 2

5. Two tuning forks have frequencies 450Hz and 454Hz respectively. On sounding these forks
together, the time interval between successive maximum intensities will be?

Solution
1 1 1
TB     0.25sec
f 2  f1 454 Hz  450 Hz 4 Hz

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6.5. Sound loudness and intensity

Loudness

Loudness is the measure of the volume of a sound wave.

Loudness is the strength of the auditory sensation produced by a sound.
Loudness: is audible strength of a sound, which depends on the amplitude of the vibration
producing that sound wave.
Loudness is a measure of response of our ear to the sound.

The intensity of sound wave

Intensity of Sound wave: is the rate at which energy is transferred in a sound wave (i.e., it is
a measure of the loudness or volume of sound).
The louder the sound the greater intensity.
The intensity of the sound wave is determined by frequency of sound waves.
The intensity of sound is the energy received by each square meter per second or Intensity is
defined as the power carried by sound waves per unit area.

Mathematically

Power of thesource
I
Area through of the medium
E
I t P P  6.99 
A A 4 r 2

Where 𝐴 = 4𝜋𝑟2 Because sound is transmitted in all direction so the area will be spherical.
The intensity of sound is measured in 𝑊/𝑚2 .
Power is the rate of energy transfer in any travelling wave.
The intensity of 𝐼1 at a distance 𝑟1 from the source and the intensity of 𝐼2 at another distance
𝑟2 from the source related by the formula of the following:

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P P
I1  & I2   6.100 
4 r12
4 r22

Intensity ratio is given by:

I1 P 4 r22

I 2 4 r12 p

I1 r22 
 
I 2 r12   6.101
2
I1r1  I 2 r2 
2

Figure: Intensity of sound wave

The intensity of a spherical wave decreases as the inverse square of the radius.

Hearing and the decibel

Hearing

The human ear is capable detecting sound with a range of frequencies between 20Hz to
20,000Hz. This is referred to as audible range.
Any sound frequency below 20Hz is known as infrasound or infrasonic.
Any sound frequency above 20,000Hz is known as ultrasound or ultrasonic.

Threshold of Hearing

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Threshold of hearing is the smallest intensity (𝐼𝑜 = 1 × 10−12 𝑊/𝑚2 ) detectable by the
average human ear at a frequency of 1 KHz.
It is equal to zero decibels (0dB) intensity.

Decibels (dB)

 Decibel: is a logarithmic unit of measurement of the loudness of sound

 A decibel (dB) is a unit for comparing the loudness of two different sounds.
 A decibel (dB): is a logarithmic unit used to express the ratio of two values of sound intensity.
One of the values of the ratio is often a standard reference value, in which case the decibel is
used to express the level of the other value relative to this reference.
The usual basis of comparison is barely audible, the sound of a very quiet room, or 0.00002Pa,
at which 0dB.
Decibels measure the ratio of a given intensity 𝐼 to the threshold of hearing intensity 𝐼𝑜 . This
means so that 𝐼𝑜 has the value 0 decibels (0 dB).
The intensity level (𝛽) of a sound in dB is given by:
 I 
I  dB   10dB  log10  
 IO 
 I 
  10dB  log    6.102 
 IO 

Remark!

 The intensity level of sound is zero means that when intensity level of sound is equal to the
threshold intensity of sound i.e. 𝐼 = 𝐼𝑜 .

Example

1. What is the intensity level of a sound whose intensity is 1 × 10−7 𝑊/𝑚2 ?

Given Required

𝐼0 = 1 × 10−12 𝑊/𝑚2 𝛽 =?
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𝐼 = 1 × 10−12 𝑊/𝑚2

Solution

 I 
  10dB  log  
 IO 
 1 107 W m2 
 10dB  log  12 W 
 1 10 m2 

 10dB  log 110 7 12 

 10dB  log 1105 
 10dB  5 
  50dB

2. The average sound intensity in laid law Hall when measured at 10m from the stage is 𝐼𝑜 . What
is the average sound intensity at 30m from the stage?

Given Required

𝑟1 = 10𝑚 𝐼 =?
𝑟2 = 30𝑚
𝐼𝑜

Solution
I1r12  I 2 r22 , let I1  I o & I 2  I
I o r12  Ir22
I o 10m   I  30m 
2 2

I o 100m 2   I  900m 2 
I o 100m 2  I  900m 2 

100m 2 100m 2
Io  9I
1
I  Io
9

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3. A person speaking normally produces a sound of intensity 40dB at a distance of 1m. If

threshold intensity for r reasonable audibility is 20dB, the maximum distance at which he can
be heard clearly is?

Given Required

𝐼1 = 40𝑑𝐵 𝑟2 =?
𝐼2 = 20𝑑𝐵
𝑟1 = 1𝑚

Solution

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 I 
  10dB  log  
 Io 
I 
40dB  10dB  log  1 
 Io 
I1
 104 i 
Io
I 
20dB  10dB  log  2 
 Io 
I2
 102  ii 
Io
I1 r22
  iii 
I 2 r12

 Dividing Eq. (i) by Eq.(ii), we get

I1 I o I1 104 r22
  
I o I 2 I 2 102 r12
r22
102 
r12
r22  100 1m 
2

r2  100m 2  10m

The speed of sound

Sound waves are longitudinal waves.

They travel through any material medium.
The speed of the wave depends on the properties of sinusoidal sound waves is very similar to
sinusoidal waves on string.

S  x, t   A cos  2 x  2 ft   6.103

Where S is used instead of y to denote horizontal displacement of a particle away from its
equilibrium.

 The speed of sound is different in different medium.

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 The closer the distance between vibrating molecules, the faster and better the transmission of
sound.
 Elastic property: is the tendency of a material to maintain its shape and do not deform when a
force is applied to the object or medium. E.g., steel.
 Sound can travel faster in medium with higher elastic properties.

Remark!

In a medium, the speed of sound depends up on elasticity and density of medium.

Speed of sound is maximum in solids and minimum in gases.
When sound enters from one medium to another medium, its speed and wavelength changes
but frequency remain the same.
In medium, the speed of sound is independent of frequency.

A. Effect of pressure on the speed of sound

The speed of sound is independent of pressure i.e., speed remains unchanged by the
increasing or decreasing of pressure.

B. Effect of Temperature on the speed of sound

The speed of sound increases with increase of the temperature of the medium.
The speed of sound in air increases by 0.6m/s when the temperature is increased 1°𝑐.

C. Effect of humidity on speed of sound

The speed of sound is more in humid air than in dry air because the density of humid air is less
than the density of dry air.

Speed of sound in different medium

The speed of sound waves in a medium depends on the compressibility and the density of the
medium.

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The compressibility can sometimes be expressed in terms of the elastic modulus of the
material.
The speed of all mechanical waves follows a general form:

elastic property
v  6.104 
density of material

Speed of sound in a solid rod

The speed depends on the rod’s compressibility and density of the material:

Y
v  6.105


Y is the young modulus of the material.

𝜌 is the density of the material in kg/𝑚3 .

Speed of sound in a liquid

In liquid, the speed depends on the liquid compressibility and density of the material.

B
v  6.106


B is the Bulk Modulus of the liquid.

𝜌 is the density of the material in kg/𝑚3 .

Speed of sound in gas

The velocity of the sound wave in the air is given by

p
v  6.107 


Where, 𝛾 =ratio of specific heats of medium

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𝑝 =pressure of the medium

𝜌 = density of medium

Example

1. Find the speed of sound in water, which has a bulk modulus of 2.1 × 109 𝑁/𝑚2 at a
temperature of 𝑜°𝑐 and density of 1 × 103 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 ?

Given Required

𝐵 = 2.1 × 109 𝑁/𝑚2 𝑣 =?

𝜌 = 1 × 103 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3

Solution

B
v

2.1109 N m2

1103 kg m3
 2.11093 m
2

s2

 2.1106 m
2

s2

v  1449 m s

6.5.1. The Doppler Effect

 The Doppler Effect is the change in frequency (wavelength) of a wave detected (heard) by an
observer (listener) due to the relative motion between the observer and the sound source.
 When the source and observer are moving toward each other, the observer hears a high
frequency (𝑓𝐿 ) than the frequency of the source (𝑓𝑆 ). i.e., 𝑓𝐿 > 𝑓𝑆 →approaching each other.
The wavelength decreases and the frequency (𝑓𝐿 ) of sound increases.
 When the source and observer are moving away from each other, the observer hears a lower
frequency than the frequency of the source. i.e., 𝑓𝐿 < 𝑓𝑆 →away from the observer.

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The wavelength increases and the frequency decreases.

If source and observer both are relatively at rest and if speed of sound is increased then
frequency heard by observer will not change. i.e., 𝑓𝑜 = 𝑓𝑠 .

Equation of Doppler Effect in sound wave

When both the source and the observer are in motion relative to Earth, and if observer are in
in motion relative to Earth, and if observer is moving with speed 𝑣𝑜 and the source is moving
with speed 𝑣𝑠 , the observed frequency 𝑓𝑜 (𝑓𝐿 ) is given by:

 vo 
 v  vo   1 v 
fo    fs   v  fs  6.108
 v  vs   1 s 
 v 

 Eq. (6.108) shows, when both the source and the observer approaching each other.

Where

𝑓𝑜 = observer frequency (what you hear)

𝑓𝑠 = source frequency (original frequency)
𝑣 =speed of sound in air
𝑣𝑜 =the speed of the observer
𝑣𝑠 =the speed of the source.

Sign convection

 Speed of observer (𝑣𝑜); positive “+" → for motion toward the source.
Negative “−" → for motion away from the source.

 Speed of the source (𝑣𝑠); positive “+" → for motion toward the observer.
Negative “−" → for motion away from the observer.

 Speed of sound in air (v) gives positive “+” direction.

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Apply the equation

1. Source moving towards the observer at rest

 v  vo 
fo    f s , but v o  0
 v  vs 
 v   1 
fo    f s   vs  f s  6.109 
 v  vs   1 v 

2. Source moving away from the observer at rest

 v 
f o    f s
 v    v 
s 

 v 
fo    fs  6.110 
 v  vs 

3. Observer moving toward a stationary source

 v  vo 
fo    f s , but v s  0
 v  vs 
 v  vo 
fo    fs  6.111
 v 

4. Observer moving away from a stationary source

 v   vo  
fo    fs
 v 
 v  vo 
fo    fs  6.112 
 v 

 The apparent change in the wavelength of sound heard by the observer is given by

  s  o
v v 1 1
      v  6.113
f s fo  f s fo 

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Where 𝑣 = velocity of sound wave in air, 𝜆 𝑠 = 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒, 𝜆 𝑜 = wavelength

of an observer, 𝑓𝑠 = frequency of a source and 𝑓𝑜 = apparent frequency (frequency of an
observer)

Example

1. A siren emitting a sound of frequency 800Hz moves away from an observer towards a cliff at
a speed of 15m/s. Then, the frequency of sound that the observer hears in the echo reflected
from the cliff is? (take velocity of sound in air = 330m/s)

Given Required

𝑓𝑠 = 800𝐻𝑧 𝑓𝑜 =?
𝑣𝑠 = 15𝑚/𝑠
𝑣 = 330𝑚/𝑠
Solution
As observer is at rest, 𝒗𝒐 = 𝟎, since the source moves towards cliff, i.e., effectively
the source moves towards the observer (sound being heard through echo)

 v  vo 
fo    f s , vo
 v  vs 
 v 
fo    fs
 v  vs 
 330 m s 
  800 Hz
 330 s  15 s 
m m

 330 m s 
   800 Hz 
 315 m s 
f o  838 Hz

2. A source of sound of frequency 450 cycles/sec is moving towards a stationary observer with
34m/s speed. If the speed of sound is 340m/s, then the apparent frequency will be

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Given Required

𝑓𝑠 = 450𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠/𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑓𝑜 =?
𝑣𝑠 = 34𝑚/𝑠
𝑣 = 340𝑚/𝑠
Solution

 v 
fo    fs
 v  vs 
 
  450 sec 
340 m s
 cycles

 340 s  34 s 
m m

f o  500 cycles sec

3. Two cars moving in opposite directions approach each other with speed of 22m/s and 16.5m/s
respectively. The driver of the first car blows a horn having a frequency 400Hz. The frequency
heard by the driver of the second car is? (Take velocity of sound 340m/s)

Given Required

𝑓𝑠 = 𝑓1 = 400𝐻𝑧 𝑓𝑜 = 𝑓2 =?
𝑣1 = 𝑣𝑠 = 22𝑚/𝑠
𝑣2 = 𝑣𝑜 = 16.5𝑚/𝑠
Solution

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 When both source and observer are moving towards each, frequency heard by driver of
second car is given by

 v  vo 
fo    f s , hence, v o  v 2 , v s  v1 & f s  f1
 v  vs 
 v  v2 
f2    f1
 v  v1 
 340  16.5 
   400 Hz 
 340  22 
 356.5 
   400 Hz 
 318 
f 2  448Hz

4. A source producing sound of frequency 170Hz is approaching a stationary observer with a

velocity 17𝑚/𝑠. The apparent change in the wavelength of sound heard by the observer is
(speed of sound in air = 340m/s)

Given Required

𝑓𝑠 = 170𝐻𝑧 ∆𝜆 =?
𝑣𝑠 = 17𝑚/𝑠
𝑣 = 340𝑚/𝑠
Solution

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 v 
fo    fs
 v  vs 
 340 
  170 Hz 
 340  17 
f o  178.9 Hz
v 340 m s
s    2m
f s 170 sec
v 340 m s
o    1.9m
f s 178.9 sec
  s  o
  2m  1.9m  0.1m

Review Question

1. What do wave transport from one place to another?

A. Energy B. Wavelength C. mass D. Amplitude
2. Which one the following does not belong to the common properties of the wave?
A. Interface B. Polarization C. Refraction D. Diffraction
3. Refraction is the
A. bending the light as it passes through a small gap
B. Change in the intensity of light as it crosses the boundary between two transparent media.
C. Bending of light as it crosses the boundary between two transparent media.
D. Change in the frequency of light as it crosses the boundary between two transparent media
4. the frequency of a wave is the
A. number of complete waves passing a given point per second
B. time taken for one complete wave to pass a given point
C. distance the wave travels in one second
D. minimum distance between identical point on adjacent waves
5. The phenomena of bending of light round corners is called

A. Interference of light B. Diffraction C. Polarization D. Refraction

6. When a ray of light passes from a rarer to a denser medium it’s

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A. wavelength decreases C. Frequency decreases

B. Wavelength and frequency unchanged D. Frequency increases
7. What is the basic difference between mechanical and electromagnetic waves?

A. Mechanical waves are longitudinal waves while electromagnetic waves are transverse.
B. Mechanical waves require material medium while electromagnetic waves do not.
C. Mechanical waves are compression while electromagnetic waves rarefaction.
D. Mechanical waves travel in one direction while electromagnetic waves do in all direction.
8. A constructive interference is a wave phenomenon that occurs when two waves moves in

A. The same direction in phase C. opposite directions out of phase

B. The same directions out of phase D. opposite directions in phase
9. All electromagnetic waves travel with the same speed in

A. Air B. Water C. Mirror D. Vacuum

10. Which one of the following cannot pass through the vacuum?

A. Ultraviolet C. Infrared rays

B. x- ray D. Sound wave.
11. In a certain wave oscillation of the particles is right angle to the direction of the wave
propagation. Which one is not true about wave?

A. It is a longitudinal wave C. It is electromagnetic wave

B. It is a transverse wave D. It is a radio wave
12. A ray of light reflected from the smooth surface. Which of the following about the ratio of the
angle of incidence to the angle of reflection is true?

A. It is less than one C. It is equal to one

B. It is greater than one D. It is impossible to determine.
13. The property of a sound wave that is related to the loudness is:

A. The wavelength B. the pitch C. The speed D. The intensity

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14. As wind blows across a field of grain, the tops of the plants move back and forth when a waves
travels across the field. This wave is a

A. Transverse wave C. electromagnetic wave

B. Polarized wave D. longitudinal wave
15. What will be the effect of temperature on speed of sound?

A. The speed of sound decreases with the increases of temperature of the medium.
B. The speed of sound decreases with the decrease of temperature of the medium.
C. The speed of sound increases with the decrease of temperature of the medium.
D. The speed of sound increases with the increase of temperature of the medium
16. Tola shouts into a hard dark cave; after fraction of second, he hears the sound of his own voice.
This phenomena is:

A. Interference C. Reflectio n
B. Diffraction D. refraction
17. The speed of transverse waves on a string depends upon

A. Linear mass density, tension C. Length of string, mass

B. Mass density, length of string D. wavelength, velocity
18. The fundamental frequency of pipe is 100Hz and the other two frequencies are 300Hz and
500Hz then:

A. The pipe is open at both the ends

B. The pipe is closed at both the ends
C. One end open and another end is closed
D. None of the above
19. The fundamental frequency of an open pipe of length 0.5m is equal to the frequency of the first
overtone of a closed pipe of length L. the value of 𝐿 𝐶 is (m)?

A. 1.5m B. 0.75m C. 2m D. 1m
20. Standing waves are produced in a 10m stretched string. If the string vibrates in 5 segments and
the wave velocity is 20m/s, the frequency is:
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A. 2Hz B. 4Hz C. 5Hz D. 10Hz

21. A stretched of length L, fixed at both ends can sustain stationary waves of wavelength 𝜆, given
by:
𝑛2 𝐿2 2𝐿
A. 𝜆 = B. 𝜆 = C. 𝜆 = D. 𝜆 = 2𝐿𝑛
2𝐿 2𝑛 𝑛

22. In closed organ pipe, the frequency of the fundamental note is 50Hz. The note of which of the
following frequencies will not be emitted by it:
A. 50Hz B. 100Hz C. 150Hz D. None of the above
23. What is the fundamental frequency if a pipe gives notes of frequencies 425, 255, and 595 and
decided whether it is closed at one end or open at both ends:
A. 12, closed C. 17, Open
B. 85, closed D. 85, Open
24. When two sound waves are superimposed, beats are produced when they have
A. Different amplitudes and phases
B. Different velocities
C. Different phases
D. Different frequencies
25. What phenomenon is created by two tuning forks side by side emitting frequencies, which
differ by only a small amount?
A. Resonance C. The Doppler effect
B. Interference D. Beats
26. Two vibrating forks held side by side, well create a beat frequency of what value if the
individual frequencies of the two forks are 342Hz and 345Hz, respectively?
A. 687Hz B. 343.5Hz C.339Hz D. 3Hz
27. Two vibrating tuning forks produce waves given by 𝑦1 = 4𝑠𝑖𝑛500𝜋𝑡 and 𝑦2 = 2𝑠𝑖𝑛506𝜋𝑡.
Number of beats produced per minute is
A. 360 B. 180 C. 60 D. 3
28. The intensity level of sound is zero decibel means that:
A. 𝐼 = 0 B. 𝐼 = 2𝐼𝑜 C. 𝐼 = 𝐼𝑜 D. 𝐼 = 𝑊/𝑚2
29. The Doppler effect is apple for

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A. Light wave C. space waves

B. Sound wave D. A and B
30. If source and observer both are relatively at rest and if speed of sound is increased then
frequency heard by observer will be:

A. Increases C. cannot be predicted

B. Decreases D. will not change
31. A source emits a sound of frequency of 400Hz, but the listener hears it to be 390Hz. Then

A. The listener is moving towards the source

B. The source is moving towards the listener
C. The listener is moving away from the source
D. The listener has a defective ear

Answer Key

1. A 11. A 21. C 31. C

2. B 12. C 22. B
3. C 13. D 23. B
4. A 14. D 24. D
5. B 15. D 25. D
6. A 16. C 26. D
7. B 17. A 27. B
8. B 18. C 28. C
9. A 19. B 29. D
10. D 20. C 30. D

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Chapter Seven

7. Heat and Thermodynamics

Thermodynamics is a science of the relationship between heat, work, temperature and

Energy.
Thermodynamics deals with the transfer of energy from one system to another and from one
form to another.
Thermodynamics is about the way a system exchanges energy with its environment.

Thermodynamic System

A thermodynamic system is defined by its temperature, volume, pressure and chemica l

composition.
 A thermodynamic system is a certain portion of the physical universe, which we have taken
into consideration for our investigation.
 The system we isolate from other part of the universe may be large or small, enclosed by real
or imaginary boundaries.
 The surrounding is the environment that is around a system and in thermal contact with it.
 The surroundings is everything outside the system.
 A thermodynamic system is defined by its temperature, volume, pressure and chemical
composition.
Example
The gas confined in a cylinder is our system and the walls of the cylinder are its
boundary.

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Figure 1: Schematic of a thermodynamic system

Depending on the nature of matter and energy exchange between the system and the
surroundings we have three types of system:
Isolated System: No transfer of energy and matter between system and the surroundings
A system which does not exchange heat with its surrounding and no work is done
on the external environment is called isolated System
Closed system: No exchange of matter, but exchange of energy
Open system: Both energy and matter can be transferred between the system and the
surroundings

Remark!

Thermodynamics is about the way a system exchanges energy with its environment.

Thermodynamic variables

 Any property of the system which changed as a result of a thermodynamic process is called
thermodynamic variable or state variable.
 This includes the physical properties of the system such as number of moles (n), temperature
(T), pressure (P), volume (V), concentration (C), internal energy (E), etc.
A system is in equilibrium when each of (temperature, pressure and volume) variables has
the same value at all points.

7.1. Hear, Temperature, the Zeroth law of thermodynamics and thermal

Expansion

7.1.1. Heat and temperature

Heat (Q): is a form of energy that flows from a region of higher temperature to a region of
lower temperature.
Heat (Q): is the transfer of energy between the system and its environment due to a
temperature difference between them.

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Heat (Q): is a transfer of energy across the boundary of a system due to temperature
difference.
Heat (Q): is a form of energy transferred from hot body to cold body.
Heat (Q): is a form of energy associated with increase in temperature.
All input of heat causes increase in temperature.
Released of heat results in decrease of temperature.
Its SI unit is Joule (J)

Temperature (T)

 Temperature is common intensive properties of system that are in thermal equilibrium.

 Systems in mutual thermal equilibrium have the same temperature.

 Temperature determines direction of heat flow.

 Temperature is the measure of average kinetic energy of individual particles/molecules of a

system.

 Its SI unit is Kelvin (K)

7.1.2. Thermal contact and Thermal Equilibrium

Thermal contact

Two objects are in thermal contact with each other if energy exchange can occur between
them in the absence of work done by one on the other.
Two systems are said to be in thermal contact if they can exchange energy through the
process of heat transfer.
Two object with different temperatures can exchange energy, if they are in thermal contact.
The energy exchanged between objects because they are in thermal contact is called heat.

Thermal Equilibrium

Thermal Equilibrium is a condition in which two objects in thermal contact with each other
stops to have any net energy exchange due to a difference in their temperature.

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If two objects are in thermal contact and do not exchange heat, then they are in thermal
equilibrium.
Two system are said to be in thermal equilibrium if there is no net flow of heat between them
when they are brought into thermal contact.
Temperature is the indicator of thermal equilibrium in the sense that there is no net flow of
heat between two systems in thermal contact that have the same temperature.

Remark!
In Thermal equilibrium:
The two systems have the same temperature.
There is no flow of heat from one part of the system to the other.
There is no flow of heat from the system to its surroundings or in the surrounding to the
system
When two systems with unequal temperatures come into contact with one another:
Heat will flow until thermal equilibrium is reached
No net heat flow occurs once thermal equilibrium is reached
The natural flow of heat will be from the warmer system to the colder system
Heat flow occurs between two bodies in thermal contact when they differ in temperature.

The Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics

 The zeroth law of thermodynamics states that: “Two bodies that are separately in thermal
equilibrium with a third body must be in in thermal equilibrium with each other”.
 If objects A and B are separately in thermal equilibrium with a third object C, then objects A
and B are in thermal equilibrium with each other. This law is said to be zeroth law of
thermodynamics.

Temperature Scales

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 Thermometers is a device which allow measurements to decide whether any two systems will
or will not remain in equilibrium when brought into thermal contact with each other.
 Thermometers are device used to measure the temperature of the system.
 A thermometer in thermal equilibrium with a system measures both the temperature of the
system and its own temperature.
 Thermometers measure temperature according to well defined scales of measurement.
 There three temperature scales in use today. There are:
Fahrenheit
Celsius and
Kelvin

Temperature Conversion

To convert from Equation

Celsius to Fahrenheit 𝟗
𝑻𝑭 = 𝑻 + 𝟑𝟐
𝟓 𝑪
Fahrenheit to Celsius 𝟓
𝑻𝑪 = (𝑻𝑭 − 𝟑𝟐)
𝟗
Celsius to Kelvin 𝑻𝑲 = 𝑻𝑪 + 𝟐𝟕𝟑. 𝟏𝟓
Kelvin to Celsius 𝑻𝑪 = 𝑻𝑲 − 𝟐𝟕𝟑. 𝟏𝟓
Fahrenheit to Kelvin 𝟓
𝑻𝑲 = (𝑻 − 𝟑𝟐) + 𝟐𝟕𝟑. 𝟏𝟓
𝟗 𝑭
Kelvin to Fahrenheit 𝟓
𝑻𝑭 = (𝑻 − 𝟐𝟕𝟑. 𝟏𝟓) + 𝟑𝟐
𝟗 𝑲

The freezing (ice) point of water is 0°𝐶 and boiling (steam) point is 100°𝐶 in the case of degree
Celsius (°𝐶 ).
The Fahrenheit scale has the freezing (ice) point of water at 32°𝐹 and the boiling (steam) point
at 212°𝐹.
In the Kelvin scale has the freezing (ice) point of water at 273K and the boiling (steam) point
at 373K.

Conversion of known temperature scale to an unknown temperature scale

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Let 𝐴 → Temperature measure in scale A

𝐵 → Temperature measured in scale B
𝑇𝑖𝐴 → Freezing (ice) point of A
𝑇𝑆𝐴 → Steam (boiling) point of A
𝑇𝑖𝐵 → Freezing (boiling) point of B
𝑇𝑆𝐵 → Steam (boiling) point of B
Then
A  TiA B  TiB
  7.1
TSA  TiA TSB  TiB
Example
The boiling of water on a thermometer scale X is marked as 130°𝑋 and the freezing
point as −20°𝑋. What will a temperature of 60°𝐶 be read on the scale X?
Given Required
𝑇𝑖𝑋 = −20°𝑋 °𝑋 =?
𝑇𝑆𝑋 = 130°𝑋
𝐶 = 60°𝐶
𝑇𝑖𝐶 = 0°𝐶
𝑇𝑆𝐶 = 100°𝐶
Solution

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C  TiC X  TiX

TSC  TiC TSC  TiX
60c  0c X   20 X 

100c  0c 130 X   20 X 
60Co X  20 X

100C 130 X  20 X
0

6 X  20 X

10 150 X
10  X  20 X   6 150 X 
10 X  200 X  900 X
10 X  900 X  200 X
10 X  700 X
700 X
X
10
X  70 X

At what temperature do the Celsius and Fahrenheit readings have the same numerical
value?

Solution
9
TF  TC  32, Let TF  TC   x
5
9
 x   x  32
5
9
 x   x  32
5
5 x  9 x
 32
5
5 x  9 x  32  5
4 x  160
160
x  
4
 x  40
x  4 o 
TF  40oF and TC  40Co

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7.1.3. Thermal Expansion

 Thermal expansion is the tendency of matter to change in shape, volume, and area in
response to a change in temperature.
 Thermal expansion is the increase or decrease of the size (length, area, volume) of a body due
to a change in temperature.
 There are three types of thermal expansion:
Linear thermal expansion
Areal thermal expansion
Volume thermal expansion
A. Linear Thermal Expansion (Thermal Expansion of Solids)
Linear thermal expansion is the process by which solid objects expand in length as a result
of a transfer of energy into that object due to heat.
When the temperature of the body increases the average distance between atoms of solid
body will increases. Which lead to an expansion of solid body.
The change in any linear dimension of solid such as its length, width or thickness is called
linear expansion.
When an object is heated or cooled, its length (∆𝐿) changes by an amount proportional to the
original length (𝐿 𝑜 ) and the change in temperature (∆𝑇).
The increase in length ∆𝐿 of any side will depend on the original length 𝐿 𝑜 , the rise in
temperature ∆𝑇, and the coefficient of expansion linear expansion 𝛼.

∆𝐿 ∝ ∆𝑇 and ∆𝐿 ∝ 𝐿 𝑜

L  Lo T , L  L  Lo , & T  T f  Ti
L   Lo T
L  Lo   Lo T
L  Lo   Lo T
L  Lo 1  T   7.2 

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The coefficient of linear expansion 𝛼 may be define as the increase in length par unit length
when the temperature is raised 1°𝐶.
1 1
The SI unit of 𝛼 = 𝐾 or °𝐶

Some typical coefficients of thermal expansion

Substance Coefficient of linear expansion, 𝜶 (𝑲 −𝟏 )

Lead 29 × 10−6
Aluminum 24 × 10−6
Brass 19 × 10−6
Copper 17 × 10−6
Iron (steal) 12 × 10−6
Concrete 12 × 10−6
Window glass 11 × 10−6
Pyrex glass 3.3 × 10−6
Quartz 0.5 × 10−6

B. Areal Expansion
 Area expansion occurs is the change in area due to temperature change.
 The change in area ∆𝐴 of a solid is proportional to its initial or original area 𝐴𝑜 and the change
in its temperature ∆𝑇. That is
A  Ao T
A   Ao T
A  Ao   Ao T
A  Ao   Ao T
A  Ao 1  T   7.3

Where 𝛽 is the coefficient of area expansion

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The area thermal expansion coefficient relates the change in a material’s area dimension to
change in temperature.
It is the fractional change in area per degree of temperature change.
Relation between coefficient of linear expansion and coefficient of area expansion:

  2  7.4

C. Volume Expansion
Volume expansion is defined as the increase in volume of solid on heating.
Volume of matter expands when the atomic spacing increases.
Increase temperature → increase volume.
The change in volume ∆𝑉 of a solid is proportional to its original volume 𝑉𝑂 and the change
in its temperature ∆𝑇.

V  Vo T
V   Vo T
V  Vo   Vo T
V  Vo   Vo T
V  Vo 1  T   7.5 

Where 𝛾 is the coefficient of volume expansion

Relation between coefficient of linear expansion and coefficient of volume expansion:

  3  7.6

Example

1. A material has a coefficient of volume expansion of 60 × 10−6 /°𝐶. What is its area
coefficient of expansion?

Given Required

𝛾 = 60 × 10−6 /°𝐶 𝛽 =?
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Solution
  3
 60 106 / C
   20  106 / C
3 3
  2  2  20 106 / C  40 10 6 / C

7.2. The concept of Heat, work and Internal Energy

Heat (Q)

Heat (Q) is the transfer of energy between the system and its environment due to a
temperature difference between them
Heat is the spontaneous (Happening or a rising without external cause) flow of energy into
or out of a system caused by a temperature difference between and its surrounding.

Work (W)

Work (W) is the energy transferred from one body to another due to force that acts.
Work is a non-spontaneous (external cause) energy transfer into or out of a system due to
force acting a displacement.
Heat and work are two possible ways of transferring energy from one system to another.
Heat transfer obeys the law of conservation of Energy.

𝑄𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑏𝑦 ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 𝑄𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 (7.7)

Internal Energy (U)

Internal Energy (U): is defined as the energy associated with the random, disordered
motion of the microscopic (atoms, molecules) particles or molecules.
Internal energy (U) is the sum of kinetic energy due to the motion of molecules and the
potential energy associated with the vibrational motion of atoms within molecules.
Internal energy is the total energy associated with the entire particle in a system.

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7.3. Specific Heat and Latent Heat

Heat Capacity (C)

Heat Capacity (C): is heat energy required to raise the temperature of a body by 1°𝐶.
Heat capacity (C): is defined as the amount of heat energy needed to raise the temperature of
a body by 1°𝐶.
It is the product of specific heat capacity and mass i.e.,

C  cm  7.8

𝐽
The SI unit of heat capacity is Joule per Kelvin (𝐾 ).

Specific Heat Capacity (c)

Specific heat Capacity (c): is the heat energy required to raise the temperature of 1kg of
a body by 1°𝐶.
The specific heat capacity of a material is the quantity of heat required to raise the
temperature of a unit mass through one degree.
The specific heat of a substance is the heat energy needed to change one kilogram of the
substance by one degree or one kelvin.

C  cm
C
c  7.9 
m

Where 𝐶 = heat capacity, 𝑐 = specific heat capacity and 𝑚 = mass of a body.

𝐽 𝐽
The SI unit of specific heat capacity is or .
𝑘𝑔𝐾 𝑘𝑔°𝐶

The specific heat capacity of a substance shows by how money joules of internal energy of a
1kg of substance change up on the change in temperature of 1°𝐶.

Quantity of heat (Q)

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Quantity of heat is heat content of a body

The amount of heat lost or gained by a body of mass m as its temperature change from 𝑇𝑖 to 𝑇𝑓
is known as Quantity of heat Q.

Q  mcT  7.10
Where 𝑐 = specific heat capacity
The specific heat capacity of a substance changes when it passes from one phase to another,
for example, the specific heat capacity of water in liquid state is not the same when it is in solid
state, i.e., in the ice form.
The amount of heat required to change the temperature of n molecules of substance, usually
for gas, by ∆𝑇 is given by:

Q  nCT  7.11

Where 𝐶 =heat capacity.

Latent (hidden) heat

Latent heat 𝑸𝑳 : is the amount of heat released or absorbed by a substance when causes change
of state without a change in temperature.
Latent heat is the heat required to convert a solid into liquid or vapor, or a liquid into vapor,
without change of temperature.
Latent heat is the heat for an object to change phase (melt, boil, free, etc.) without change of
temperature.

 The latent heat 𝑄𝐿 required to change the phase of “m” mass of a body at constant
temperature is given by:

QL  mL  7.12

Where L is the specific latent heat required to change the phase of 1kg of a substance at
constant temperature.

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Types of Latent heat Transfer

 There are two types of latent heat transfer between an object and its environment:
Latent Heat of Fusion (𝐿 𝑓 ) and
Latent Heat of Vaporization (𝐿 𝑉 )

Latent Heat of Fusion (𝑳𝒇 )

 Latent Heat of Fusion (𝑳𝒇 ): is the heat absorbed or released when matter melts, changing
phase from solid to liquid form at constant temperature.
 Latent heat of fusion (𝑳𝒇 ): is the heat energy required to change 1kg of a substance from solid
to liquid at its melting point.
 The heat energy required to melt a body of mass m from solid to liquid at its melting point is
given by

Q  mL f  7.13

Where 𝐿𝑓 specific heat of fusion

Its SI unit is 𝐽/𝑘𝑔.

Latent Heat of Vaporization (𝑳𝑽 )

 Latent Heat of Vaporization (𝑳𝑽 ): is the heat absorbed or released when matter vaporizes,
changing phase from liquid to gas phase at constant temperature.

 The amount of energy required to change the liquid to gas and vice versa without any change
in temperature is termed as Latent Heat of vaporization.

 Latent Heat of Vaporization (𝑳𝑽 ): is the heat energy required to change 1kg of a substance
from liquid to gas at its boiling points.

 Its SI unit is 𝐽/𝑘𝑔

The heat energy required to evaporate a body of mass m from liquid to gas at its boiling
point is given by:

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Q  mLV  7.14

Example

1. Calculate the total heat energy required to increase the temperature of 500 gram of ice from a solid at
−10°𝐶 to steam at 1100 C?
𝐾𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝐾𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝐾𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝐾𝑐𝑎𝑙
(Use 𝑐𝑖𝑐𝑒 = 0.49 ; 𝑐𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 1 ; 𝑐𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑚 = 0.48 ; 𝐿𝑖𝑐𝑒 = 80 and
𝑘𝑔°c 𝑘𝑔°𝑐 𝑘𝑔 °𝑐 𝑘𝑔

𝐿𝑣𝑎𝑝(𝑖𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟) = 540 𝐾 𝑐𝑎𝑙 /𝑘𝑔.

Given Required
m  500 gm  0.5kg QT  ?
cice  0.49 Kcal
kg  c

cwater 1 Kcal
kg  c

csteam  0.48 Kcal kg c

Lice fus   80 Kcal kg
Lvapiwater   540 Kcal kg

Solution
To get the total heat energy, first calculating the individual heat energy values and then sum-up them.

i  Qice  mice cice T  from -10° to 0°c   ii  To melt the ice

  0.5kg   0.49 Kcal kg c   0°  (10°c)  Qice  mice L fus  mice Lice
  0.5kg   0.49 Kcal kg c   0°c  10°c  
 0.5 kg  80 Kcal
kg 

 0.245 kg Kcal
kg  c  10 °c  Qice  40 Kcal

  0.245 10  Kcal

Qice  2.45Kcal

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 iii  To raise the temperature of the water  iV  To boil the water we need,
to 100°c C we need, QL  mwater LVap  mwater Liwater
Qwater  mwater cwaer T  from 0°c to 100°c  
 0.5 kg   540 Kcal
kg 
  0.5kg  1 Kcal
kg  c  100°c  0°c    0.5  540  Kcal

 0.5 kg  1 Kcal
kg  c  100 °c  QL  270 Kcal
  0.5 100  Kcal
Qwater  50 Kcal

V  To raise the temperature of the steam Therefore, the total heat energy required is
to 110°c we need, QT  Qice  Qice  Qwater  QL  Qice
Qice  msteam csteam T  from 100°c to 110°c    2.45  40  50  270  2.4  Kcal
  0.5kg   0.48 Kcal kg  c  110°c  100°c  Q  364.85Kcal


 0.5 kg   0.48 Kcal
kg  c  10 °c 
  0.5  0.48 10  Kcal
Qice  2.4 Kcal

Heat transfer mechanics

 Heat may be transferred from one place to another in three ways:

Conduction
Convection and
Radiation

Conduction

 Conduction is the transfer of heat energy from one molecule to another by direct contact.

 Conduction involves molecules transferring kinetic energy to one another through collision.
The heat transfer takes place due to the difference in temperature
Heat transfer in conduction is slow
Heat transfer occurs through a heated solid object.
It does not follow the law of reflection and refraction.
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Convection

 Convection is the movement of heat by a fluid such as water or air.

 It is the mechanism of heat transfer that takes place due to the actual movement of molecules
(heated molecules move from hot places to cooler places).

 When a fluid, such as air or a liquid, is heated and then travels away from the source, it
carries the thermal energy along. This type of heat transfer is called convection.

 Convection occurs when hot air rises, allowing cooler air to come in and be heated.
In convection, the heat transfer takes within the fluid.
Heat transfer occurs due to the difference in density.
Heat transfer in convection is faster.
Heat transfer occurs through intermediate object. For example, heat transfer between
air and water.
It does not follow the law of reflection and refraction.

Radiation

 Radiation is the transfer of heat by electromagnetic waves.

The heat transfer occurs in all objects with a temperature greater than 0K.
Heat transfer in radiation is the fastest
Heat transfer occurs through electromagnetic waves
It follows the law of reflection and refraction.

7.4. Law of thermodynamics

The basic law of thermodynamics are

The zeroth law of thermodynamics

The first law of thermodynamics
The second law of thermodynamics

Zeroth law of thermodynamics

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 Two systems individually in thermal equilibrium with a third system are in thermal equilibrium
with each other.
 Two system are said to be in thermal equilibrium if there is no net flow of heat between them
when they are brought into thermal contact.

First law of thermodynamics

The concept of work, heat and the internal energy of a system are related by the first law of
thermodynamics, which is an expression of the law of conservation of energy.

Remark!

Work is the energy transferred from one body to another due to force that acts.
Heat is the transfer of energy between the system and its environment due to a temperature
difference between them.
Internal energy (U) is the total energy associated with all the particle in a system.
Internal energy includes kinetic energy and potential energy that makes up the system.
In ideal gas there are no interactions between molecules, other than perfectly elastic condition;
hence there is no potential energy. As a result the total energy of the system is the sum of the
kinetic energy of each of its molecules.

Internal energy (𝑈) of a monoatomic ideal gas is given by

3
U nRT  7.15
2

7.4.1. First law of thermodynamics

 The first law of thermodynamics states that: “The change in internal energy of a system is
equal to the sum of the heat flow into the system and the work done on the system.”
 It states that that: the increase in internal energy of a system is equal to the sum of the energy
entering a system through heating, and the work done on the system
Or

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 It says that the change in the internal energy of the system is equal to the sum of the heat gained
or lost by the system and the work done by or on the system.
 It is law of conservation of energy for a thermodynamic system.
U  Q  W  7.16

Where ∆𝑈 is the change in internal energy of the system, 𝑊 = 𝑃∆𝑉 is the work done on the
system (or by the system) and P and ∆𝑉 are the pressure and change in volume of the system.

Sign convection

We use the following sign convection with the first law:

Heat transferred is positive when it transferred to the system (+𝑄). Heat in is positive.
Heat removed (loses) from the system is negative when it flows out of the system (−𝑄). Heat
out is negative.
When energy enters a system, we say that work has been done on the system. Or if work is
done on the system, the system gains energy and the sign of work is positive (+𝑊 ). E.g. work
done by an expanding gas, the work done is positive
When energy leaves (loses) a system, we say that work is done by the system and the sign of
work is negative (−𝑊 ).

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When heat is added to or removed from a system, or work is done by or on the system,
thermodynamic process occur that can change the system from one equilibrium state to another
final state.

Example

1. A gas is compressed from 9L to 2L at constant pressure of 0.8atm. in the process, 400J of

energy leaves the gas by heat.
A. What is the work done by the gas?
B. What is the change in internal energy?

Given Required

1𝐿 = 0.001𝑚3 = 10−3 𝑚3 A. 𝑊 =?
𝑉𝑖 = 9𝐿 = 9 × 10−3 𝑚3 B. ∆𝑈 =?
𝑉𝑓 = 2𝐿 = 2 × 10−3 𝑚3
𝑄 = −400𝐽 (Q is negative since it leaves the system)
𝑃 = 0.8𝑎𝑡𝑚 = 0.8 × 1.013 × 105 𝑝𝑎

Solution
A. Work done by the gas is given by
W  PV
 P V f  Vi 
  0.8 1.03 105 pa  2 103 m3  9 103 m3 

  8.24 104  7 103 

N 3
m
m2
W  576.8 J
B. The change in internal energy is given by
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U  Q  W , but Q  ve & W  Ve  beacuse work is done by compression of gas 

U  Q  W
 400 J   576.8 J 
 400 J  576.8 J
U  176.8 J

The First Law for different thermodynamic systems (thermodynamic processes)

Isolated system:

Isolated system: is a system which does not exchange heat with its surrounding and no work
is done on the external environment. In this case 𝑄 = 0 and 𝑊 = 0, so from the first law we
conclude ∆𝑈 = 0.

 For an isolated system, the internal energy remain constant. That is ∆𝑈 = 0 → 𝑈𝑖 = 𝑈𝑓 .

Cyclic process

Cyclic process: the process that starts and returns to the same initial state. Hence the change
in internal energy is zero. That is ∆𝑈 = 0

Isochoric (isovolumetric) process

An isovolumetric process is also known as isochoric process.

A thermodynamic process in which the volume of the system remain constant (∆𝑉 = 0)
In this process the volume of the system is held constant, and so the work done is zero.
The isovolumetric process path A to B on a PV diagram is along a vertical line, called an
isomet.

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From the first law we see that

U  Q  W , hence W  0
U  Q  7.17 
Note that if heat is added internal energy increases. Conversely, if heat is removed from the
system internal energy decreases for isovolumetric process
Isobaric process

An isobaric process is a thermodynamic process taking place at constant pressure.

Any work done by the system will result in an increase in volume.
The work done in Pressure- Volume graph is equal to the area under the PV graph. For an
isobaric process the work done W is calculated as

Figure: isobaric process

W  PV  P V f  V f   7.18

On PV diagram, the path of an isobaric process is along a horizontal line called isobar

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The first law for an isobaric process can be written as

U  Q  W  Q  PV  7.19

Isothermal process

An isothermal process is a thermodynamic process in which the temperature of a system

remains constant. If the process occurs at constant temperature then there is no change in the
internal energy of the system so ∆𝑈 = 0 .
The first law for an isothermal process takes the form:
U  Q  W
0  Q W
Q  W  7.20 

P versus V plot of an ideal gas at constant temperature gives a hyperbolic curve called an
isotherm.

Figure: PV diagram for an isothermal expansion of ideal gas. The curve is hyperbola.
 For an ideal gas we have 𝑃𝑉 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 , and on P versus V diagram this is a
hyperbola.

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Work done by an isothermal process

Work done in an isothermal ideal gas expansion or compression from 𝑉𝑖 𝑡𝑜 𝑉𝑓 is given by

Vf
nRT
W  PV ,
Vi
P
V
Vf
nRT
 
Vi
V
dV

Vf
dV
 nRT 
Vi
V
 nRT  ln V f  ln Vi 
 Vf 
W  nRT ln    7.21
 Vi 

Where n is mole of an ideal gas.

𝐽
𝑅 = 8.314 𝑚𝑜𝑙 .𝐾

Remark!

Work done W equals the area under the PV diagram.

Work done W is positive for expansion of gas (𝑉𝑓 > 𝑉𝑖 ).
If the gas is compressed (𝑉𝑓 < 𝑉𝑖 ), the work done by the gas is negative.

Example

1. One mole of oxygen (assumed to be an ideal gas) expand at constant temperature T of 310K
from an initial volume 𝑉𝑖 = 12L to final velocity 𝑉𝑓 = 19𝐿.
A. How much work is done by expanding gas?
B. How much work is done by the gas during an isothermal compression from 𝑉𝑖 = 19𝐿 to
𝑉𝑓 = 12𝐿?

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Given Required

𝐽
𝑅 = 8.34 𝑚𝑜𝑙 .𝐾 A. 𝑊 =? (expansion)

𝑉𝑖 = 12L B. 𝑊 =?(compression)
𝑉𝑓 = 12L
𝑛 = 1𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒
Solution
A. Work done for expansion of gas is given by

 Vf 
W  nRT ln  
 Vi 
 19 L 
 1mol  8.314 J mol .K  310 K  ln  
 12 
W  1184 J

B. Work done for compression of gas is given by

 Vf 
W  nRT ln  
 Vi 
 12 L 
W  1mol  8.34 J mol .K  310 K  ln  
 19 L 
W  1184 J

Adiabatic process

An adiabatic process is one that occurs in a system that is so well insulated, so that no heat
energy transfer, that is 𝑄 = 0.
An adiabatic process is a type of thermodynamic process that occurs without transferring heat
or mass between the thermodynamic system and its environment.

Work done by a diabetic process

In adiabatic process with no heat transfer (𝑄 = 0)

The first law for an adiabatic process takes the form

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0
U  Q  W

U  W  7.22
When n moles of a monoatomic ideal gas changes quasi- statistically and adiabatically from
an initial temperature 𝑇𝑖 to a final temperature 𝑇𝑓 , the work done in adiabatic expansion or
compression of monoatomic ideal gas is given by
3
W nRT  7.23
2

Remark!

Adiabatic means rapid or quickly, no heat transfer.

A rapid expansion or contraction of gas is nearly adiabatic in nature.

Heat Capacity of an Ideal gas

Having the expression for internal energy we will derive two expressions for molar specific
heat capacity for ideal gas.
We define molar heat capacity in a case volume constant and the other the case is in which the
pressure of the gas remains constant during the process.

Remark!

The fist law of thermodynamics is used to determine the specific heat capacity of material.
The specific heat of substance is a measure of the amount of heat required to raise its
temperature.
The amount of heat depends on the type of process used to raise the temperature whether they
apply at constant pressure process or at constant volume process.

Molar heat capacity at constant volume

If the heat added to n moles of gas and the temperature rises by ∆𝑇, the molar specific heat at
constant volume is given by

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QV
CV   7.24 
nT
QV  nCV T  heat at constant volume  7.25
For very small change, Eq. (7.25) can be written as

QV  nCV T  7.26

From the first law of thermodynamics we can write as:
U  Q  W , hence Q  QV
U  QV  W  7.27 
For constant volume process, no work is done, and so ∆𝑊 = 0, hence Eq. (7.27) gives,
U  QV
U  nCV T  7.28
U
CV   7.29 
nT
Substituting Eq. (7.15) into Eq. (7.29), we obtain:

 1  3 
CV     R nT 
 nT  2 
3
CV  R  12.5 J Kmol  constant volume for monatomicideal gas   7.30 
2

Molar heat capacity at constant pressure

If the heat 𝑄𝑝 is added to n moles of gas and the temperature rises by ∆𝑇, the molar specific
heat at constant pressure is given by;
QP
CP   7.31
nT
QP  nCP T  heat at constant pressure  7.32 
From the first law of thermodynamics we can write

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U  Q  W , hence W   PV in monatomic gas law

U  Q  PV
Q  U  PV
QP  U  PV  7.33
Using an ideal gas law, 𝑃𝑉 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇, we can write

PV  nRT  7.34

Substituting Eq. (7.34) into Eq. (7.33), we obtain;
QP  U  nRT
C p nT  U  nRT  7.35
Dividing both side by ∆𝑇,
nC p T U nRT
 
T T T
U
nC p   nR  7.36 
T
From Eq. (7.29), we obtain

U  nCV T
U
 nCV  7.37 
T
Substituting Eq.(7.37) into Eq. (7.36), we obtain:
nC p  nCV  nR
C p  CV  R  7.38
3
 RR
2
3R  2 R

2
5
Cp  R  7.39 
2

5 𝐽
𝐶𝑃 = 𝑅 = 20.8 for molar specific heat of a monatomic gas at constant pressure.
2 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒.𝐾

Mayer’s Equation

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Mayer’s equation is the difference between the specific heat of gas at constant pressure and its
specific heat at constant volume is equal to the molar gas constant. That is

CP  CV  R  8.3 J
mol.K  7.40 
 Define the ratio of specific heat capacity at constant pressure to the molar specific heat capacity
at constant volume.
CP
  7.41
CV
Greek letter gamma is dimensionless quantity
 For monatomic ideal gas
CP  32 R  R 
  3
CV 2 R
5
R
 23
2 R

5
   1.67  7.42 
3

 For diatomic gas

CP  52 R  R 
  5
CV 2 R
7
R
 52
2 R

7
   1.4  7.43
5

 The value of 𝛾 is in good agreement with experimental values.

Adiabatic process for an Ideal gas (pressure and volume in adiabatic process)

An adiabatic process is one in which no energy is exchange by heat between a system and its
surroundings (𝑄 = 0).
An example of this is, that when the gas is expanded or compressed very rapidly, it is nearly
adiabatic because no energy is transferred in to the system or out of the system by heat.
 The pressure and volume in isothermal process related by

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PV  constant  7.44 
 The pressure and volume during any time in adiabatic process is related as
PV   constant  adiabatic process   7.45
𝐶𝑃
Where 𝛾 = is taken to be constant during the process.
𝐶𝑉

 For an ideal gas undergoes adiabatic change from 𝑃1 , 𝑉1 , 𝑇1 to 𝑃2 , 𝑉2 , 𝑇2, then

 
1 1  PV
PV 2 2


P1 V2  V2 
    7.46 
P2 V1  V1 

 For an adiabatic expansion of an ideal gas, at any time during the process the e1uation is valid.
That is

PV  nRT  7.47 
Therefore,

1 1  nRT1 and PV
PV 2 2  nRT2

PV PV
1 1
 2 2
nRT1 nRT2
PV PV
1 1
 2 2  7.48
T1 T2
P1 TV
 1 2  7.49 
P2 T2V1

 Substituting Eq. (7.49) into Eq. (7.46), we obtain:


TV V 
1 2
 2 
T2V1  V1 
  1
T1  V1   V2  V2 V21 V2 1  V2 
       
T2  V2   V1  V1 V11 V1 1  V1 
 1
T1  V2 
   7.50 
T2  V1 

TV
1 1
 1
 T2V2 1  adiabatic process   7.51
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Example

1. The molar specific heats of an ideal gas at constant pressure and volume are denoted by 𝐶𝑃 and
𝐶𝑉 , respectively. if 𝛾 = 𝐶𝑃 /𝐶𝑉 and R is universal gas constant, then 𝐶𝑉 is equal to?

Solution
CP
CP  CV  R, hence  , CP   CV
CV
 CV  CV  R
CV    1  R
R
CV 
 1

2. The pressure of one gram mole of a monoatomic gas increases linearly from 4 × 105 𝑁/𝑚2 to
8 × 105 𝑁/𝑚2 when its volume increases from 0.2𝑚3 𝑡𝑜 0.5𝑚3 . (Take 𝑅 = 8.31𝐽/𝑚𝑜𝑙. 𝐾)

Calculate

A. Work done by the gas

B. Increase in internal energy

C. Amount of heat supplied

D. Molar heat capacity of the gas

Given Required
𝑃1 = 4 × 105 𝑁/𝑚2 A. 𝑊 =?
𝑉1 = 0.2𝑚3 B. ∆𝑈 =?
𝑃2 = 8 × 105 𝑁/𝑚2 C. ∆𝑄 =?
𝑉2 = 0.5𝑚3 D. 𝐶𝑉 =?

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3
𝐶𝑉 = 2 𝑅 because the gas is monatomic
𝐽
𝑅 = 8.31
𝑚𝑜𝑙. 𝐾

Solution
A. Work done by a monatomic gas is given by
𝑾 = 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒂𝒈𝒍𝒆 + 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝒐𝒇 𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒆
W  A1  A2
1
 h  b  h  b
2
  4 105 N m2  0  0.5m3  0.2m3    8 105 N m3  4 105 N m2  0.5m3  0.2m3 
1
2
  2 105 N m2  0.3m 2    4 105 N m3  0.3m3 
  0.6 105  1.2 105  J
W  1.8 105 J

B. To find an Increase in internal energy, first we will get the temperature change

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PV  nRT
1 1  nRT1
PV

T1 
PV
1 1

 4  105 N m2  0.2m3 
nR nR
8  10 4
T1  i 
nR
P2V2  nRT2
P2V2  8  10 N m2  0.5m 
5 3

T2  
nR nR
40  104
T2   ii 
nR
40  104 8  104
T  T2  T2  
nR nR
32  10 4
T   iii 
nR
Therefore,
U  nCV T
 3   32  10 
4
 n  R   
 2   nR 
3
    32  10 4  J
2
U  48  10 4 J

C. Amount of heat supplied is given by

U  Q  W
Q  U  W
 48 104 J  1.8 105 J
 48 104 J  18 104 J
Q  66  104 J

D. Molar heat capacity of the gas

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Q  nCV T
Q 66  10 4 J
CV  
nT  32  10 4 
n 
 nR 
66 R

32

 33 8.31 J mol .K 
16
CV  17.1 J mol . K

7.5. Entropy and The second law of thermodynamics

Entropy

 All the laws of thermodynamics have quantities related to them. For instance,
The concept of temperature is related to the zeroth law of thermodynamics.
The concept of internal energy is related to the first law of thermodynamics.
Entropy is related to the second law of thermodynamics.
Entropy is a state function like temperature and internal energy. Hence it depends on the initial
and final state.
There is a tendency in nature to proceed in a direction that increases the randomness of a
system. A randomness system is one that lacks a regular arrangement of its parts. This tendency
is called entropy.
 Entropy (randomness) is a measure of the amount of disorder (chaos) in a system.
 Entropy, S, can be defined as a measure of the degree of randomness of the particles, such as
molecules, in a system.
 The quantity that characterized the equilibrium states of a system is called Entropy.
 Entropy is a measure of thermodynamics equilibrium.
 Entropy in an isolated system that is not in equilibrium is will tends to increase over time until
it reaches equilibrium level.

The second law of thermodynamics

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We will express the 2nd law of thermodynamics in three equivalent form

Two of the system of the 2nd law, evolves from the relationships between work and heat.
The third statement of the 2nd law of thermodynamics is expressed in terms of the new concept
entropy.
 The first law is about conservation of energy and states that energy is neither created nor
destroyed but can be transformed from one form to another. For example from heat to
mechanical, from mechanical to electrical and so on.
 Naturally, heat flow from a body at higher temperature to a lower temperature.
 The transfer of heat energy from cold body to a hot body is not possible by its own, the second
law thermodynamics govern this phenomena. But heat can be forced to transfer from cold body
to hot body by using refrigerator and heat pump. However this happens at the expense of
external energy in put to the machine.

Let’s consider the following processes consistent with the first law

1. When the two objects at different temperature are placed in thermal contact with each other,
heat flows from hot to cold.
2. An oscillating pendulum gradually stop. Its mechanical energy is converted to the internal
energy of air, pendulum and suspension.
3. A rubber ball dropped to the ground finally stop after bouncing several times.
4. A ball will roll down a hell.
5. We can convert work totally in to heat for example if a block slides over the horizontal surface
friction slows the moving object. The surface and block becomes hot.
In each of the above example, the first law gives that energy is conserved. However, the reverse
process of each of the above cannot happen. That is,
1. Heat never flow from cooler to hotter.
2. A pendulum cannot start swinging by itself from its rest position. This means that the reverse
energy conversion is impossible.
3. A ball laying on the floor cannot start bouncing on its own to its original height.
4. A ball rolling down and finally stop at the button. But never start to roll up a hill,
spontaneously.
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5. Mechanical energy can be converted completely into heat, but it is not possible to convert
heat totally into mechanical energy.
Each of the above process never happen it self. All these process are irreversible process;
processes that occur naturally in one direction only.

 The direction in which naturally events happen is determined by the second law of
thermodynamics.

 Second law of thermodynamics states that: heat naturally flows from a hot system to a cold
system; heat cannot spontaneously flow from a cold system to a hot system.

 The first law is in agreement with the conservation of total energy, whereas the 2 nd law of
thermodynamics tells us the direction of the change or the flow of energy.

 The 2nd law of thermodynamics states that the total entropy of a system either increases or
remain constant in any spontaneous process; it never decreases.

 If a process occurs in closed system, the entropy of the system increases for irreversible process
and remains constant for reversible processes. It never decreases.

S  0 2 nd
law of thermodynamics   7.52 

The second law of thermodynamics states that no process is possible in which there is an
overall decrease in the entropy of the universe.

7.5.1. Heat Engines

A heat engine is any device that converts heat into work. For example steam engine.
Heat engine is a device that extract heat from hot reservoir, transform some heat into other
useful forms of energy such as mechanical energy and electrical energy and expels the rest
heat to cold reservoir.
A heat engines has three features:

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1. A high temperature region or hot reservoir that supplies heat to the engine.
2. The working substance of engine (work done by engine).
3. A low temperature region or cold-reservoir called sink where “waste” heat is released.

Notice that the engine absorbs a heat ( 𝑄ℎ ) from hot reservoir performs the work (W), the
remainder of the heat (𝑄𝑐 ) is rejected to the cold reservoir.
Heat sink in a machine is used to keep objects for longer time. So that heat sink have high
specific heat capacity and low conductivity.
The network W done by the engine equals the net heat flowing into engine. Applying the first
law of thermodynamics to the working substance of in the engine, we can write

U  QH  QC  W  7.53
Because the working substance in heat engine goes through a cycle, its initial and final
internal energies are equal. Therefore, ∆𝑈 = 0, and our first law becomes;

W  QH  QC  7.54

Efficiency of a heat engine

The thermal efficiency (𝜂) of heat engine is defined as work done by the engine divided by the
energy absorbed during one cycle.

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W Q  QC Q
  H 1 C  7.55
QH QH QH

Kelvin-Planck statement: second law of Thermodynamics first form

The first form of the statement of the second law of thermodynamics stress the making of
perfectly efficient heat engine is impossible. This means that complete transfer of heat energy
into work is impossible, consequently some heat is always lost during the operation of heat
engine.
We state the first form of the statement of the second law of thermodynamic as follow:
“It is impossible to construct a heat engine that, operating in a cycle, produces no effect
other than absorption of energy from a reservoir and the performance of equal amount
of work.”
The kelvin-Planck statement of the second law of thermodynamics stated in a short and
concise form as follow:
It is not possible to change heat completely into work done, with no other change taking
place.

Example

1. Find the efficiency of heat engine that absorbs 2000J of energy from a hot reservoir and
exhausts 1500J to a cold reservoir.
Given Required

𝑄𝐻 = 2000𝐽 𝜂 =?
𝑄𝐶 = 1500𝐽

Solution

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QC
 1
QH
 1500 J 
1  
 2000 J 
 1  0.75
 0.25
  25%

2. Heat is supplied to an engine at the rate of 106 𝐽 per minute and the engine has an output of
10 horse power. What is the efficiency of the engine and what is the heat output per minute?

Given Required

The rate at which heat is supplied is 𝜂 =?

106 𝐽
𝑄𝐻 = = 0.167 × 105 𝐽/𝑠
60𝑠𝑒𝑐
The output is
𝑊 = 10ℎ𝑝 × 746𝑊/ℎ𝑃 = 7460𝐽/𝑠

Solution
W

QH
7460

0.167  105
 0.447
  44.7%

7.5.2. Reversible and irreversible processes

Reversible process

 A reversible process is defined as a process in which the system and surroundings can be
returned to the original conditions from the final state without producing any changes in the
thermodynamics properties of the universe, if the process is reversed.
 A reversible process is a process that can be reversed in order to obtain the initial state of a
system.
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 In reversible process any change of state that takes place is performed very, very slow. So that
the system always kept infinitesimally under an equilibrium state. Such changes are called
quasi-static process.
 A quasi-static process is one in which changes takes place sufficiently slowly that each state
of the system passes through can be considered an equilibrium state.
 Quasi- static process is one in which system is moved slowly from one state to another. The
change of state is so slow that the system may be considered to be in equilibrium at any given
time during the process.
 Reversible processes are quasi-static processes where no dissipative forces such as friction are
present.
 There is equilibrium between the initial state and final state of the system.
 A reversible process can be made to proceed in forward or backward direction.

Irreversible process

An irreversible process is a thermodynamic process that cannot be reversed in order to obtain

the initial state of a system.
Cannot be reversed
An irreversible is spontaneous processes which are proceeds only in one direction.
There is no equilibrium maintained between the system and surroundings.

Example of irreversible process

Breaking of egg
Resting of cars
Flow heat from hot body to cold body

7.5.3. The Carnot Engine (Carnot cycle)

The Carnot engine is a theoretical thermodynamics cycle proposed by Leonard Carnot.

It estimates the maximum possible efficiency that a heat engine during the conversion process
of heat into work and conversely, working between the two reservoirs can possess.

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Heat engine has maximum efficiency when the process with in the engine are reserved. A
Carnot engine is a reversible engine.

Carnot principle

If an engine operating between two constant temperature reservoirs is to have maximum

efficiency, it must be an engine in which all process are reversible.
In addition, all reversible engines operating between the same two temperature, 𝑇𝐶 and 𝑇𝐻 ,
have the same efficiency.
Carnot’s principle implies that the efficiency of a reversible engine is in dependent of the
working substance of the engine,

For Carnot engine;

QC TC
  7.56
QH TH

 Note: the Carnot cycle consists of two isothermal and two adiabatic.

Efficiency of a Carnot engine

The efficiency of Carnot engine is the maximum efficiency that an engine operating between
two fixed temperatures. The thermal efficiency of a Carnot engine is given by;
TC
Carnot  1   7.57 
TH

No heat engine can have a greater efficiency than this.

The efficiency of Carnot engine depends on the temperatures of hot and cold reservoir.

Some various engine cycle and with thermodynamic process

1. Otto (petrol engine): cycle consists two adiabatic and two isochoric process.
2. Carnot cycle: consists of two adiabatic and two isothermal process.
3. Brayton (jet-engine): consists of two adiabatic and two isobaric process.

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Refrigerators, Air conditioners and Heat pump

A refrigerator (or heat pump) is a device that transfer heat energy from a low temperature
reservoir to a higher temperature reservoir.
A refrigerator (or heat pump) the engine absorbs energy 𝑄𝐶 from the cold reservoir at kelvin
temperature 𝑇𝐶 and discards (expels) heat energy 𝑄𝐻 to the hot reservoir at kelvin temperature
𝑇𝐻 while work W is done on the engine’s working substance.

An example of heat pump is a refrigerator. Work input is form electrical energy and heat is
transferred from inside of the refrigerator to the surroundings.
Another example of heat pump is air conditioner. Air conditioner is used to cool home in hot
seasons. It pumps heat from the cool room in the home to a warm air outside.
The purpose of a refrigerator or air conditioners is to transfer heat from cold body to hot body.
While performing this the heat pump should take work in put as little as possible. As a measure
of performance of refrigerators we define a term, coefficient of performance (K) as:
QC Heat extracted
K 
W work required
Q QC
K C   for refrigerator or air conditioner   7.58
W QH  QC

The coefficient of performance of K is greater than 1. For typical refrigerator the coefficient
of performance K ranges from 3 to 5.
From first law of thermodynamics,

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QC  W  QH  7.59

Remark!

Refrigerator and air conditioners are generally referred as heat pumps, the tem heat pump is
now more specifically applied to a device that is used to cool home during summer and to heat
home and buildings during winter.
Thus the heat pump operates in the cooling mode and heating mode.

 In heating mode, that is, if it is used for heating room by transferring heat from cooler medium
outside to hot room inside; the coefficient of performance of heat pump is defined as
QC
KH   heat mode 
W
QC
KH   7.60 
QH  QC

Example

1. A house hold refrigerator of performance K is 4.7, extracts heats from the cooling chamber at
the rate of 250J per cycle.
A. How much work per cycle is required to operate the refrigerator?
B. How much heat per cycle is discharged to the rooms which forms the high temperature
reservoir of the refrigerator?

Given Required

𝑄𝐶 = 250𝐽 A. 𝑊 =?
𝐾 = 4.7 B. 𝑄𝐻 =?
Solution
Q 250 J
A. K C   53J
W 4.7
B. QH  QC  W  250 J  53J  303J

Entropy

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Some definition of Entropy

Entropy indicates the natural direction of process

It measures a system ability to do useful work.
It is the amount of disorder in a system.
Entropy reversible engine is given by
QC TC

QH TH
QC QH
  7.61
TC TH
𝑄
The quantity of = ∆𝑆 is called the change in entropy of a system.
𝑇

The change in Entropy depends only the initial and final state of system.

Entropy of reversible heat engine

The change in entropy of Carnot engine and its heat reservoirs for one full cycle, the hot
reservoir has loss of entropy, because heat transfer occurs out of it (Q has a negative sign)
QH
Shot    7.62 
TH

Similarly, heat is added to the cold reservoir, hence its entropy increases by the amount of:
QC
SCold   7.63
TC

So the total change in entropy is given by

Stol  S H  SC
Q Q Q Q
Stol   H  C , since H  C for Carnot engine
TH TC TH TC
Q Q
Stol   H  H
TH TH
Stol  0  7.64 

Entropy changes in irreversible

 If an engine is irreversible the total entropy change is positive.

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QH QH
Stol    0  7.65
TH TH

 In general any irreversible process results in an increase of entropy.

Review question

1. Work done by the system I taken to be

A. Positive
B. Negative
C. Zero
D. Varies according to the situation
2. The second law of thermodynamics states that in a cyclic process;
A. Work cannot be converted into heat.
B. Heat cannot be converted into work done
C. Work cannot be completely converted into heat
D. Heat cannot be completely converted into work
3. A sink, that is, the system where heat is rejected, is essential for the conversion of heat into
work. From which law does the above interference follow?
A. Zeroth B. First C. second D. third
4. Which of the following thermodynamic quantities is an outcome of the second law of
thermodynamics?
A. Work B. Enthalpy C. internal energy D. Entropy
5. Which of the following combinations of properties would be most desirable for heat sink in
machine?
A. Higher specific heat and low conductivity
B. Low specific heat and high conductivity
C. High specific heat and high conductivity
D. Low specific heat and low conductivity
6. The change in entropy is zero for;
A. Reversible isobaric process C. Reversible isothermal process

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B. Reversible adiabatic process D. Reversible process during no work is done

7. Suppose two molecules of different mass are kept at the same temperature which one of the
following statement is not true?
A. Both have the same kinetic energy C. The lighter molecules moves faster
B. Both move with the same speed D. The heavier molecules moves slower.
8. In a reversible thermodynamic process the system
A. Is always close to equilibrium state
B. Might never be close to any equilibrium state
C. Is close to equilibrium states only at the beginning and end
D. Is close equilibrium states throughout
9. What does a curve drawn between two points on P-V diagram represents:
A. The state of the system C. Work done in a cyclic process
B. A thermodynamic process D. Work done on or by the system
10. Temperature of a body is a measure of the;
A. Heat content of a body C. Average pressure in a gas
B. Average pressure kinetic energy D. Heat of vaporization of liquid
11. The coefficient of area expansion is:
A. Half the coefficient of volume expansion.
B. Three halves the coefficient of volume expansion.
C. Double the coefficient of linear expansion.
D. Triple the coefficient of linear expansion.

12. Heat flows from one body to other during in thermal contact when they have
A. Different heat content D. Different density
B. Different temperature E. None of the above
C. Different atomic structure

13. The zeroth law of thermodynamics pertains to what relational condition that may exist between two
systems?
A. Zero net forces C. Zero temperature
B. Thermal equilibrium D. Zero velocities
14. Which of the following is NOT true when two systems with unequal temperatures come into contact
with one another?

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A. Heat will flow until thermal equilibrium is reached

B. No net heat flow occurs once thermal equilibrium is reached
C. The natural flow of heat will be from the warmer system to the colder system
D. Net heat flow occurs once thermal equilibrium is reached
15. The temperature at which liquid changes into vapour is called
A. Boiling point C. Expansion point
B. Melting point D. None of the above
16. One of the following pair is a lower and upper fixed point in a temperature scale?
A. 32°𝐹 and 200°𝐹 D. 32°𝐹 and 100°𝐹
B. 0°𝐶 and 212°𝐶 E. 273𝐾 and 383𝐾
C. 32°𝐹 and 212°𝐹
17. A material has a coefficient of volume expansion of 60 × 10−6 /°𝐶. What is its area coefficient of
expansion?
A. 120 × 10−6 /°𝐶 B. 180 × 10−6 /°𝐶 C. 20 × 10 −6 /°𝐶 D. 40 × 10−6 /°𝐶
18. Which method of heat transfer does not require a medium?
A. . Conduction C. Radiation
B. Convection D. conduction and convection
19. An adiabatic expansion refers to the fact that:
A. No heat is transferred between a system and its surroundings.
B. The pressure remains constant.
C. The temperature remains constant.
D. The volume remains constant.

20. The amount of energy required to change the liquid to gas and vice versa without any change in
temperature is termed as
A. Latent Heat of Fusion C. Heat capacity
B. Latent Heat of vaporization D. Specific Heat Capacity
21. The amount of thermal energy required to raise the temperature of 1kg of substance by 1°𝐶 is termed
as
A. Heat capacity C. Latent Heat
B. Specific heat capacity D. Specific Latent Heat
22. In which of these process does the internal energy of an ideal gas not change?
A. An isothermal process C. An isobaric process
B. An adiabatic process D. An isochoric process

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23. The first law of thermodynamics is the law of

A. Conservation of mass C. Conservation of momentum
B. Conservation of heat D. Conservation of Energy

Answer Key

1. A 11. C 21. B
2. D 12. B 22. A
3. C 13. B 23. C
4. D 14. D
5. A 15. A
6. B 16. C
7. B 17. D
8. A 18. C
9. B 19. A
10. A 20. B

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Chapter Eight

8. Electrostatics and magnetism

What is Electrostatics?

Electrostatic is the branch of electromagnetics dealing with the effect of electric charges at rest.
Electrostatics: is the study of the interactions between stationary electrically charged particles.
It is the study of stationary electric charges and electric field.
The fundamental law of electrostatic is Coulomb’s law.
Electrostatic laws deals with the attractive and repelling forces that exist between positive and
negative electric charge.

What is Electric charge?

Electric charge is the physical property of matter that causes it to experience a force when place
in an electromagnetic field.
It is a property of matter that causes to produce and experience electric and magnetic field.
Electric Charge in motion produces electric and magnetic field.
An electric charge is a property that causes subatomic particles such as protons and electrons
to attract or repel each other (the property of a proton or an electron, which gives rise to
electrostatic force between them).

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Amount of current flowing in a conductor is measured in electric charge.

Electric charge is a scalar and fundamental quantity of a particle.

Charging mechanisms

A. Charging by Rubbing (friction)

When two different insulating (neutral) materials are rubbed, electrons get transferred from
one body to another and this method is called charging by friction.
For example, when a plastic rod is rubbed with a pieces of cloth, electrons are transferred from
the rod to the cloth, as the result, the rod becomes positively charged and the cloth becomes
negatively charged.
 The two objects have become charged with opposite types of charge and they will attract each
other.

B. Charging by conduction

Charging by conduction refers to the technique of charging an uncharged material by bringing

it into touch with some other charged material.
Hence when an uncharged material (conductor) is bright in contact with charged material
(conductor), charge is shared between the two materials and hence the uncharged material gets
charged.
During charging by conduction, both objects will have the same type of charge.

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C. Charging by induction

 Induction charging is a charging method that involves charging a neutral object without
touching another charged object.

One way to carry out the four steps process

1. Bring the charged object close to but not touching the neutral sphere. The neutral metal sphere
is polarized when a charged rod is brought near it. The resulting separation of positive and
negative charge is called polarization.
2. The sphere is then grounded, meaning that a conducting wire is run from the sphere to the
ground. Since Earth is large and most of the ground is a good conductor, it can supply or accept
excess charge easily.
3. Remove the ground connection. The ground connection is broken before the charged rod is
removed, leaving the sphere with excess charge opposite to that of the rod.
4. Remove the charged rod. After the rod is taken away, the sphere left with a uniformly
distributed with excess charge opposite to that of the rod.

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Figure: charging by induction using a ground.

A. A positively charged rod is brought near a neutral metal sphere, polarizing it.
B. The sphere is grounded, allowing electrons to be attracted from Earth’s ample supply.
C. The ground connection is broken.
D. The positive rod is removed, leaving the sphere with an induced negative charged

Charge Quantization

 In the days up to 18th century, both electric charge and ordinary matter were considered to be
continuous. However, in 19th century, it was shown that matter is not continuous but consists
of atoms.
 Electric charge is not continuous rather, electric charge appears only in discrete form.
 Electric charge is made up of integral multiple of certain minimum electric charge, ′𝑒′, this
said to be quantized.
 The general form of quantization of charge can be represented by

q  ne 8.1

Where

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q is the charge, 𝑛 is the number of electrons/protons and ’ 𝑒′ electric charge on an

electron/proton (𝑒 = 1.6 × 10−19 𝐶.

Charge conservation

The law of conservation of charge states that the total amount of charge in closed (isolated)
system remains constant.
Charge is neither created nor destroyed, it can only transferred from one system to another.

Electric charge has the following properties

1. Two kinds of charges occur in nature with the property that unlike charge attract each other
and like charges repel each other.
2. Charge is conserved
3. Charge is quantized

Coulomb’s laws

The mathematical law of by which like charges repel and unlike charges attract was formulated
in 1785 by Charles Augustin De Coulomb’s.
The Coulomb’s law states that “the magnitude of the electric force between two stationary
point charges 𝑞1 and 𝑞2 is directly proportional to the product of the charges and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance between them”

1
F  q1q2 & F 
r2
q1q2
F
r2
k q1 q2 1 q1 q2
F   8.2 
r2 4 o r2

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1
Where 𝑘 = = 9 × 109 𝑁𝑚2 /𝐶 2 is a constant of proportionality, and 𝜖𝑜 = 8.85 ×
4𝜋𝜖𝑜

10−12 𝐶 2 /𝑁. 𝑚2 is called permittivity constant of free space or vacuum.

If 𝐹 is the magnitude of the force, then 𝐹 = +𝐹𝑟̂ is a repulsion, where as 𝐹 = −𝐹𝑟̂ is an
attraction.

Vector form of Coulomb’s law

Consider two point charges +𝑞1 and +𝑞2 are separated at a distance r (magnitude only) in a
vacuum as shown in the figure given below.

Figure: Vector form of coulomb’s law

Let 𝐹12 is the force on charge +𝑞1 due to charge +𝑞2 and 𝐹21 is the force on charge +𝑞2 due
to charge +𝑞1, Then
1 q1q2
F12  rˆ21 8.3
4 o r 2

Where 𝑟̂21 is a unit vector pointing from charge +2 to charge +𝑞1 and

1 q1q2
F21  rˆ12  8.4 
4 o r 2

Where 𝑟̂12 is a unit vector pointing from charge +𝑞1 to charge +𝑞2.

From the above diagram, we can conclude that the direction of unit vector 𝑟̂12 and 𝑟̂21 is
opposite. i.e.,

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rˆ12  rˆ21 8.5

Substituting Eq. (8.5) into Eq. (8.4), we obtain,

1 q1q2
F21   rˆ21  8.6 
4 o r 2

From Eq.(8.3) and Eq. (8.5), we obtain the following relation

F21  F12 8.7

Eq. (8.7) shows that the Coulomb’s law force is action and reaction pair. This force acts on
different bodies.

Superposition of principle of Coulomb’s law

The superposition principle is helpful when there are a large number of charges in a system.
When more than two charges are present, the resultant force is the vector sum of the forces due
to various individual charges.
According to the superposition of forces, all linear forces can be added vectorially. The net
force is the vetorial sum of all indivial forces.

For example if there are three charges, the resultant force on 𝑞3 due to 𝑞1 and 𝑞3 is given by;

Figure: force on 𝑞3 due to 𝑞1 and 𝑞2

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F3  Fnet  F31  F32 8.8

The interaction force is directed along the line joining the charges.

Example

1. If two charges, each of 1𝑐 were separated by a distance of 1km, what is would be the force
between them?

Given Required

𝑞1 = 𝑞2 = 1𝑐 𝐹 =?
𝑟 = 1𝑘𝑚 = 1 × 103 𝑚
𝑘 = 9 × 109 𝑁𝑚2 /𝐶 2
Solution
k q1 q2
F
r2


 9 109 Nm2 c2  1c 1c 
110 m 
3 2

F  9 103 N

2. Determine the force between two free electrons spaced10−10 𝑚.

Given Required

𝑞𝑒 = −1.6 × 10−19 𝐶 𝐹 =?
𝑟 = 10−10 𝑚
Solution

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k qe qe
F
r2


 9 10 9 Nm 2
c2 1.6 10 1.6 10 
19 19

110 m 
10 2

F  23 109 N

3. At what separation distance would the force between a proton and electron be 1N?

Given Required

𝑞𝑒− = −1.6 × 10−19 𝐶 𝑟 =?

𝑞𝑒+ = +1.6 × 10−19 𝑐
𝐹 = 1𝑁
Solution
k qe qe
F
r2
k qe qe
r2 
F


 9 10 9 Nm 2
c2 1.6 10 1.6 10 
19 19

1N
r 2  2.304 10 28 m 2

r  2.304 10 28 m 2

r  1.52 10 14 m

4. Calculate the magnitude and direction of the Coulombs force on each of the three charges
(𝑞1 = +6𝜇𝑐, 𝑞2 = +1.5𝜇𝑐 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑞3 = −2𝜇𝑐) in figure below.

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Given Required

𝑞1 = +6𝜇𝑐 = 6 × 10−6 𝑐, A. ∑ 𝐹𝐴 =?
𝑞2 = +1.5𝜇𝑐 = 1.5 × 10−6 𝑐 B. ∑ 𝐹𝐵 =?
𝑞3 = −2𝜇𝑐 = −2 × 10−6 𝑐 C. ∑ 𝐹𝐶 =?
𝑟𝐵𝐴 = 3𝑐𝑚 = 3 × 10−2 𝑚
𝑟𝐶𝐵 = 2𝑐𝑚 = 2 × 10−2 𝑚
𝑟𝐶𝐴 = 𝐴𝐶 = 5𝑐𝑚 = 5 × 10−2𝑚

Solution
A. The magnitude and direction of coulombs force on charge 𝒒𝟏 = 𝟔𝝁𝒄 is given by

FA  FCA  FBA

k qC q A k qB q A
 
 rCA   rBA 
2 2

 9 10 9 Nm2
C2  2 10 c   6 10 c   9 10
6 6 9 Nm2
C2  1.5 10 c   6 10 c 
6 6

 
   3 10 m 
2 2 2 2
5  10 m
 43.2 N  90 N
 46.8 N
FA  46.8 N to the left

B. The magnitude and direction of coulombs force on charge 𝑞2 = 1.5𝜇𝑐 is given by

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F B  FCB  FAB
k qC qB k q A qB
 
 rCB   rAB 
2 2

 9 10 9 Nm 2
C2   2 10 c  1.5 10 c  9 10
6 6 9 Nm 2
C2   6 10 c  1.5 10 c 
6 6

 
 2 10 m   3 10 m 
2 2 2 2

 67.5 N  90 N
 157.5 N
F B  46.8 N to the right

C. The magnitude and direction of coulombs force on charge 𝑞2 = 1.5𝜇𝑐 is given by

F C   FBC  FAC
k qB qC k q A qC
 
 rBC   rAC 
2 2

 9 10 9 Nm 2
C2   2 10 c  1.5 10 c  9 10
6 6 9 Nm 2
C2   6 10 c   2 10 c 
6 6

 
   5 10 m 
2 2 2 2
2  10 m
 67.5 N  43.2 N
 110.7 N
 B  110.7 N to theleft
F

5. Three equal charges each having a magnitude of 2𝜇𝐶 are placed at three corners of a right
angle of side 3cm, 4cm and 5cm. Find force (in magnitude) on the charge at the right angled
corner?

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Given Required

𝑞1 = 𝑞2 = 𝑞3 = 2 × 10−6𝐶 𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 =?
The sides of right angle triangle;
𝐴𝐵 = 3𝑐𝑚, 𝐵𝐶 = 4𝑐𝑚 and 𝐴𝐶 = 5𝑐𝑚
Solution
A. The force on 𝒒𝑨 due to 𝒒𝑩 is given by
FA  FAB
k q A qB

 rAB 
2

 9  10  2 10 c 
9 Nm 2 6 2
C2

 3  10 m  2 2

FA  40 N  along BA 

B. The force on 𝑞𝐵 due to 𝑞𝐶 is given by

FC  FCB
k q A qB

 rCB 
2

 9  10  2 10 c 
9 Nm 2 6 2
C2

 4  10 m  2 2

FA  22.5 N  along BC 
 The resultant force on the charge 𝑞𝐵 is given

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F  FA2  FB2
  40 N    22.5 N 
2 2

F  45.9 N

6. Find the net force on charge 𝑞1 due to the three other charges in figure below. Take 𝑞1 = −5𝜇𝑐,
𝑞2 = −8𝜇𝑐, 𝑞3 = 15𝜇𝑐 and 𝑞4 = −16𝜇𝑐.

Given Required

𝑞1 = −5𝜇𝑐, 𝑞2 = −8𝜇𝑐, 𝑞3 = 15𝜇𝑐 and 𝑞4 = −16𝜇𝑐. 𝐹1 =?

𝑟34 = 30𝑐𝑚 = 3 × 10−1 𝑚
𝑟14 = 40𝑐𝑚 = 4 × 10−1 𝑚

𝑟13 = √(30𝑐𝑚)2 + (40𝑐𝑚)2 = 50𝑐𝑚 = 5 × 10−1 𝑚

𝑎𝑑𝑑. 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 3
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = = = 0.6
ℎ𝑦𝑝𝑜 5
𝑂𝑝𝑝. 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 4
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = = = 0.8
ℎ𝑦𝑝𝑜 5
Solution

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The forces on 𝒒𝟏 as shown. The magnitude of 𝑭𝟏𝟐 is given by

k q1 q1
F12 
 r12 
2


 9 10 9 Nm2
C2 5 10 c 8 10 c 
6 6

 3 10 m 
1 2

F12  4 N

By the same approach, the magnitude of 𝐹13 is given by

k q1 q3
F13 
 r13 
2


 9 10 9 Nm2
C2 5 10 c 15 10 c 
6 6

 5 10 m 
1 2

F12  2.7 N

The magnitude of force on 𝑞1 by 𝑞4 is given by

k q1 q4
F14 
 r14 
2


 9 10 9 Nm2
C2 5 10 c 16 10 c 
6 6

 4 10 m 
1 2

F12  4.5 N

The components of the net force is given by

The summation of force along x-axis is given by

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F1x  F14  F13 x

 F14  F13 cos  , cos   4 5  0.8
 4.5 N   2.7 N  0.8 
  4.5  2.16  N
F1x  2.34 N

The summation of force along y- axis is given by

F1 y  F13 y  F12
 F13 sin   F12 , but sin   3 5  0.6
  2.7 N  0.6   4 N
 1.62  4  N
F1 y  2.38 N

The resultant or net force on charge 𝑞1 is given

 F1x    F1 y 
2
F1 
2

  2.34 N    2.38 N 
2 2

 5.4756 N 2  5.6644 N 2
 11.14 N 2
F1  3.34 N

8.2. Electric field due to appoint charge

⃗⃗ )
8.2.1. Electric filed (𝑬

 Electric field: is a region of space around a charged object which exerts a force on other
charged objects
 Electric field is a force produced by a charge near its surroundings. SI unit of electric field 𝐸⃗
𝑁 𝑉
is = 𝑚 (force per charge) or (volt per meter).
𝐶

 An electric field is an invisible force field created by the attraction and repulsion of electrical
charge.
 The electric field is the space where charged particles experiences a force of attraction or
repulsion due to a source charge.
 An electric charge influences its surrounding by creating an electric field.

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 Every charge experiences (produces) its own electric field and any charge placed in the field
of another charge experiences electric force
 A charge never acts on itself. It acts on other external charge due to electric field.

8.2.2. Electric filed due to a point charge

 Electric field 𝐸⃗ at a point in space is defined as the electric force 𝐹 acting on a test charge
placed at that point divided by the charge 𝑞𝑜 of the test charge.

F 
E 
q0  8.9 

F  Eq 

The direction of 𝐸⃗ is the direction in which positive test charge placed at that point
would tend to move.
 Consider a test charge 𝑞𝑜 placed a distance r from a point.

From Coulomb’s law, the field created by a point charge q is given by

Kqqo
F
r2
F Kq qo 1 F
 2
, but E
qo r qo qo

Kq q
E   8.10 
r 2
4 o r 2

 The direction of 𝐸⃗ is that of the force experienced by a positive test charge.

Kq q
E rˆ  rˆ 8.11
r 2
4 o r 2

Electric field due to several point charges

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Since the principle of linear superposition is valid for Coulomb’s law, it is also for the electric
filed.
To calculate the field strength at a point due to a system of charges, we first find 𝐸1 due to 𝑞1,
𝐸2 due to 𝑞2 , and so on.
For n point charges, the resultant field strength is the vector sum.
n 
EP  E1  E2  ....  En   Ei 
i 1 

1 n
qi n
qi 
Ep  
4 o i 1 ri 2
 k 
i 1 ri
2   8.12 


Kqi 
Ei  2 rˆ
ri 

Since each unit vector has its origin at different charges, this equation is inconvenient to use.
Taking care of the sign of the charges and the vector nature of the fields, we can find the
resultant of the electric field.

8.3. Electric field line

 Electric field lines or line of force are imaginary lines which helps us to visualize electric filed.
Electric field lines are away of visualizing electric fields. For the field lines to either start or
end at infinity, a single charged should be used.

 The filed strength of a positive point charge q at any point could be represented by an arrow
drawn to scale.

Figure: representation of electric field lines

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Figure: Electric field near one positively charged and one negatively charged small metal sphere

Figure: Electric field near two positively (negatively) charged small metal spheres
8.3.1. Properties of Electric field lines

The following are the properties of filed lines

1. The electric filed lines are imaginary lines, a visual representation of the electric field
2. The tangent drawn at a point to a field line the direction of the electric force acting on a unit
positive test charge kept at that point in electric field.
3. The field line emerges (starts) from positive charge and enter (ends) at negative charge.
The start point of the field lines is at the positive charge and end at the negative charge.
4. The electric field lines from the same electric field never intersect with each other. Lines of
force never cross each other. This is because the field at a given point is along the tangent to
the field line, and this filed line cannot be in two direction at the same point.
5. The number of field lines gives the electric field strength of electric field. The more the lines,
the more strength.

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The denser the line of force is, the stronger the electric field. Density refers to the number
of lines per unit area.
The magnitude of charge and the number of field lines, both are proportional to each
other.
6. The electric field lines are perpendicular to the surface of the charge.
7. The electric filed at a point is along to the line of force.

8.3.2. Motion of charged particles in electric field

A charged particle in an electric field will experience a force on it that will causes it to move.
If a charged particle remains still in a uniform electric field, it will move parallel to the electric
field lines (along or against the field lines depending on its charge).
If a charged particle is in motion through a uniform electric field (e.g. between two charged
parallel plates), it will experience a constant electric force and travels in a parabolic trajectory.

The parabolic path of charged particles in a uniform electric field

The direction of the parabola will depend on the charge of a particle.

A positive charge will be deflected towards the negative plate

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A negative charge will be deflected towards the positive plate.

The force on the particle is the same at all point and always in the same direction.

In the case of motion of a charged particle in an electric field:

A point charge experiences a force, whether it is at rest or in motion is given by

F  qE 8.13
The direction of force is parallel to the field if the charge is positive and opposite to the left if
the charge is negative.

The electric field is conservative so work is done is independent of path and work done in
moving a point charge q between two fixed points having a potential difference V is equal to

WAB  U AB  q VB  VA   qV 8.14

Work is done in moving a charged particle in an electric field unless the points are at the
same potential.
When a charged particle is accelerated by a uniform or non-uniform electric field then, work-
energy theorem is given by
KE  W
1 2 1 2
mv f  mvo  W  qV 8.15
2 2

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From Eq. (8.15), we will find final velocity as

1 2 1 2
mv f  mvo  Vq
2 2
mv 2f  mvo2  2Vq

mv 2f  mvo2  2Vq

mvo2 2Vq
v 2f  
m m
2Vq
v f  vo2   8.16 
m

If the charged particle is initially at rest, then final velocity becomes,

2Vq
vf  but V  Ed 8.17 
m
2qEd
vf 
m
In motion of a charged particle in a uniform electric field if the force of gravity does not exist
or is balanced by some other force say reaction or neglected then,

F qE
a   Newton's 2nd law 8.18
m m

 If the particle is initially at rest then, from kinematic equation, we have

0
v f  vo  at

v f  at
qE
vf  t 8.19 
m

 Displacement that a charged travels is given by

0 1
S  vo t  at 2
2
1
 at 2
2
1  qE  2
S  t 8.20 
2 m 

Therefore, Eq. (8.15), can be written as,

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KE  W
0
W  KE f  KEi  qV  qEd , because vo  0

1
W  mv 2f  qV  qEd  8.21
2

 Substituting Eq. (8.19) into Eq. (8.21), we obtain

2
1  qE 
W  KE  m  t
2  m 
W  qEd  qV 8.22 

If the particle is projected perpendicularly to the field with an initial velocity𝑣𝑜 , the
acceleration has no component along x. it is purely along y axis. From kinematic equation,

ax  0 

qE  8.23
ay  
m
For motion along y –axis, 𝑣𝑜𝑦 = 0, then the height of projection is given by

0 1
Y  voy t  a y t 2
2
1
Y  at 2
2
1  qE  2
Y   t  Upward 8.24 
2 m 
The equation of trajectory is obtain by eliminating t from Eq. (8.25). We need to express y in
terms of x.

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x  vt
x
t 8.25
v
Substituting Eq. (8.25) into Eq. (8.24), we obtain
2
1  qE  x 
Y   
2  m  v 
1  qE 
Y   2  x 2  which is theequation of parabola 8.26 
2  mv 

The motion is similar to that of a body projected horizontally in the earth’s gravitational
field.
The motion of a charged particle in an electric field is parabolic in nature.

Gauss’s law and electric field strength

Gauss law states that the total electric flux (𝜙𝐸 ) out of a closed surface is equal to the charge
enclosed divided by the permittivity (εo )
q 
E  or 
o 
 8.27 
q 
 EdA   o 
The electric flux 𝜙𝐸 in an area is defined as the electric field multiplied by the area of the
surface projected in a plane and perpendicular to the field.

E  EA 8.28

The electric field strength around a charged object is obtained by substituting Eq. (8.28) into
Eq. (8.27):

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q
E  , E  EA
o
q
EA 
o
q
E  8.30 
A o

There are three other consequences of Gauss’s law and Coulomb’s law concerning the
distribution of charges on a charged conductor:

1. The net electric charge of a conductor resides entirely on its surface .

Any excess charge resides only on the surface.
2. The electric field inside the conductor is zero
3. The electric field at the surface of the conductor is perpendicular to that surface .

8.3.3. Electric field between two parallel plates

Consider an electric field is formed in the region between two oppositely charged parallel
plates

Figure: The field between two oppositely charged parallel plates is uniform. This means the field
lines are equal spaced between the plates.

Place two parallel conducting plate A and B with a tittle space between them filled with air
or another electrical insulator.

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Plate A will be positively charged with a uniform charged density of +𝜎 when it connected
to the positive pole of power source.
In contrast, plate B, which is attached to the power source’s negative pole, will have a
constant charge density of −𝜎 and be negative charged.
Since an electric insulator separates the two charged parallel plates, they would carry their
combined charges.
A homogeneous electric field is produced in the area of between the parallel charged plates
because they are kept away from one another. Straight lines perpendicular to the surfaces of
both plates and carrying arrows pointing from +𝜎 plate A to – 𝜎 plate B can be used to
illustrate the electric lines of two parallel plates.
Gauss’s law states that the electric field between two parallel plates is dependent on the
density of the charge and the medium permittivity.
The charge density on each plate is the charge per unit area (in 𝐶/𝑚2 ). For a given plate with
a charge Q and an area A, the charge density σ is given by:
Q
  8.27 
A

Two parallel conducting plates having surface charge density +𝜎 and – 𝜎 respectively, are
separated by a small distance. If 𝜀𝑜 is the dielectric permittivity of vacuum that filed between
the plates, then the electric field in the region between the plate is given by
q
 EdA   o

q
EA  , but q   A
o
 A
EA
o

E 8.28 
o

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Coulomb’s law states that the same electric field between two parallel conducting plates relies
on their respective electric potential or voltages as well as their distance from one another,
since d is the distance between the two charged plates, the electric field is given by
W  qEd  qV
q Ed  q V

Ed  V
V
E 8.29 
d

The force acting on a charged particle between two parallel plates in the form of:
V F
E 
d q
V F

d q
Vq
F 8.31
d

The electric field between two parallel, oppositely charged plate is inversely proportional to
distance, the electric field will increase as the two plates are brought closer together. Due to
the difference in the number of charges carried by the two conducting plates, the evenly and
oppositely charged two plates can store potential energy.

8.3.4. Electric field due to electric dipole

 An electric dipole is a part of pair of charge with equal magnitude and opposite sign.
 A dipole is a separation of opposite electrical charges and it is quantified by an electric dipole
moment.
 The electric dipole moment associated with two equal charges of opposite polarity separated
by a distance, d is defined as the vector quantity having a magnitude equal to the product of
the charge and the distance between the charges.
 Dipole moment is the product of the charge and the distance between the two charges.

P  qd 8.29

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 Dipole moment is a vector quantity and its direction is always towards the positive charge
(from the negative to the positive charge along the line between the charge). The electric dipole
moment helps describe the orientation of the dipole.

 When a dipole is placed inside an electric field equal and opposite forces act on the charges in
the dipole. This creates a turning effect and so the dipole orientates itself with the electric field.
Then the torque exerted by the couple is

  P E 8.30

Example

1. A charge 𝑞 = +25 × 10−9 𝐶 is given. What is the electric field at a distance of 3m from the
charge?

Given Required

𝑞 = +25 × 10−9 𝐶 𝐸⃗ =?
𝑟 = 3𝑚
𝑘 = 9 × 109 𝑁𝑚2 /𝑐 2

Solution

 We can find the magnitude of the electric field as follow:

kq
E
r2


 9 10 9 Nm 2
C2  25 10 c 
9

 3m 
2

E  25 N C

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Hence the direction of the field is away from q. therefore, vectorially

𝟐𝟓𝑵/𝒄 away from q

2. What is the magnitude and direction of the electric field at 3m from a −25 × 10−9 𝐶 point
charge?

Solution

 We can find the magnitude of the electric field as follow:

kq
E
r2


 9  10 9 Nm 2
C2  25  10 9
c
 3m 
2

E  25 N C towards the charge

Hence the direction of the field is towards the q.

3. Two charges of magnitude 4𝜇𝑐 each are placed on the x –axis. 𝑞1 at 𝑥 = 0 and 𝑞2 at 𝑥 = 0.2𝑚.
calculate the electric field at 𝑥 = 0.1𝑚?

Solution

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 We can find the magnitude of the electric field due to 𝒒𝟏 as follow:

k q1
E1 
r2


 9  10 9 Nm 2
C2  4 10 6
c
 0.1m 
2

E1  36  105 N C away from q1  in +x  direction 

 Similarly the magnitude of the field due to 𝒒𝟐 will be

k q2
E2  , r2  0.2m  0.1m  0.1m
r22


 9 10 9 Nm 2
C2  4 10 6
c
 0.1m 
2

E2  36  105 N C away from q 2  in  x  direction 

 Since 𝑬𝟏 and 𝑬𝟐 are equal in magnitude but opposite in direction, then the net electric is
given by
Enet  E1  E2
 36  105 N c  36  105 N c
Enet  0

4. The electric force experienced by a charge of 1 × 10−6 𝐶 is 1.5 × 10−3 𝑁. Find the magnitude
of the electric field at the position of the charge?

Given Required

𝑞 = 1 × 10−6 𝐶 𝐸⃗ =?
⃗⃗⃗𝐹 = 1.5 × 10−3 𝑁
Solution

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F
E
q


1.5  10 N 
3

1 10 C 
6

E  1.5  103 N C  1500 N C

5. The tiny ball at end of the thread shown in figure has a mass of 0.6g and is in a horizontal
electric field 𝐸⃗ = 700𝑁/𝐶 in +𝑥 direction. It is in equilibrium in the position shown. What
are the magnitude of the charge on the ball?

Given Required

𝑚 = 0.6𝑔 = 6 × 10−4 𝑘𝑔 𝑞 =?
𝐸⃗ = 700𝑁/𝑐
𝑔 = 10𝑚/𝑠 2
Solution
The system is in equilibrium. Hence we apply the first condition of equilibrium to solve the
problem. From 1st condition of equilibrium,

F x 0

Fe  T sin 200  0
Fe  T sin 200
Fe
T , Fe  qE where q is the magnitude of the ball
sin 200
qE
T i 
sin 200

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Similarly, the summation of the force along y component is given by;

F y 0
Ty  mg  0

T cos 20o  mg
mg
T  ii 
cos 20o
Equating Eq. (i) and Eq. (ii), we obtain:
qE mg
0

sin 20 cos 20o
 qE   cos 20    mg   sin 20 
o 0

 mg   sin 20  0

q
 E   cos 20  o

mg
 tan 200
E
 6  10 4
kg  10 m s2 
  0.34 
 700 N C 
 3.1  106 c
q  3.1  106 c

6. A pendulum bob of mass 40g and carrying a charge of 2 × 10−8 𝐶 is at rest in a horizontal
uniform electric field of 2 × 107 𝑁/𝐶. Calculate the tension in the thread of the pendulum
and the angle it makes with the vertical.

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Given Required

𝑚 = 40𝑔 = 40 × 10−3 𝑘𝑔 A. 𝑇 =?
𝐸⃗ = 2 × 107 𝑁/𝐶 B. 𝜃 =?
𝑞 = 2 × 10−8 𝐶
𝑔 = 10𝑚/𝑠 2
Solution
From 1st condition of equilibrium,
F x 0
Fe  T sin   0
T sin   Fe
T sin   qE  ii 
F y 0
T cos   mg  0
T cos   mg  ii 
Dividing Eq. (i) by Eq. (2, we get
T sin  qE

T cos  mg
sin  qE

cos  mg
qE
tan  
mg


 2  10 c  2 10 
8 7 N
c

 40  10 kg  10 
3 m
s2

tan   1
  tan 1 1  450
From Eq. (𝒊),

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T sin   qE
qE
T
sin 


 2 108 c  2 107 N c 
sin 450
0.4 N

0.707
T  0.566 N

8.4. Electric Potential (V) and Electrical potential Energy (𝑼)

8.4.1. Electrical potential Energy

8.4.1. Electric work done by the field of a point charge

 Electric work is the work done by electric force as a charge moves in the electric field of
another charge.

 The work required to assemble the charge by bringing them from infinity when any charged
particle moves in an electric field (uniform or no-uniform) the field exerts force and force can
does work on the charge.

consider a positive charge q that is assume to be fixed in space and consider another positive
test charge 𝑞𝑜 which is called the test charge that is so small and does not affect the electric
field q.

Figure: work done by a point charge

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 for small displacement interval, the total work done when 𝑞𝑜 moves from A to B is given by
WAB  Fav r  Fav  rB  rA  8.31
 the average force 𝐹𝑎𝑣 is the geometrical mean of the forces at point A and point B.

 Kqq  Kqq   K 2q2q2 

Fav   FA  FB    2 0  2 0    o

  r r 2 
 rA  rB   AB 
Kqq0
Fav  8.32 
rA rB

 substituting Eq. (8.32) into Eq. (8.31), we obtain;

Kqq0
WAB   rB  rA 
rA rB
Kqq0 Kqq0
 rB  rA
rA rB rA rB
Kqq0 Kqq0
WAB   8.33
rA rA

Or in calculus language;

WAB   F  r dr
B
kqqo
 dr
A
r2
B
 kqqo  r 2 dr
A

 kqqo r 2 r A
B

 kqqo r 1 A
B

1 1
 kqqo   
 rA rB 
kqqo kqqo
WAB    8.34 
rA rB

If we take B to infinity, then 𝑟𝐵 will be so large that the quantity,

kqqo
lim
rB  r
0 8.35
B

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 so the work done when 𝑞𝑜 moves from point A to infinity is given by

kqqo
WA  8.36
rA

 in general for any arbitrary point at a distance 𝑟 from charge 𝑞 the work done to transport the
charge 𝑞𝑜 from infinity to that point is given by
kqqo kq1q2 q1q2
W   8.37 
r r 4 o r

 if the electric field between A and B is uniform, the work done will be

WAB  Fd , F  qE
WAB  qEd , In general
W  qEd  8.38

Example

1. Find the work done in bringing a charge of 10 × 10−10 𝑐 from infinity to a point 25cm from a
charge of 3 × 10−8 𝑐.

Given Required

𝑞1 = 10 × 10−10 𝑐 𝑊 =?
𝑞2 = 3 × 10−8 𝑐
𝑟 = 25𝑐𝑚 = 0.25𝑚 = 25 × 10−2 𝑚
Solution
Kq1q2
W
r


 9  109 Nm2 c2 10  1010 c  3 108 c 
 25  10 m 
2

W  1.08  106 J

2. How much work is done on proton by a uniform electric field of 200N/c as the charge move a
distance of 2cm in the field?

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Given Required

𝑞 = 𝑒 + = 1.6 × 10−19 𝑐 𝑊 =?
𝐸⃗ = 200𝑁/𝐶
𝑑 = 2𝑐𝑚 = 0.02𝑚 = 2 × 10−2 𝑚
Solution
W  qEd  e  Ed
 1.6  1019 c   200 N c   2  10 2 m 
W  6.4  1019 J

3. Compute the work done on an electron as it moves through a uniform electric field of 6 𝑁/𝑐
from point A to point B which are 2cm apart.

Given Required

𝑞 = 𝑒 − = −1.6 × 10−19 𝑐 𝑊 =?
𝑟 = 2𝑐𝑚 = 2 × 10−2 𝑚
Solution

W  qEd  e  Ed
 eEd , the negativesign has no any physicalsignificance,so you can avoid
 1.6  1019 c   6 N c   2  102 m 
W  1.92  1018 J

8.4.2. Electrical potential Energy

Electric potential at a point in an electric field is the amount of work done to bring the unit
positive test charge from infinity to that point (current position).
Electric potential of any given charge or system of charges is defined as the total work done
by external agent (electric field) in bringing the charge or the system of charges from infinity
to present configuration(position) without undergoing any acceleration.

The electric potential energy of a test charge at any point in an electric field is defined as equal
to the amount of work required to bring the test charge from infinity to that point

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Kqq0 Kqq0
WAB    UA UB
rA rA
Kqq0 Kqq0
U AB  UA UB   , as rB  ,U B  0
rA rb
Kqq0
U AB   8.39 
rA

 In general for any charges 𝑞1 and 𝑞2 separated by 𝑟 given by

Kq1q1
U  8.40 
r

Remark

𝑊𝐴𝐵 depends only on the end points A and B

𝑊𝐴𝐵 is independent of the path connecting A and B

Electrostatic force is conservative.

If you consider the motion of charge 𝑞𝑜 from point A to point B by the repulsive force of
charge 𝑞 you will observe that the potential energy of 𝑞𝑜 decreases as it moves from A to B.
When the potential energy of 𝑞𝑜 decreases its kinetic energy increases and in effect the total
mechanical energy of the charge remain constant.

 If a charged particle is moving in an electrostatic field, its total mechanical energy is

conserved.
ME A  MEB
KE A  U A  KEB  U B 8.41

 If there are several point charges that are fixed in space then the electric potential energy of
𝑞𝑜 is found by supposition principle.

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 Suppose there are n number of charges, the electrical potential energy of 𝑞𝑜 that is at a
distance of 𝑟1 from 𝑞1, 𝑟2 from 𝑞2 and so on is the sum of the electrical potential energies due
to the individual charges, that is

Kq1qo Kq2 qo Kq3 qo Kq q

U    ....  n o
r1 r2 r3 rn
q q q q 
U  Kqo  1  2  3  ....  n  8.42 
 r1 r2 r3 rn 

Example

1. What is the the electric potential energy of a charge 4 × 10−9 𝑐 which is at a distance of 6cm
from a stationary charge of 12 × 10−19 𝑐?

Given Required

𝑞1 = 4 × 10−9 𝑐 𝑈 =?
𝑞2 = 12 × 10−19 𝑐
𝑟 = 6𝑐𝑚 = 6 × 10−2 𝑚
Solution
Kq1q2
u
r


  109 Nm2 c2  4  109 c 12 109 c 
9
 6  10 m 
2

W  7.2  10 6 J

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2. In figure below, a particle having mass of 0.5g and charge a charge 𝑞𝑜 = 2 × 10−9 𝑐 starts from
rest at point A and moves in a straightt line to point B. what is its speed at point B?

Given Required

𝑞0 = 2 × 10−9 𝑐 v𝐵 =?
𝑞 = 4 × 10−9 𝑐
𝑟𝐴 = 1𝑐𝑚 = 10−2 𝑚
𝑟𝐵 = 2𝑐𝑚 = 2 × 10−10 𝑚
v𝐴 = 0
𝑚 = 0.5𝑔 = 5 × 10−4 𝑘𝑔

Solution

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 Apply conservation of mechanical energy

ME A  MEB
0
KE A  U A  KEB  U B
U A  KEB  U B
1
U A  mvB2  U B
2
2U A  mvB2  2U B
2U A  2U B  mvB2
2U A  2U B
vB2 
m
2
vB  U A  U B  i 
m
 Electrical potential energy of 𝒒𝒐 at point A is given by
Kq0 q
UA 
r


 9 109 Nm2 c2  2 109 c  4 109 c 
110 m  2

U A  7.2  106 J  ii 
 Electrical potential energy of 𝒒𝒐 at point B is given by
Kq0 q
UB 
r


 109 Nm2 c2  2 109 c  4 109 c 
9 
 2 10 m 2

U B  3.6  106 J  ii 
 Substituting Eq.(ii) and Eq. (iii) into Eq. (i), we obtain;

vB 
2
4
5  10 kg
 7.2  106 J  3.6  106 J 

2  3.6  106 J 

5  104 kg
v B  12  102 m s  0.12 m s

3. Point charge of 12 × 10−9 𝑐 and −12 × 10−9 𝑐 are placed 10cm apart as shown in figure
below. Compute the pointential energy of a point charge of 4 × 10−9 𝑐 if placed at point A.

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Solution
𝒌𝒒 𝒐 𝒒 𝒊
 We must evaluate the algebraic sum ∑ at a point A
𝒓𝒊

 The potential energy of the point charge of 𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟗 𝒄 due to the presence of the positive
charge is
K  q0   q 
U 
r


 9 10 9 Nm2
c2 12 10 c  4 10 c 
9 9

 4 10 m 
2

U   7.2  106 J

 The potential energy of the point charge of 𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟗 𝒄 due to the presence of the negative
charge is
K  q0   q 
U 
r


 9  109 Nm2 c2 12  109 c  4 109 c 
 6  10 m 
2

U   7.2  10 6 J

 The total potential energy at point A is given by

U A  U  U
 7.2  106 J  10.8  106 J
U A  3.6  106 J

8.4. Electrical potential of a point charge

The field around a charged object is described not only by the electric field strength but also
by the electric potential.

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As temperature is a determining factor for the flow of heat from one body to another; electric
potential is the decisive factor for the flow of electricity.
Electric potential is also referred to as voltage drop.
Electric potential is a scalar quantity.
 The electric potential is the amount of effort done in transporting a unit positive charge from
infinity from to that point against electric forces in an electric field.
 The potential at a point is defined as equal to the amount of work done in bringing a positive
charge 𝑞𝑜 from infinity to that point divided by the charge 𝑞𝑜
 Electric potential is the work done per unit positive charge in order to bring that charge from
infinity to a point in the electrostatic field against the field force.

 The work done to transport 𝑞𝑜 from B to A against the electric field of q is given by
kqqo kqqo
WAB   , if rB  ,
rA rB
kqqo
WA  , divided both side by qo
rA
WA kq qo 1

qo rA qo
kq
VA  , In general ,
rA
kq
V 8.43
r

 The unit of electric potential is Joule per Coulomb called Volt (V).
 The potential difference of two points A and B denoted by 𝑉𝐴𝐵 is the work done to bring
𝑞𝑜 from point B to A divided by 𝑞𝑜 .

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WAB kqqo kqqo

VAB  VA  VB   
qo rA qo rB qo
kq kq
VAB  
rA rB
1 1
VAB  kq     8.44 
 rA rB 

𝑉𝐴𝐵 = 𝑉𝐴 − 𝑉𝐵 is the relative potential of point A with respect to B.

If 𝑉𝐴𝐵 = 𝑉𝐴 − 𝑉𝐵 is positive then A is at a higher potential if 𝑉𝐴𝐵 = 𝑉𝐴 − 𝑉𝐵 is negative, then
B is at higher potential.

What is the difference between electrical potential and potential difference?

Electric potential

The electric potential (or potential) at a point in an electric filed is defined as the work done in
moving a unit positive charge from infinity to that point, without any acceleration.
Electric potential is similar to flow of water from one end of a tube connected to a tank at a
higher level to another tank at other end of the tube at a lower level.
Charge flows from a point of higher potential to a point of lower potential.
For any charge, electric potential is the electric potential energy divided by the quantity of
charge.

Potential difference

A potential difference is the amount of work done in transporting a unit positive charge from
one location to another points in against the electric force between two points in an electric
field.
In an electrical circuit, the potential between two points (V) is defined as the amount of work
done (W) by an external agent in moving a unit charge (𝑞𝑜 ) from one point to another.

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Difference between Electrical potential and potential difference

Electric potential Potential Difference

Electric potential is the work done per Potential difference is the potential
unit charge to get a charge from infinity to created when transferring a charge from
a point in an electric field. one point in the field to another.

It is defined at a point It is defined between two points.

The unit of Electric potential is volt The unit of potential difference is also
volt.

At infinity, it is taken as zero There is no such concept for potential

difference.

It is a scalar quantity It is also a scalar quantity.

Important points

At a point midway between two equal and opposite charges, the electric potential is zero, but
the electric field is not zero.
The electric potential at a point is said to be one volt if one coulomb of charge against the
electric field.
If a negative charge is moved from point A to B, the electric potential of the system increases.
The reference level used to define electric potential at a point is infinity. It signifies that the
force on test charge is zero at the reference level.
The surface of the earth is taken to be at zero potential since the earth so huge that the addition
or removal of charge from it will not alter its electrical state.
 The electric potential at a point to a number of charges is found by superposition principle. it
states that the potential at a point due to many charges is the sum of the potentials of the
individual charges, mathematically stated as.

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Kq1 Kq2 Kq 
V   ...  n 
r1 r2 rn 
n  8.45
qi
V  k 
i 1 ri 

 If the electric field strength in some region of space is uniform, the potential difference between
any two points separated by a distance d measured along the field is related to the electric field
strength by.

V  Ed 8.46

8.4.3. Equipotential surface

An equipotential surface is a surface on which the potential has the same value at every point.
All points on an equipotential surface have the same (constant) electric potential (i.e., the same
volt). In other word, the potential difference between any two points on an equipotential
surface is zero.
The electric force neither helps nor hinders motion of an electric charge along an equipotential
surface. No work is mandatory (required) to move a charge from one point to another on
equipotential surface.
Electric field lines are always perpendicular to an equipotential surface.

If the points in an electric field are all at the same electric potential, they are known as the
equipotential points. If these point are connected by a line or a curve, it is known as an
equipotential line.

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Equipotential lines are lines of equal altitude.

Equipotential lines are always perpendicular to electric field.

Properties of Equipotential surface

Work done in moving a charge over an equipotential surface is zero.

The electric field is always perpendicular to an equipotential surface.
Two equipotential surfaces can never intersect.
For a point charge, the equipotential surface are concentric spherical shells.
For a uniform electric field, the equipotential surfaces are planes normal to the x-axis.

Example

1. A point charge of 8 × 10−9 𝐶 is located at origin. What is the electrical potential at 𝑥 = 8𝑐𝑚?

Given Required

𝑞 = 8 × 10−9 𝐶 𝑉 =?
𝑥 = 8𝑐𝑚 = 8 × 10−2 𝑚
𝑘 = 9 × 109 𝑁𝑚2 /𝑐 2
Solution
kq
V
r


 9 109 Nm2 c2 8 109 c 
8 10 m 
2

V  900V

2. At what distance from −8 × 10−6 𝑐 point charge would the electric potential be −2.8 × 104 𝑉?

Given Required

𝑞 = −8 × 10−6 𝐶 𝑉 =?
𝑘 = 9 × 109 𝑁𝑚2 /𝑐 2

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𝑉 = −2.8 × 104 𝑉

Solution
kq
V
r
kq
r
V


 9  109 Nm c2  8  10 6 c 
2

 2.8 104 m 
r  2.57 m

3. A 4 × 10−9 𝐶 charge is located at the origin of the coordinate system. What is the potential
difference between the points A and B which are at a distance of 1m and 2m from the origin
respectively?

Given Required

𝑞 = 4 × 10−9 𝑐 𝑉𝐴𝐵 =?
𝑘 = 9 × 109 𝑁𝑚2 /𝐶 2
𝑟𝐴 = 1𝑚
𝑟𝐵 = 2𝑚
Solution
VAB  VA  VB
Kq Kq
 
rA rB
1 1
 kq   
 rA rB 
  9  109 Nm
2

c2  4 10 c   11m  21m 

9

  9  109 Nm  4 10 c   0.5m 

9
2

c2
VAB  18V

4. Point charges of 12 × 10−9 𝐶 and −12 × 10−9 𝐶 are placed 10cm apart as shown in figure
below.

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A. Compute the potential at a point A.

B. Compute the potential at a point B

Solution
A. The potential due to the positive charge at point A is
Kq  9 10 Nm c2 12 10 c 
9 2 9

V    1800 Nm C to the left

r  6  10 2
m 
V  1800V
 The potential due to the negative charge is
Kq  9 10 Nm c2  12 10 c 
9 2 9

V    2700 Nm C to the right

r  4 102 m 
V  2700V

 The total potential at point A is

VA  V  V  1800V  2700V  900V
B. The potential due to the positive charge at point B is

Kq  9 10 Nm c2 12 10 c 

9 2 9

V    2700V
r  4 102 m 
The potential due to the negative charge is

Kq  9 10 Nm c2  12 10 c 

9 2 9

V  
r 14 102 m 
V  771V
The total potential at point B is
VB  V  V
 2700V  771V
VB  1930V

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5. Two points are at a distance of 2cm and 10cm from a proton. What is the potential difference
between these points?
Given Required

𝑟𝐴 = 2𝑐𝑚 = 2 × 10−2 𝑚 𝑉𝐴𝐵

𝑟𝐵 = 10𝑐𝑚 = 10 × 10−2 𝑚
𝑒 + = 1.6 × 10−19 𝐶
𝑘 = 9 × 109 𝑁𝑚2 /𝐶 2
Solution
VAB  VA  VB
Kq Kq
 
rA rB


 9 10 9 Nm 2
c 2 
1.6 1019 c   9 109 Nm c2 1.6 10 19 c 

2

 2 102 m  10 102 m 

VAB  5.76 109 V

6. Three charges 𝑞1 = 6 × 10−9 𝑐, 𝑞2 = −6 × 10−9 𝐶 and 𝑞3 = 12 × 10−9 𝐶 are put as figure

below.
A. What is the electrical potential at the center?

Solution

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VC  V1  V2  V3
kq kq kq
 1 2 3
r1 r2 r3


 9 10  6 10 c   9 10
9 Nm2
c2
9
 6 10 c   9 10
9 Nm2
c2  6 10 c 
9 9 Nm2
c2
9

 2 10 m  2
 2 10 m   2 10 m 
2 2

 27V  27V  54V

VC  54V

7. Suppose the electric field between two points is 2400N/c. if the points are at a distance of
0.5cm. What is the potential difference between them?

Given Required

𝐸⃗ = 2400𝑁/𝑐 𝑉 =?
𝑑 = 0.5𝑐𝑚 = 0.5 × 10−2 𝑚
Solution
V
E
d
V  Ed
  2400 N c   0.5 102 m 
V 12V

8. Two parallel metal plates are 3 × 10−3 𝑚 apart. The potential difference between them is 9V.
What is the electric field strength between them?

Solution
V
E
d
9V

3 103 m
E  3000 V m

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9. The potential difference between plates is 40V. How much work must be done to carry a 3C
charge from the higher potential to the lower potential?

Given Required

𝑞 = 3𝐶 𝑊 =?
𝑉 = 40𝑉
Solution
W  qV
  3c  40V 
W  120 J

8.5. Capacitors and Dielectric

A capacitor is a tittle like a battery but work completely differently.

A battery is an electronic device that converts chemical energy into electrical energy, whereas,
a capacitor is an electronic component that stores electrostatic energy in an electric field.

 Capacitor is a two terminal electrical device used to store the electrical potential energy in the form of
an electric charge in an electric field.
 Capacitor is has two parallel plate.
 Capacitor is any oppositely charged conductor separated by a distance. The space between the
conductors may be filled by vacuum or with an insulating material known as dielectric.
 The net charge on a capacitor as whole is zero.

In general capacitor uses

1. Used as a store house of electric potential energy

2. It smooth and regulate the output of electronic power supply.
3. Essential element in tuning circuit in radio and TV transmitter and receivers.
4. Computer key board buttons are constructed of capacitor.

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When charge of equal magnitude and opposite sign are placed on the conductors there is a
potential difference exist between two plates.

The two parallel conductors are said to be plate.

Work must be done to move the charge through the potential difference between conductors,
this work done stored as a potential energy.
When the plates carry charges ±𝑄 and have a potential difference V, the capacitance of
capacitor is defined as the magnitude of the charge on one plate divided by the magnitude of
the potential V between them:

Q
C 8.47 
VAB

Where C is called capacitance of the capacitor.

Capacitance is the ability of a component or circuit to collect or store energy in the form of an
electrical charge.
Capacitance measures the ability of a capacitor to store charge and electrical energy.
The SI unit of capacitance is the Farad F. 1𝐹𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 1𝐶𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏/𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡

The following are the factors affecting the capacitance of a capacitor:

1. Geometry of the plates (size, shape and their relative position)

2. Medium (such as air, paper, wax, plastic) between the plates

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8.5.1. Parallel plate capacitor

A parallel plate capacitor is made with two parallel conducting plates, each with area A,
separated by a distance d and separated by vacuum. If 𝜀𝑜 is the dielectric permittivity of
vacuum that filed between the plates, then the electric field in the region between the plate is
given by
q
 EdA   o
 Gauss ' s law

Q
EA 
o
Q
E 8.48
A o

Since the field is uniform between the plates, the potential difference is given by

Q
VAB  Ed , but E 
A o
Q
VAB  d 8.49 
A o

The capacitance C of a parallel plate capacitor in vacuum is given by

Q Qd
C , hence V 
V A o
Q

Qd
A o
A
C o 8.50 
d

 The capacitance of the parallel plate capacitor is directly proportional to the area of its plate
and inversely proportional to the plate separation.

 For any capacitor in vacuum the capacitance depends on:

Shape
Dimensions
Separation of the conductors that makes up the conductor.

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Example

1. A parallel plate capacitor with air between plates has an area 𝐴 = 2 × 10−4 𝑚2 and separation
distance 𝑑 = 1𝑚𝑚. Find the capacitance.
Given Required

𝐴 = 2 × 10−4 𝑚2 𝐶 =?
𝑑 = 1𝑚𝑚 = 1 × 10−3 𝑚
𝜀𝑜 = 8.5 × 10−12 𝑐 2 /𝑁𝑚2
Solution
o A
C
d


8.5 1012 c2 Nm2  2 104 m2 
110 m 
3

C  1.77  1012 F  1.77 PF

2. Determine the charge on each plate of 0.05 𝜇𝐹 capacitor when the potential difference
between the plates is 200V.

Given Required

𝐶 = 0.05𝜇𝐹 = 0.05 × 10−6 𝐹 𝑄 =?

𝑉 = 200𝑉
Solution
Q
C
V
Q  CV
  0.05  106 F   200V 
 10  106 C
Q  10  c

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3. A parallel plate air capacitor has a capacitance of 600pF and a charge of magnitude 3𝜇𝑐 on
each plate. The plates are 3mm apart.

A. What is the potential difference between the plates?

B. What is the area of each plate?
C. What is the electric field magnitude in between the plates?

Given Required

𝐶 = 600pF A. 𝑉 =?
𝑄 = 3𝜇𝑐 = 3 × 10−6 𝑐 B. 𝐴 =?
𝑑 = 4𝑚𝑚 = 4 × 10−3 𝑚 ⃗ =?
C. 𝐸
Solution
A. Potential difference between the plates given by
Q
C
V
Q 3  106 c
V   5000V
C 600012 F

B. The area of plates given by

o A
C
d

A
Cd

 600  10 F  3 10 m 
12 3

o 8.85  10 
12 F
m

A  0.2034m 2

C. The electric field between the plate is given by

V  Ed
V 5000V
E 
d 3  103 m
E  1.67  106 V m

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8.5.2. Capacitors in series and parallel

 Capacitors may be connected in series or in parallel to obtain a resultant value which may be
either the sum of the individual value (in parallel) or a value less than that of the smallest
capacitance (in series).

Capacitors in Series

In a series capacitive circuit the same displacement current flows through each part of the
circuit and the applied voltage will divide across the individual capacitor.

Figure: Capacitor in Series

The total potential difference across a number of capacitors connected in series is the sum of
the potential difference (Kirchhoff’s voltage law) across individual capacitors
V  V1  V2  V3 8.51

The charges on all capacitors must be the same, since the capacitors are connected in series
and charge movement in one part of the circuit must take place in all parts of the series circuit.
Solving the equation for voltage in terms of Capacitance and charge as follow:
Q
C
V
Q
V 8.52 
C

Potential difference for individual capacitor is given by

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Q 
V1  
C1 
Q
V2   8.53
C2 
Q
V3  
C3 

Substituting Eq. (8.53) in to Eq. (8.51), we get

V  V1  V2  V3
Q Q Q Q
  
C eq C1 C2 C3
 1   1 1 1 
 Q  Q   
 Ct   C1 C2 C3 
1 1 1 1
   8.54 
Ceq C1 C2 C3
1
Ceq 
1 1 1
8.55
 
C1 C2 C3

 This equation is the general equation used to compute the total capacitance of capacitors
connected in series.
 The reciprocal of the equivalent capacitance of a series combination equals the sum of the
reciprocals of individual capacitance.

Remark!

 In a series combination the effective capacitance is always less than that of the smallest
capacitor.

8.5.3. Capacitors in parallel

 When capacitors are connected in parallel, one plate of each capacitor is connected directly to
one terminal of the source, while the other plate of each capacitor is connected to the other
terminal of the source.

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Note the following points in parallel

1. Negative plate of one capacitor is connected to the negative plate of the other.
2. Positive plate of one Capacitor is connected to the positive plate of the other.
3. Each capacitor is directly connected to the source of potential difference.

Figure: capacitor in parallel

 In parallel, connection, the potential difference across each capacitors are the same. That is;

V  V1  V2  V3 8.56 

 The total charge on each plate of the equivalent Capacitance is the sum of the individual
charge.
Qt  Q1  Q2  Q3
CeqV  C1V  C2V  C3V

Ceq V   C1  C2  C3  V

Ceq  C1  C2  C3 8.57 

 This equations states mathematically that the total capacitance of a number of capacitors in
parallel is the sum of the individual capacitances.

 In parallel combination, the effective capacitance is always greater than any individual
capacitance.

Example

5. The series combination of two capacitors shown in figure is connected across 1000V.
compute

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A. The equivalent capacitance C of the combination

B. The magnitude of the charges on the capacitors.
C. The potential differences across the capacitors

Given Required

𝐶1 = 3𝑝𝐹 = 3 × 10−12 𝐹 A. 𝐶𝑒𝑞 =?

𝐶2 = 6𝑝𝐹 = 6 × 10−12 𝐹 B. 𝑄1 =? & 𝑄2 =?
𝑉 = 1000𝑉 C. 𝑉1 =? & 𝑉2 =?

Solution
A. The equivalent Capacitance C is
1 1 1
 
Ceq C1 C2
1 1 2 1 3
   
3 pF 6 pF 6 pF 6 pF
1 1

Ceq 2 pF
Ceq  2 pF

B. In a series combination, each capacitor carries the same charge, which is the charge on the
combination. Thus using the result of A we have

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Q1  Q2  CV  Q
Q  CV   2 pF 1000V 

  2  1012 F  1000V 

 2  109 c
Q  2nc

C. The potential difference across each capacitor will be

Q1 Q 2  109 c 2
V1    12
  103  667V
C1 C1 3  10 F 3
and the potential difference across the second capacitor is
Q2 2  109 c 1
V2     103  333V
C2 6  1012 F 3

6. The parallel capacitors shown in figure below is connected across a 120 V source. Determine
the equivalent capacitance 𝐶𝑒𝑞 and the charge on each capacitor and the charge on the
combination.

Given Required

𝐶1 = 2𝑝𝐹 A. 𝐶𝑒𝑞 =?
𝐶2 = 6𝑝𝐹 B. 𝑄1 & 𝑄2 =?
𝑉 = 120𝑉 C. 𝑄𝑡 =?

Solution

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A. For parallel combination the equivalent capacitance will be

Ceq  C1  C2
 2 pF  6 pF
Ceq  8 pF

B. The potential across each capacitor is 120V. hence charge on each will be

Q1  C1V1  C1V
  2 pF 120V 
Q1  240 pc
Q2  C2V
  6 pF 120V 
Q  720 pc

C. The charge on the combination Q is

Q  Q1  Q2
 240 pc  720 pc
Q  960 pc

7. Find the equivalent capacitance as shown in figure below.

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Solution

 From the diagram, we observe that 𝑪𝟒 , 𝑪𝟓 and 𝑪𝟔 are in parallel. Let’s denote their
equivalent capacitance by 𝑪𝟒𝟓𝟔

C456  C4  C4  C5
 2  F  1 F  3 F
C456  6  F

Now 𝑪𝟒𝟓𝟔 is in series with 𝑪𝟏, 𝑪𝟐 and 𝑪𝟑. We can redraw the Figure as

Now let’s denote the equivalent capacitance of the system by 𝑪𝒆𝒒

1 1 1 1 1
   
Ceq C1 C2 C3 C456
1 1 1 1
   
2 F 3 F 6  F 6  F
3  2 11

6 F
1 7

Ceq 6  F
6
Ceq  F
7

8.5.4. Energy stored in Capacitor

A charged capacitor has electrical potential energy. if a battery is used to charge a capacitor,
hence the work done by the battery is the same as the energy stored in a capacitor.
The work needed to transfer a small amount of charge ∆𝑄 from the negative plate to the
positive plate is

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W  V Q
Q
dW  VdQ, V 
C
Q
dW  dQ 8.58
C

This work is the energy stored in the electrical field of the capacitor. The total work done to
charge a capacitor to a charge Q is;

W   dW
Q
W  dQ
C
Q
1
C 0
 QdQ

Q2
W , & Q  CV 8.59 
2C

 CV 
2

W
2C
C 2V 2

2C
1 Q
W  CV 2 , & C  8.60 
2 V
1Q
  V 2
2V 
1
W  QV 8.61
2

This work is stored as electrical potential energy U. The total work is equal to the potential
energy U of a charged capacitor.

Q2 1 1
UE   CV 2  QV 8.62
2C 2 2

 This equation shows that the total work W required to charge the capacitor is equal the total
𝑉
charge Q multiplied by the average potential difference during the charging process. Both
2

the charge and the potential difference were built up gradually to their final value.

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8.5.5. Energy density of a parallel plate Capacitor (Energy density of the Electric field)

The work required to bring two point charges from infinity to some finite separation is stored
as potential energy.
If the area of cross section of each plate of a parallel plate capacitor is A, and the charged Q is
given to the plate. Then, the electric field between its plate is given by

 Q
E 
 o A o
Q   o AE 8.63

From the Capacitance of parallel plate separated by distance d with vacuum is given by

o A
C  8.64 
d

Energy stored of charged Capacitor is given by

1 Q2
UE  8.65
2 C

Substituting Eq. (8.63) and Eq. (8.64) into Eq. (8.65), we obtain;

 
2
1  o AE
UE 
2  o A 
 d 
 
1
U E   o E 2 Ad  8.66 
2

But 𝐴𝑑 = 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 between the plate (V), then Eq. (8.66) becomes

1
U    o E 2V  8.67 
2

Energy density is defined as the total amount of energy stored in a system per unit volume.

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U E 1  o E 2V

V 2 V
1
U  oE2  8.68
2

 Notice that there no direct reference to the capacitor itself.

 From Eq. (8.69), we may conclude that the energy is stored in the electric field.

Example

1. A capacitor is charged with 9.6nc and has a 120V potential difference between its terminals.
Compute its capacitance and energy stored in it?

Given Required

𝑄 = 9.6𝑛𝑐 = 9.6 × 10−9 𝑐 A. 𝐶 =?

𝑉 = 120𝑉 B. 𝑈 =?

Solution
Q 9.6 109 c
C    80 1012 F  80 pF
V 120V
1
 U E  QV
2


1
2
 9.6 109 c  120V 
 0.576  106 J
U E  0.57  c

2. A parallel plate capacitor has a capacitance of 500pF and a charge of magnitude 0.346𝜇𝑐 on
each plate. The plates are 0.453mm apart. What is the stored energy and the energy density
between the plates?

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Given Required

𝐶 = 500𝑝𝐹 = 500 × 10−12 𝐹 A. 𝑈𝐸 =?

𝑄 = 0.346𝜇𝑐 = 0.346 × 10−6 𝑐 B. 𝑈𝜌 =?

𝜀𝑜 = 8.85 × 10−12 𝐶 2 /𝑁𝑚2

𝑑 = 0.453𝑚𝑚 = 0.453 × 10−3 𝑚

Solution

A. Energy stored is in capacitor is given by

1 Q2
UE 
2 C

1  0.346 10 c 
6 2


2  500 1012 G 

 1.197 104 J
U E  119.7  J

B. Energy density is given by

V Q Q
E , but C  , V 
d V C

E
Q

 0.346 106 C 
Cd  500 1012 F  0.453 10 3 m 
E  1.53 106 V m
1
U  oE2
2
  8.85 1012 C Nm2 1.53 106 V m 
1 2
2

2
U   10.34 J m3

3. Two capacitors, 𝐶1 = 5𝜇𝐹 and 𝐶2 = 3𝜇𝐹 are in parallel with a 12V battery. Find
A. The potential differences

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B. The charges
C. The energies stored
Solution
A. Since the capacitors are in parallel with the battery, their potential differences are equal to
that of the battery.
V  V1  V2  12V
B. The charges will be
Q1
V
C1
Q1  C1V   5  106 F  12V   60  106 C
Q2  C2V   3  106 F  12V   36  106 C
C. The energies stored is given by
1
U1  Q1V1
2
  60  10 6 C  12V 
1
2
U1  360  J
1
U 2  Q2V2
2
  36  106 C  12V 
1
2
U 2  216  J

8.5.6. Capacitor with dielectric

A dielectric material is a non- metallic substance having a high specific resistance, a negative
temperature coefficient and high insulating resistance.
Dielectric material is a non-conducting substance that holds electrical charges.
Dielectric materials are used to store energy.
Dielectric is may be exist in solid, liquid and gaseous forms.

Some examples of dielectric materials are:

 Solid Dielectric: Ceramic, plastic, Mica, and Glass.

 Dielectric Liquid : distilled water
 Dielectric Gas: Dry Air, Vacuum, nitrogen and helium.

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Dielectric increase the capacitance of a capacitor when placed between the plates of a
capacitor.
A dielectric material increases the maximum possible potential difference between the
capacitor and it prevent the capacitor from being break down due to strong electric field.
Breaking down when the voltage applied across a capacitor is too high, the dielectric ceases
to act as an insulator and the charge starts to spark across the plates

How Dielectric material maximizing the capacitance of capacitor?

In order to make a capacitor as large as possible we could do the following.

1. Make the area of the plates as large as possible

2. Move the plates as close together as possible
the closer the plates are together, the lower the breakdown voltage
3. Use a dielectric between the plates with as large a dielectric constant as possible.
A dielectric is an electrical insulator that may be polarized by an electric field. This has the
effect of dramatically increasing the charge stored at a given potential difference

Figure: With the application of an electric field the dipoles all line up and so increase the
capacitance of the capacitor.

 Dielectric is an insulating material that may be polarized by an electrical field and which
allows more charge to be stored.

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 When a dielectric is placed in an electric field, the electric charges do not flow through the
material. Electric charges slightly shift from their average equilibrium positions, causing
dielectric polarization.
 Dielectric polarization causes positive charges to flow in the direction of the field and negative
charges to shift in the opposite direction of the field.
 A dielectric contains a series of dipoles (or molecules that will become dipoles when a field
is applied)
 Dipoles a pair of electric charges or magnetic poles, of equal magnitude but of opposite sign
or polarity, separated by a small distance.

Figure: Dipoles in a dielectric are usually randomly arranged.

 The effect of dielectric was experimentally observed by Michael Faraday. The following
experimental illustrates the effect of inserting dielectrics in to a capacitor.

 Consider a charged capacitor with a charge of magnitude 𝑄𝑜 on each of its plates. Let the
potential across the plate be 𝑉𝑜 .

 A capacitor with capacitance 𝐶𝑂 when there is air between its plates is charged by a battery𝑉𝑜.
When the capacitor is fully charged, the battery is disconnected. A charge 𝑄𝑜 then resides on
the plate, and the potential difference between the plate is measured to be 𝑉𝑂

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Figure (a): when fully charged, a vacuum capacitor has a voltage 𝑉𝑜 and charge 𝑄𝑜
Figure (b): in step 1, the battery is disconnected. Then, in step 2, a dielectric is inserted in to
charged capacitor.

 When a slab of dielectric is inserted to completely fill the space between the plates of a
capacitor, the potential difference between plates is decreased by some factor K called
dielectric constant.

 We write this new voltage 𝑉𝐷 value as a fraction of original voltage ,𝑉𝑜, with a positive number
K, 𝐾 > 1.
1
VD  Vo 8.69 
K

 After the insertion of the dielectrics between the plates, the charge on the plates remain
unchanged. We conclude that capacitance must be change to the value;
1
VD  Vo
K
Q Q
CD  o  o
V Vo
K
KQo Q
 , where Co  o
VO Vo
CD  KCo 8.70 

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 Eq. (8.70) tells us that the capacitance 𝐶𝑂 an empty (vacuum) capacitor can be increased by a
factor of K when we insert a dielectric material to completely fill the space between its plates.

 For parallel plate capacitor with an empty (vacuum), the capacitance is given by

o A
Co  8.71
d

 The capacitance when the capacitor is filled with dielectrics is given by

o A
CD  KCo , where Co 
d
K o A
CD  8.72 
d

Remark!

If the dielectrics completely fills the space between the plates, the capacitance increases by a
dimensionless factor K. where K is dielectric constant of a material. The dielectric constant K
is varies from materials to another.
We could make the capacitance very large by decreasing the distance d between the plates.
For any given separation d, the maximum voltage that can be applied to capacitor without
causing a discharge depends on the dielectric strength (maximum electric field) of the dielectric

Electric field 𝑬 𝑫 between the plates of capacitor with dielectric

We know that 𝑉𝑂 = 𝐸𝑜 𝑑. This means the potential difference V is directly proportional to the
electric between the plates of a capacitor. From this we conclude that

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VD  ED d
V V V
ED  D  o , but o  Eo
d kd d
E
ED  o 8.73
k

The field between the plates of a capacitor with dielectric decrease by a factor K.

8.5.6.1. The energy stored in a parallel plate capacitor with dielectric.

The electrical energy stored by a capacitor is also affected by the presence of a dielectric. When
the energy stored in an empty capacitor is 𝑈𝑜 , the energy 𝑈𝐷 stored in a capacitor with
Dielectric is smaller by a factor of K.

Q2
UD  , hence Q  Qo & CD  KCo
2CD
Qo2 Qo2
 , where  Uo
2 KCo 2Co
U
UD  o  8.74 
K

Energy density in the electric field with dielectric

We know that energy stored in in capacitor with dielectric is given by

1 Q2 1 1
UD   QVD  CDVD2  8.75
2 CD 2 2

The energy density 𝑈𝐷𝜌 in electric field with dielectric is given by

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UD
U D 
Volume
1 CDVD2

2 Ad
1 kCoVD2  A
 ,where Co  o
2 Ad d
1 k o AVD2
 , butVD  ED d
2 Ad 2
1 k o A ED2 d 2

2 A d2
1 
U D  k o ED2 or 

2
1
  8.76 
U D   ED2 
2 
Where

  k o  is the permitivity of the dielectric 8.77 


k
o

Dielectric constant (k): is the ratio of the permittivity of the dielectric material to the
permittivity of free space.
For free space (vacuum or air). How do you show the relation between 𝜀 and 𝜀𝑜 ?

  k o , k  1for air 
  o
  8.78


Example

1. The parallel plates have an area of 2000𝑐𝑚2 and are 1cm apart. The original potential
difference between them, 𝑉𝑜 is 3000V and it decreases to 1000V when a sheet of dielectric is
inserted between the plates. Compute;

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A. The original Capacitance 𝐶𝑜

B. The magnitude of the charge on each plate
C. The capacitance 𝐶𝐷 after the dielectric is inserted
D. The dielectric constant k of the dielectric
E. The permittivity of the dielectric
F. The original electric field 𝐸𝑜 between the plates
G. The electric field 𝐸𝐷 after the dielectric is inserted
H. The energy density 𝑈𝜌𝑂 in an electric before the dielectric is inserted
I. The energy density 𝑈𝜌𝐷 in an electric field after the dielectric is inserted.

Solution

A. The original Capacitance 𝐶𝑜 is given by

o A
Co 
d


8.85 1012 c2 Nm2  2000 104 m2 
110 m 
2

Co  177  1012 F  177 pF

B. The magnitude of the charge on each plate is given by

Q
Co 
Vo
Q  CoV
 177  10 12 F   3000V 
Q  531 10 9 c  531nc

C. The capacitance 𝐶𝐷 after the dielectric is inserted is given by

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Q
CD 
VD


 53110 c  9

1000V 
CD  531 10 12 F  531 pF

D. The dielectric constant k of the dielectric is given by

CD  kCo
C
k D
Co
531 1012 F

177 1012 F
k 3

E. The permittivity of the dielectric

  k o
  3  8.85 10 12 c 
2

Nm 2

  26.55 10 12 c 2

Nm 2

F. The original electric field 𝐸𝑜 between the plates is given by

Vo
Eo 
d

 3000V 
110 m  2

Eo  3  105 V m

G. The electric field 𝐸𝐷 after the dielectric is inserted is given by

Eo
ED 
k


 3 105 V m 
 3
ED  1 105 V m

H. The energy density 𝑈𝜌𝑂 in an electric before the dielectric is inserted

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1
U  o   o Eo2
2
  8.85 1012 c Nm2  3 105 V m 
1 2
2

2
U  o  0.4 J m3

I. The energy density 𝑈𝜌𝐷 in an electric field after the dielectric is inserted.

U o
U D 
k


 0.4 J m3 
 3
U  D  1.333 J m3

Review questions

1. If the size of charged bodies are very small compared to the distance between them, we treat
them as ________________
A. Zero charge C. single charge
B. Point charge D. np charges
2. The force per unit charge is known as -------------------
A. Electric current C. Electric field
B. Electric potential D. Electric space
3. The work done in moving a unit positive test charge over a closed path in an electric field is
A. Always one C. Zero
B. Infinite D. Negative
4. A surface that has the same electrostatic potential at every point on it is known as
A. Equal- potential surface C. Equi magnitude surface
B. Same potential surface D. Equipotential surface
5. The work done against electrostatic force gets stored in which form of energy?
A. Thermal energy C. Potential Energy
B. Kinetic energy D. Solar Energy

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6. Dielectrics are
A. Conducting substances C. semi- conducting substances
B. Non-conducting substances D. None of the option
7. The potential difference is the work done in moving a unit positive charge from one point to
another in an electric field. State True/False
A. True B. False
8. The electric field at a point situated at a distance d from straight charged conductor is
A. Proportional to distance d C. Inversely proportional to voltage, V
B. Inversely proportional to distance d D. None of the above
9. A field line and an equipotential surface are
A. Always parallel C. inclined at any angle 𝜃
B. Always at 90° D. none of the above
10. If the sheet of dielectric is inserted between the plates of an air Capacitor, the capacitance will
be
A. Decrease C. remain constant
B. Increase D. become zero
11. For making a capacitor, it is better to select a dielectric having
A. Low permittivity C. permittivity same as that of air
B. High permittivity D. permittivity slightly more than that of air
12. A dielectric material must be
A. Resistor C. Insulator
B. Good conductor D. Semi-conductor
13. Two plates of a parallel plate capacitor after being charged from a constant voltage source are
separated by means of insulated handles, then the
A. Voltage across the plates increases C. Charge on the capacitor decreases
B. Voltage across the plates decreases D. Charge on the capacitor increases
14. “The total electric flux through any closed surface surrounding charges is equal to the amount
of charge enclosed”. The above statement is associated with
A. Coulomb’s square law C. Gauss’s law
B. Maxwell’s first law D. Maxwell’s second law

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15. For which of the following parameter variation, the capacitance of the capacitor remain
unaffected?
A. Distance between plates C. Nature of the dielectric
B. Area of the plates D. Thickness of the plates
16. In a capacitor the electric charge is stored in
A. Metal plates C. Both A and B
B. Dielectric D. none of the above
17. Capacitance increases with
A. Increase in plate area and decrease in distance between the plates
B. Increase in plate area and distance between the plates
C. Decrease in plate area and value of applied voltage
D. Reduction in plate area and distance between the plate
18. The property of capacitor to store electricity is called its
A. Capacitance C. energy
B. Charge D. none of the above
19. The amount of force exerted on a unit positive charge in an electric field is known as
A. Electric field intensity C. Electric potential
B. Electric flux D. Electric lines of force
20. The direction of electric field created by a negative charge is
A. Directed outwards C. may be outwards or towards the charge
B. Directed towards the charge D. Circular in shape

Answer Key

1. B 6. B 11. B 16. B
2. C 7. A 12. C 17. A
3. C 8. B 13. B 18. A
4. D 9. B 14. C 19. A
5. C 10. B 15. D 20. B

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Chapter Nine

9. CURRENT AND MAGNETISM

9.1. Electric current (I)

 An electric current is any motion of charge from one region of the conductive medium to
another.
 Electric current is the rate at which charge flows perpendicular a surface area (This area could
bethe cross- sectional area of a wire).
 If Δ𝑄 is the amount of charge that passes through this area in a time interval Δ𝑡, the average current 𝐼𝑎𝑣
is equal to the charge that passes through A per unit time:

Q
I av   9.1
t

Figure 9.1 Charges in motion through an area A.

If the rate at which charge flows varies in time, then then current varies in time; we define the
instantaneous current I as the differential limit of average current:

dQ
I  9.2 
dt

Current is denoted by I. The SI unit of current is the ampere (A), which is defined as
1𝐶
coulomb per second (1𝐴 = )
1𝑠

The charges passing through the surface can be positive or negative or both. It is conventional
(technical) to assign to the current the same direction as the flow of positive charge.

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This is known as convectional current flow, i.e., from plus (+) to minus (-).

In electrical conductors, such as copper or aluminum, the current is due to the motion of
negatively charged electrons.
Therefore, when we speak of current in an ordinary conductor, the direction of the current is
opposite the direction of flow of electrons.

Microscopic Model of Current (Current, Drift velocity and current density)

Consider a conductor with area of cross section A and electric field 𝐸⃗ from right to left.
Suppose that there are 𝑛 electrons (charged particle) per volume in the conductor and assume
that all the electron (charge of electron q) move with the same drift velocity v𝑑 .

Figure 9.2. A section of a uniform conductor of cross-sectional area A.

𝑁 → number of charge carrier in the part of the conductor
N
n  charge carrier density  9.3
V
The time for the charge carriers to move the distance ∆𝑥 is given by
x  vd t  9.4
The volume of the cylinder of the conductor is given by;

V  Ax  Avd t  9.5

Drift velocity(vd ) : the average velocity at which electrons (charge of electrons) travels
through a conductor. It is given by

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x
vd   9.6 
t
The total number of charge in the part of the conductor is:
N  nV
N  nAvd t  9.7 
 The total charge that cross the right cross-sectional area of part of the conductor in time in 𝛥𝑡
is given by
Q  Nq
 nVq
Q   nAv d t  q  9.8
where q is the charge of each charge carrier.
The average current in the conductor is given by
Q  nAv d t  q
I 
t t
I  nqAvd  9.9 

 Drift velocity: is the average velocity that an electron reaches when an electric field is applied
across a conductor. It is given by

I
vd   9.10 
nqA

Current density (𝑱)

The amount of electric current travelling per unit cross-sectional area is called current density
and expressed in amperes per square meter.
The more the current in a conductor, the higher will be the current density.
Current density is a vector quantity having both a direction and scalar magnitude,
The electric current flowing through a solid having units of charge per unit time is calculated
towards the direction to the flow of direction.
It is all about the motion of flowing across the given region.

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Current density formula is used to determine the amount of current in a specific portion of the
conductor.

I nq A vd
J 
A A
I
J  nqv d  9.11
A

Where,

𝐼 = current flowing through the conductor

𝐴 = cross-sectional area in 𝑚2

Current density is expressed in 𝐴/𝑚2 .

 Current density in terms of electric field 𝐸⃗ and conductivity is given by

J E  9.12 

Where

𝜎 =cinductivity of conductor and its SI unit is Siemens per meter (𝑆/𝑚)

𝐸⃗ = electric field intensity. Its SI unit is volume per meter (𝑉/𝑚).

Example

1. A copper wire has a nominal diameter of 1.02mm. This wire carries a constant current of
1.67A to a 200-Watt lamp. The density of free electrons is 8.5× 1028 electros per cubic
meter. Find the magnitude of:

A. The current density

B. The drift velocity

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Given Required

𝐼 = 1.67𝐴 A. 𝐽 =?
𝑛 = 8.5 × 1028 /𝑚3 B. 𝑉𝑑 =?
𝑑 = 1.02𝑚𝑚 = 1.02 × 10−3 𝑚
𝑑
𝑟=
2
𝑞 = 1.6 × 10−19 𝐶
Solution
A. The cross-sectional area is given
d2
A   r2 
4
3.14 1.02  10 3 m 
2


4
7
A  8.17  10 m 2
The magnitude of the current density is given by
I
J
A
1.67 A

8.17  10 7 m 2
J  2.04  106 A m2

B. The drift velocity 𝑽𝒅 can be defined interms of current density is given by

J  nqVd
J
Vd 
nq
2.04  106 A
 m2

8.5 10 28
m3 1.6 10 c 19

Vd  0.15 mm s

2. A silver wire 1.3mm in diameter transfers a charge of 72C in 1h and 10 minute. Silver
contains 5.8 × 1028 free electrons per cubic meter.

A. What is the current in the wire?

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B. What is the magnitude of the drift velocity of the electrons in the wire?

Given Required

𝑡 = 1ℎ𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑑 10𝑚 A. 𝐽 =?

= (60 × 60 + 10 × 60)𝑠𝑒𝑐 B. 𝑉𝑑 =?
𝑡 = 4200𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑄 = 72𝐶
𝑛 = 5.8 × 1028 /𝑚3
𝑞 = 1.6 × 10−19 𝐶
Solution
A. The current is given by

Q 72c
I   0.017 A
t 4200sec

The current density is given by

 3.14  1.3 103 m 

2
d2
A   5.31106 m2
4 4
I 0.017 A
J 
A 5.31106 m2
J  3.2 103 A m2

B. The magnitude of drift velocity is given by

J 3.2 103 A m2
Vd  
nq 1.6 1019 c  5.8 1028 m3 
7 m
Vd  3.4 10 s

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9.2. Resistance and Ohm’s law

Ohm’s law

Ohm’s law is one of the most popular and important laws that helps us defined the relationship
between voltage, current and resistance.
The law was first established by a German physicist named Georg simon Ohm, and was the
most important theory to describe the quantitative characteristics of the physics of electric ity.

Ohm’s law states that: The ratio of potential difference between the ends of a conductor to the
current flow through the conductor is a constant. This constant is known as the resistance of
the conductor.
In equation form of Ohm’s law can be written as

Voltage V
R   9.13
Current I

1𝑉
The SI unit of resistance is ohm, equal to one volt per one ampere (1Ω = ).
1𝐴

Ohm’s law states that the current through a conductor between two points is directly
proportional to the voltage across the two points.

Vector form of ohm’s law

The vector form od ohm’s law is used in electromagnetics and material science.

The vector form is given by

J E  9.14 

Where J is current density, E the electrical field and 𝜎 is the electrical conductivity.

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9.2. Resistance and Resistivity

9.2.1. Resistivity (𝝆)

 The resistivity, 𝜌 of a material defined as the ratio of the magnitudes of electric field and
current density.
 Mathematically, resistivity 𝜌 is given by

E
  9.13
J
E
J  9.14 


The larger the resistivity of the conductor means the smaller the current density.

 Conductors can be identified by their Resistivity. The resistivity of a conductor is independent

of the geometry of the conductor. That means cross-sectional area and length of the conductor
will not affect the resistivity of the conductor.
 The resistivity of a conductor depends on temperature of the conductor. The unit of Resistivity
is Ohm-meter (Ω𝑚).
 If a current 𝐼 flows through the conductor of cross-sectional area A, length L, by supplying a
potential difference V between its ends, then the potential difference supplied to the ends of a
conductor will produce an electric field E inside the conductor.

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Figure 9.2: A uniform conductor of length l and cross-sectional area A.

The direction of the current is always from the higher potential end to the lower potential end. This
is because the current in a conductor flows in the direction of E, no matter what the sign of the
moving charges, and because E points in the direction of decreasing electrical potential.

The potential difference V, the electric field E and the length L of the conductor are related by
the equation :

V  EL  9.15
V
E  9.16 
L

From Eq. (9.14), we have

E
J

I V

A L
VA  I  L
V L
  9.17 
I A

The ratio of potential difference to the current through the conductor is resistance of the
conductor.

V
R  Relationship between voltage and current   9.18
I

Comparing Eq. (9.17) with Eq. (9.18), we obtain:

L
R  Relationship between resistance and resistivity   9.19 
A

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