EXPERIMENT NO-01

AIM :- To Study of Electronic components.

(a). To get familiar with basic electronic components such as Resistor Resistor,
capacitors, Inductor, diodes, transistors, integrated circuits (IC), light emitter diode
(LED), switches, fuses, batteries, power plugs, connectors, wires and cables.

(b). To test and understand the function of various electronic components .

RESISTORS

A resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that implements electrical

resistance as a circuit element. The current through a resistor is in direct proportion to the voltage
across the resistor's terminals. This relationship is represented by Ohm's law. A device used in
electrical circuits to maintain a constant relation between current flow and voltage. Resistors are
used to step up or lower the voltage at different points in a circuit and to transform a current
signal into a voltage signal or vice versa, among other uses. The electrical behaviour of a resistor
obeys Ohm's law for a constant resistance; however, some resistors are sensitive to heat, light, or
other variables

Resistors are one of the most used components in a circuit. Most are color coded,
but some have their value in Ohms and their tolerance printed on them. A multimeter that can
check resistance can also be helpful, providing the resistor is already removed from the board
(measuring it while still soldered in can give inaccurate results, due to connections with the rest
of the circuit). They are typically marked with an “R” on a circuit board.

POTENTIOMETERS

Potentiometers are variable resistors. They normally have their value marked with the
maximum value in Ohms. Smaller trimpots may use a 3-digit code where the first 2 digits are
significant, and the 3rd is the multiplier (basically the number of 0′s after the first 2 digits). For
example, code 104 = 10 followed by four 0′s = 100000 Ohms = 100K Ohms. They may also
have a letter code on them indicating the taper (which is how resistance changes in relation to
how far the potentiometer is turned). They are typically marked with an “VR” on a circuit board.
CAPACITORS

A capacitor (originally known as a condenser) is a passive two-terminal electrical

component used to store energy electrostatically in an electric field. By contrast, batteries store
energy via chemical reactions. The forms of practical capacitors vary widely, but all contain at
least two electrical conductors separated by a dielectric (insulator); for example, one common
construction consists of metal foils separated by a thin layer of insulating film. Capacitors are
widely used as parts of electrical circuits in many common electrical devices.

Capacitors are also very commonly used. A lot have their values printed on them, some
are marked with 3-digit codes, and a few are color coded. The same resources listed above for
resistors can also help you identify capacitor values. They are typically marked with an “C” on a
circuit board.

INDUCTORS

An inductor, also called a coil or reactor, is a passive two-terminal electrical component

which resists changes in electric current passing through it. It consists of a conductor such as a
wire, usually wound into a coil. When a current flows through it, energy is stored in a magnetic
field in the coil. When the current flowing through an inductor changes, the time-varying
magnetic field induces a voltage in the conductor, according to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic
induction, which by Lenz's law opposes the change in current that created it.
 Inductors, also called coils, can be a bit harder to figure out their values. If they are color
coded, the resources listed for resistors can help, otherwise a good meter that can measure
inductance will be needed. They are typically marked with an “L” on a circuit board .

TRANSFORMERS

A transformer is a static electrical device that transfers energy by inductive coupling between its
winding circuits. A varying current in the primary winding creates a varying magnetic flux in the
transformer's core and thus a varying magnetic flux through the secondary winding. This varying
magnetic flux induces a varying electromotive force (emf) or voltage in the secondary winding.

Transformers are normally pretty easy to identify by sight, and many have their specs
printed on them. They are typically marked with an “T” on a circuit board.

FUSES

In electronics and electrical engineering, a fuse is a type of low resistance resistor that acts as a
sacrificial device to provide overcurrent protection, of either the load or source circuit. Its
essential component is a metal wire or strip that melts when too much current flows, which
interrupts the circuit in which it is connected. Short circuit, overloading, mismatched loads or
device failure are the prime reasons for excessive current. A fuse interrupts excessive current
(blows) so that further damage by overheating or fire is prevented. Fuses can be easy to identify,
and typically have their voltage and amperage rating marked on them.
SEMICONDUCTORS :-

DIODES

In electronics, a diode is a two-terminal electronic component with asymmetric conductance, it

has low (ideally zero) resistance to current flow in one direction, and high (ideally infinite)
resistance in the other.

Semiconductors, such as Diodes (typically marked with an “D” on a circuit board).

TRANSISTORS:-

A transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify and switch electronic signals and
electrical power. It is composed of semiconductor material with at least three terminals for
connection to an external circuit. A voltage or current applied to one pair of the transistor's
terminals changes the current through another pair of terminals. Because the controlled (output)
power can be higher than the controlling (input) power, a transistor can amplify a signal. Today,
some transistors are packaged individually, but many more are found embedded in integrated
circuits.

Transistors (typically marked with an “Q” on a circuit board).

BRIDGE RECTIFIERS :-

A diode bridge is an arrangement of four (or more) diodes in a bridge circuit configuration that
provides the same polarity of output for either polarity of input. When used in its most common
application, for conversion of an alternating current (AC) input into a direct current (DC) output,
it is known as a bridge rectifier. A bridge rectifier provides full-wave rectification from a two-
wire AC input, resulting in lower cost and weight as compared to a rectifier with a 3-wire input
from a transformer with a center-tapped secondary winding

Bridge Rectifiers (typically marked with an “BR” on a circuit board)

INTEGRATED CIRCUITS

An integrated circuit or monolithic integrated circuit (also referred to as an IC, a chip, or a

microchip) is a set of electronic circuits on one small plate ("chip") of semiconductor material,
normally silicon. This can be made much smaller than a discrete circuit made from independent
components. Integrated circuits are used in virtually all electronic equipment today and have
revolutionized the world of electronics. Computers, mobile phones, and other digital home
appliances are now inextricable parts of the structure of modern societies, made possible by the
low cost of producing integrated circuits.

Integrated Circuits (typically marked with an “U” or “IC” on a circuit board )

LED AND LED DISPLAY

A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor light source. LEDs are used as indicator lamps
in many devices and are increasingly used for other lighting. LEDs emitted low-intensity red
light, but modern versions are available across the visible, ultraviolet, and infrared wavelengths,
with very high brightness.

SWITCHES

In electrical engineering, a switch is an electrical component that can break an electrical circuit,
interrupting the current or diverting it from one conductor to another. The most familiar form of
switch is a manually operated electromechanical device with one or more sets of electrical
contacts, which are connected to external circuits. Each set of contacts can be in one of two
states: either "closed" meaning the contacts are touching and electricity can flow between them,
or "open", meaning the contacts are separated and the switch is non conducting.

BATTERIES

In electricity, a battery is a device consisting of one or more electrochemical cells that convert
stored chemical energy into electrical energy.

Batteries are also pretty easy to identify, and are well marked with their specification
RELAYS

A relay is an electrically operated switch. Many relays use an electromagnet to operate a

switching mechanism mechanically, but other operating principles are also used. Relays are used
where it is necessary to control a circuit by a low-power signal (with complete electrical isolation
between control and controlled circuits), or where several circuits must be controlled by one
signal.

Relays are typically enclosed in plastic, and many have their specs printed on them. They are
typically marked with a “K” on a circuit board.

DIGITAL MULTI METER:-

A Multi meter is an electronic device that is used to make various electrical measurements, such
as AC and DC voltage, AC and DC current, and resistance. It is called a Multi meter because it
combines the functions of a voltmeter, ammeter, and ohmmeter. Multi meter may also have other
functions, such as diode test, continuity test, transistor test, TTL logic test and frequency test.

The display usually has four digits and the ability to display a negative sign. A few multi meters
have illuminated displays for better viewing in low light situations.

The selection knob allows the user to set the multi meter to read different things such as
milliamps (mA) of current, voltage (V) and resistance (Ω).
Two probes are plugged into two of the ports on the front of the unit. COM stands for common
and is almost always connected to Ground or ‘-’ of a circuit. The COM probe is conventionally
black but there is no difference between the red probe and black probe other than color. 10A is
the special port used when measuring large currents (greater than 200mA). mAVΩ is the port
that the red probe is conventionally plugged in to. This port allows the measurement of current
(up to 200mA), voltage (V), and resistance (Ω). The probes have a banana type connector on the
end that plugs into the multi meter. Any probe with a banana plug will work with this meter.

Colour Band Band Band 3 Band 4

1 2 (Tolerance)
Black 0 0 ×1 –
Brown 1 1 ×10 1%
Red 2 2 ×100 2%
Orange 3 3 ×1000 –
Yellow 4 4 ×10000 –
Green 5 5 ×100000 0.5%
Blue 6 6 ×1000000 0.25%
Violet 7 7 ×10000000 0.1%
Grey 8 8 – –
White 9 9 – –
Gold – – ×0.1 5%
Silver – – ×0.01 10%

Resistance measurement Procedure

1. Connect probes: black probe to COM terminal and red probe to terminal marked with ‘’
2. Set function to resistance measurement
3. Set to the appropriate range (refer to above)
4. Connect the two probes’ crocodile clips to the resistor (or to the resistor circuit via jumper
wires) to make measurement
5. Note the reading, adjust range if necessary
6. Take the more accurate reading. Determine the value for the given data

No. Colour code Actual Value Measured Value (DMM)

1 Red, red, black
2 Red, black, orange
3 Blue, gray, green
4 10M
 DETERMINING CAPACITOR VALUES

DETERMINE THE VALUE OF THE CERAMIC CAPACITORS

No. Code Number Actual Value

1 104
2 223
3 68
4 0.47 F
5 33nF

DIODE TESTING:-

Draw the schematic symbol of a 1N4001 diode and identify the leads (Anode and Cathode) in
the box below.

(a )Set the Lab DMM to Diode Testing mode.

(b) Measure the forward and reverse bias voltages of the given diodes and record them i.
Forward bias voltage: Place the RED probe on the Anode. Touch the BLACK probe to the
Cathode and record the reading
ii. Reverse bias voltage:
Place the RED probe on the Cathode. Touch the BLACK probe to the Anode and record the
reading

S.NO Diode Forward Bias Reverse Bias

Number Voltage Voltage

1 1N4007

2
VOLTAGE MEASUREMENT

D.C. / A.C. Voltage Measurement

1. Connect the positive(red) test lead to the ‘V/mA’ jack socket and the negative(black) lead to
the ‘COM’ jack socket.
2. Set the selector switch to the desired mV D.C./D.C.V/A.C.V range.
3. Connect the test leads to the circuit to be measured.
4. Turn on the power to the circuit to be measured, the voltage value should appear on the digital
display along with the voltage polarity(if reversed only).

D.C Voltage A.C. Voltage

CURRENT MEASUREMENT

1. Connect the positive(red) test lead to the ‘V/mA’ jack socket and the negative(black) lead to
the ‘COM’ jack socket(for measurements up to 200mA). For measurements between 200mA and
10A connect the red test lead to the ‘10mA’ socket.
2. Set the selector switch to the desired uA/mA/A range.
3. Open the circuit to be measured and connect the test leads in SERIES with the load in which
current is to be measured.
4. To avoid blowing an input fuse, use the 10A jack until you are sure that the current is less than
300 mA. Turn off power to the circuit. Break the circuit. (For circuits of more than 10 amps, use
a current clamp.) Put the meter in series with the circuit and turn power on.

DC Current Resistance
CONTINUITY TEST

This mode is used to check if two points are electrically connected. It is often used to verify
connectors. If continuity exists (resistance less than 210 ohms), the beeper sounds continuously.

1. Connect the positive(red) test lead to the ‘V/mA’ jack socket and the negative(black) lead to
the ‘COM’ jack socket.
2. Set the selector switch to the position.
3. Connect the test leads to two points of the circuit to be tested. If the resistence is Ohms the
buzzer will sound.
4. If the resistance to be measured is part of a circuit, turn off the power and discharge all
capacitors before measurement.

DIODE TEST

1. Connect the positive (red) test lead to the ‘V/mA’ jack socket and the negative(black) lead to
the ‘COM’ jack socket.
2. Set the selector switch to the position.
3. Connect the test leads to be measured.
4. Turn on the power to the circuit to be measured and the voltage value should appear on the
digital display.
 EXPERIMENT NO-02
AIM :- Soldering Techniques :
(a) Materials used in Soldering Process.
(b) Learning soldering and de-soldering on test boards.

Soldering Theory

Soldering is defined as "the joining of metals by a fusion of alloys, which have relatively low
melting points". In other words, you use a metal that has a low melting point to adhere the
surfaces to be soldered together. Soldering is more like gluing with molten metal than anything
else. Soldering is also a must have skill for all sorts of electrical and electronics work. It is also a
skill that can only be developed with practice The steps involved with soldering will be
explained later in the document.

Soldering iron :- A soldering iron is a hand tool used in soldering. It supplies heat to melt solder so
that it can flow into the joint between two workpieces. Solder melts at approximately 185 °C (365 °F).
Soldering irons are designed to reach a temperature range of 200 to 480 °C

The wattage of the soldering iron is one of the most important factors in a soldering iron.[30] Most of
the soldering irons used in the electronics have wattage in the range of 20–60 watts.

Typically 25-30 watts Tip Temperature

750°F (400 °C)

Solder is an alloy of tin and lead .The solder

used for electronics is frequently called
60/40 solder because it is made of 63% tin
and 37% lead. 60/40 solder melts at 361
F. Lead-free solder: As of July 1st, 2006,
European laws mandated that new
electronics be entirely lead-free. As of yet,
no such laws exist in the United States
Diagonal cutters

Needle nose pliers

Vise

Safety glasses

Solder sucker

Solder wick

Damp sponge
 Solder tool

Solder

Soldering iron