MUSICAL MATHEMATICS

ON THE ART AND SCIENCE OF ACOUSTIC INSTRUMENTS

 MUSICAL MATHEMATICS
ON THE ART AND SCIENCE OF ACOUSTIC INSTRUMENTS

Text and Illustrations

by Cris Forster
Copyright © 2010 by Cristiano M.L. Forster

All Rights Reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form without written permission from
the publisher.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data available.

ISBN: 978-0-8118-7407-6

Manufactured in the United States.

All royalties from the sale of this book go directly to the Chrysalis Foundation, a public 501(c)3 nonprofit
arts and education foundation.

https://chrysalis-foundation.org

Photo Credits:
Will Gullette, Plates 1–12, 14–16.
Norman Seeff, Plate 13.

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Chronicle Books LLC

680 Second Street
San Francisco, California 94107

www.chroniclebooks.com
In Memory of Page Smith

my enduring teacher

And to Douglas Monsour

our constant friend

I would like to thank the following individuals and foundations for their generous
contributions in support of the writing, designing, and typesetting of this work:

Peter Boyer and Terry Gamble-Boyer

The family of Jackson Vanfleet Brown
Thomas Driscoll and Nancy Quinn
Marie-Louise Forster
David Holloway
Jack Jensen and Cathleen O’Brien
James and Deborah Knapp
Ariano Lembi, Aidan and Yuko Fruth-Lembi
Douglas and Jeanne Monsour
Tim O’Shea and Peggy Arent
Fay and Edith Strange
Charles and Helene Wright

Ayrshire Foundation
Chrysalis Foundation
The jewel that we find, we stoop and take’t,
Because we see it; but what we do not see
We tread upon, and never think of it.

W. Shakespeare
 For more information about
Musical Mathematics: On the Art and Science of Acoustic Instruments
please visit:

https://chrysalis-foundation.org

https://www.amazon.com
CONTENTS

Foreword by David R. Canright v

Introduction and Acknowledgments vii
Tone Notation ix
List of Symbols xi

Chapter 1 Mica Mass 1

Part I Principles of force, mass, and acceleration 1

Part II Mica mass definitions, mica unit derivations, and sample calculations 14
Notes 24

Chapter 2 Plain String and Wound String Calculations 27

Part I Plain strings 27

Part II Wound strings 36
Notes 41

Chapter 3 Flexible Strings 44

Part I Transverse traveling and standing waves, and simple harmonic motion in strings 44
Part II Period and frequency equations of waves in strings 54
Part III Length, frequency, and interval ratios of the harmonic series on canon strings 59
Part IV Length, frequency, and interval ratios of non-harmonic tones on canon strings 69
Part V Musical, mathematical, and linguistic origins of length ratios 79
Notes 94

Chapter 4 Inharmonic Strings 98

Part I Detailed equations for stiffness in plain strings 98

Part II Equations for coefficients of inharmonicity in cents 108
Part III General equations for stiffness in wound strings 113
Notes 115

Chapter 5 Piano Strings vs. Canon Strings 118

Part I Transmission and reflection of mechanical and acoustic energy 118

Part II Mechanical impedance and soundboard-to-string impedance ratios 120
Part III Radiation impedance and air-to-soundboard impedance ratios 126
Part IV Dispersion, the speed of bending waves, and critical frequencies in soundboards 130
Part V Methods for tuning piano intervals to beat rates of coincident string harmonics 135
Part VI Musical advantages of thin strings and thin soundboards 141
Notes 143
ii Contents

Chapter 6 Bars, Rods, and Tubes 147

Part I Frequency equations, mode shapes, and restoring forces of free-free bars 147
Part II Free-free bar tuning techniques 160
Part III Frequency equations, mode shapes, and restoring forces of clamped-free bars 174
Part IV Clamped-free bar tuning techniques 176
Notes 178

Chapter 7 Acoustic Resonators 182

Part I Simple harmonic motion of longitudinal traveling waves in air 182

Part II Equations for the speed of longitudinal waves in solids, liquids, and gases 186
Part III Reflections of longitudinal traveling waves at the closed and open ends of tubes 189
Part IV Acoustic impedance and tube-to-room impedance ratio 196
Part V Longitudinal pressure and displacement standing waves in tubes 200
Part VI Length and frequency equations of tube resonators 203
Part VII Theory of cavity resonators 212
Part VIII Cavity resonator tuning techniques 219
Notes 223

Chapter 8 Simple Flutes 227

Part I Equations for the placement of tone holes on concert flutes and simple flutes 227
Part II Equations for analyzing the tunings of existing flutes 242
Part III Suggestions for making inexpensive yet highly accurate simple flutes 246
Notes 248

Chapter 9 The Geometric Progression, Logarithms, and Cents 253

Part I Human perception of the harmonic series as a geometric progression 253

Part II Logarithmic processes in mathematics and human hearing 257
Part III Derivations and applications of cent calculations 265
Part IV Logarithmic equations for guitar frets and musical slide rules 271
Notes 276

Chapter 10 Western Tuning Theory and Practice 280

Part I Definitions of prime, composite, rational, and irrational numbers 281

Part II Greek classifications of ratios, tetrachords, scales, and modes 284
Part III Arithmetic and geometric divisions on canon strings 291
Part IV Philolaus, Euclid, Aristoxenus, and Ptolemy 299
Part V Meantone temperaments, well-temperaments, and equal temperaments 334
Part VI Just intonation 365
Notes 460

Chapter 11 World Tunings 485

Part I Chinese Music 485

Notes 504
 Contents iii

Part II Indonesian Music: Java 508

Bali 522
Notes 535

Part III Indian Music: Ancient Beginnings 540

South India 564
North India 587
Notes 600

Part IV Arabian, Persian, and Turkish Music 610

Notes 774

Chapter 12 Original Instruments 788

Stringed Instruments:
Chrysalis I and Chrysalis II 788
Harmonic/Melodic Canon 790
Bass Canon 800
Just Keys 808

Percussion Instruments:
Diamond Marimba I and Diamond Marimba II 824
Bass Marimba 826

Friction Instrument:
Glassdance 828

Wind Instruments:
Simple Flutes 834

Chapter 13 Building a Little Canon 835

Parts, materials, labor, and detailed dimensions 835

Epilog by Heidi Forster 839

Plate 1: Chrysalis I 845

Plate 2: Harmonic/Melodic Canon 846
Plate 3: Bass Canon 847
Plate 4: String Winder (machine) 848
Plate 5: String Winder (detail) 849
Plate 6: Just Keys 850
Plate 7: Diamond Marimba II 851
Plate 8: Bass Marimba 852
Plate 9: Glassdance 853
Plate 10: Glassdance (back) 854
Plate 11: Simple Flutes 855
Plate 12: Little Canon 856
iv Contents

Plate 13: Cris Forster with Chrysalis I 857

Plate 14: Heidi Forster playing Glassdance 858
Plate 15: David Canright, Heidi Forster, and Cris Forster 859
Plate 16: Chrysalis Foundation Workshop 860

Bibliography for Chapters 1–9 861

Bibliography for Chapter 10 866
Bibliography for Chapter 11 871
Bibliography for Chapter 12 877

Appendix A: Frequencies of Eight Octaves of 12-Tone Equal Temperament 879

Appendix B: Conversion Factors 880
Appendix C: Properties of String Making Materials 882
Appendix D: Spring Steel Music Wire Tensile Strength and Break Strength Values 884
Appendix E: Properties of Bar Making Materials 885
Appendix F: Properties of Solids 888
Appendix G: Properties of Liquids 890
Appendix H: Properties of Gases 892
Appendix I: Cross-Cultural Comparisons of Fourteen 7-Tone Modes Currently Used 894

Index 895
Foreword

I met Cris Forster more than thirty years ago. Shortly thereafter, I saw him perform Song of Myself,
his setting of Walt Whitman poems from Leaves of Grass. His delivery was moving and effective.
Several of the poems were accompanied by his playing on unique instruments — one an elegant
box with many steel strings and moveable bridges, a bit like a koto in concept; the other had a big
wheel with strings like spokes from offset hubs, and he rotated the wheel as he played and intoned
the poetry. I was fascinated.
Since that time, Cris has built several more instruments of his own design. Each shows exquisite
care in conception and impeccable craftsmanship in execution. And of course, they are a delight to
hear. Part of what makes them sound so good is his deep understanding of how acoustic musical
instruments work, and part is due to his skill in working the materials to his exacting standards.
But another important aspect of their sound, and indeed one of the main reasons Cris could not
settle for standard instruments, is that his music uses scales and harmonies that are not found in
the standard Western system of intonation (with each octave divided into twelve equal semitones,
called equal temperament). Rather, his music employs older notions of consonance, which reach
back as far as ancient Greek music and to other cultures across the globe, based on what is called
just intonation. Here, the musical intervals that make up the scales and chords are those that occur
naturally in the harmonic series of overtones, in stretched flexible strings, and in organ pipes, for
example.
In just intonation, the octave is necessarily divided into unequal parts. In comparison to equal
temperament, the harmonies of just intonation have been described as smoother, sweeter, and/or
more powerful. Many theorists consider just intonation to be the standard of comparison for con-
sonant intervals. There has been a resurgence of interest in just intonation since the latter part of
the twentieth century, spurred by such pioneers as Harry Partch and Lou Harrison. Even so, the
community of just intonation composers remains comparatively quite small, and the subset of those
who employ only acoustic instruments is much smaller still. I know of no other living composer who
has created such a large and varied ensemble of high-quality just intoned acoustical instruments,
and a body of music for them, as Cris Forster.
Doing what he has done is not easy, far from it. The long process of developing his instruments
has required endless experimentation and careful measurement, as well as intense study of the liter-
ature on acoustics of musical instruments. In this way Cris has developed deep and rich knowledge
of how to design and build instruments that really work. Also, in the service of his composing, Cris
has studied the history of intonation practices, not only in the Western tradition, but around the
world.
This book is his generous offering of all that hard-earned knowledge, presented as clearly as he
can make it, for all of you who have an interest in acoustic musical instrument design and/or musi-
cal scales over time and space. The unifying theme is how mathematics applies to music, in both the
acoustics of resonant instruments and the analysis of musical scales. The emphasis throughout is to
show how to use these mathematical tools, without requiring any background in higher mathemat-
ics; all that is required is the ability to do arithmetic on a pocket calculator, and to follow Cris’ clear
step-by-step instructions and examples. Any more advanced mathematical tools required, such as
logarithms, are carefully explained with many illustrative examples.
The first part of the book contains practical information on how to design and build musical
instruments, starting from first principles of vibrating sound sources of various kinds. The ideas are
explained clearly and thoroughly. Many beautiful figures have been carefully conceived to illumi-
nate the concepts. And when Cris gives, say, formulas for designing flutes, it’s not just something
he read in a book somewhere (though he has carefully studied many books); rather, you can be

v
vi Foreword

sure it is something he has tried out: he knows it works from direct experience. While some of this
information can be found (albeit in a less accessible form) in other books on musical acoustics,
other information appears nowhere else. For example, Cris developed a method for tuning the over-
tones of marimba bars that results in a powerful, unique tone not found in commercial instruments.
Step-by-step instructions are given for applying this technique (see Chapter 6). Another innovation
is Cris’ introduction of a new unit of mass, the “mica,” that greatly simplifies calculations using
lengths measured in inches. And throughout Cris gives careful explanations, in terms of physical
principles, that make sense based on one’s physical intuition and experience.
The latter part of the book surveys the development of musical notions of consonance and scale
construction. Chapter 10 traces Western ideas about intonation, from Pythagoras finding number in
harmony, through “meantone” and then “well-temperament” in the time of J.S. Bach, up to modern
equal temperament. The changing notions of which intervals were considered consonant when, and
by whom, make a fascinating story. Chapter 11 looks at the largely independent (though sometimes
parallel) development of musical scales and tunings in various Eastern cultures, including China,
India, and Indonesia, as well as Persian, Arabian, and Turkish musical traditions. As far as possible,
Cris relies on original sources, to which he brings his own analysis and explication. To find all of
these varied scales compared and contrasted in a single work is unique in my experience.
The book concludes with two short chapters on specific original instruments. One introduces
the innovative instruments Cris has designed and built for his music. Included are many details
of construction and materials, and also scores of his work that demonstrate his notation for the
instruments. The last chapter encourages the reader (with explicit plans) to build a simple stringed
instrument (a “canon”) with completely adjustable tuning, to directly explore the tunings discussed
in the book. In this way, the reader can follow in the tradition of Ptolemy, of learning about music
through direct experimentation, as has Cris Forster.

David R. Canright, Ph.D.

Del Rey Oaks, California
January 2010
Introduction and Acknowledgments

In simplest terms, human beings identify musical instruments by two aural characteristics: a par-
ticular kind of sound or timbre, and a particular kind of scale or tuning. To most listeners, these two
aspects of musical sound do not vary. However, unlike the constants of nature — such as gravita-
tional acceleration on earth, or the speed of sound in air — which we cannot change, the constants
of music — such as string, percussion, and wind instruments — are subject to change. A creative
investigation into musical sound inevitably leads to the subject of musical mathematics, and to a
reexamination of the meaning of variables.
The first chapter entitled “Mica Mass” addresses an exceptionally thorny subject: the derivation
of a unit of mass based on an inch constant for acceleration. This unit is intended for builders who
measure wood, metal, and synthetic materials in inches. For example, with the mica unit, builders
of string instruments can calculate tension in pounds-force, or lbf, without first converting the diam-
eter of a string from inches to feet. Similarly, builders of tuned bar percussion instruments who know
the modulus of elasticity of a given material in pounds-force per square inch, or lbf/in2, need only
the mass density in mica/in3 to calculate the speed of sound in the material in inches per second; a
simple substitution of this value into another equation gives the mode frequencies of uncut bars.
Chapters 2–4 explore many physical, mathematical, and musical aspects of strings. In Chapter
3, I distinguish between four different types of ratios: ancient length ratios, modern length ratios,
frequency ratios, and interval ratios. Knowledge of these ratios is essential to Chapters 10 and 11.
Many writers are unaware of the crucial distinction between ancient length ratios and frequency
ratios. Consequently, when they attempt to define arithmetic and harmonic divisions of musi-
cal intervals based on frequency ratios, the results are diametrically opposed to those based on
ancient length ratios. Such confusion leads to anachronisms, and renders the works of theorists like
Ptolemy, Al-Frb, Ibn Sn, and Zarlino incomprehensible.
Chapter 5 investigates the mechanical interactions between piano strings and soundboards, and
explains why the large physical dimensions of modern pianos are not conducive to explorations of
alternate tuning systems.
Chapters 6 and 7 discuss the theory and practice of tuning marimba bars and resonators. The
latter chapter is essential to Chapter 8, which examines a sequence of equations for the placement
of tone holes on concert flutes and simple flutes.
Chapter 9 covers logarithms, and the modern cent unit. This chapter serves as an introduction
to calculating scales and tunings discussed in Chapters 10 and 11.
In summary, this book is divided into three parts. (1) In Chapters 1–9, I primarily examine
various vibrating systems found in musical instruments; I also focus on how builders can customize
their work by understanding the functions of variables in mathematical equations. (2) In Chapter
10, I discuss scale theories and tuning practices in ancient Greece, and during the Renaissance and
Enlightenment in Europe. Some modern interpretations of these theories are explained as well.
In Chapter 11, I describe scale theories and tuning practices in Chinese, Indonesian, and Indian
music, and in Arabian, Persian, and Turkish music. For Chapters 10 and 11, I consistently studied
original texts in modern translations. I also translated passages in treatises by Ptolemy, Al-Kind,
the Ikhwn al-a, Ibn Sn, Stifel, and Zarlino from German into English; and in collaboration
with two contributors, I participated in translating portions of works by Al-Frb, Ibn Sn, a
Al-Dn, and Al-Jurjn from French into English. These translations reveal that all the above-
mentioned theorists employ the language of ancient length ratios. (3) Finally, Chapters 12 and 13
recount musical instruments I have built and rebuilt since 1975.
I would like to acknowledge the assistance and encouragement I received from Dr. David
R. Canright, associate professor of mathematics at the Naval Postgraduate School in Monterey,

vii
viii Introduction and Acknowledgments

California. David’s unique understanding of mathematics, physics, and music provided the foun-
dation for many conversations throughout the ten years I spent writing this book. His mastery of
differential equations enabled me to better understand dispersion in strings, and simple harmonic
motion of air particles in resonators. In Section 4.5, David’s equation for the effective length of stiff
strings is central to the study of inharmonicity; and in Section 6.6, David’s figure, which shows the
effects of two restoring forces on the geometry of bar elements, sheds new light on the physics of
vibrating bars. Furthermore, David’s plots of compression and rarefaction pulses inspired numerous
figures in Chapter 7. Finally, we also had extensive discussions on Newton’s laws. I am very grateful
to David for his patience and contributions.
Heartfelt thanks go to my wife, Heidi Forster. Heidi studied, corrected, and edited myriad ver-
sions of the manuscript. Also, in partnership with the highly competent assistance of professional
translator Cheryl M. Buskirk, Heidi did most of the work translating extensive passages from La
Musique Arabe into English. To achieve this accomplishment, she mastered the often intricate ver-
bal language of ratios. Heidi also assisted me in transcribing the Indonesian and Persian musical
scores in Chapter 11, and transposed the traditional piano score of “The Letter” in Chapter 12.
Furthermore, she rendered invaluable services during all phases of book production by acting as my
liaison with the editorial staff at Chronicle Books. Finally, when the writing became formidable,
she became my sparring partner and helped me through the difficult process of restoring my focus.
I am very thankful to Heidi for all her love, friendship, and support.
I would also like to express my appreciation to Dr. John H. Chalmers. Since 1976, John has
generously shared his vast knowledge of scale theory with me. His mathematical methods and tech-
niques have enabled me to better understand many historical texts, especially those of the ancient
Greeks. And John’s scholarly book Divisions of the Tetrachord has furthered my appreciation for
world tunings.
I am very grateful to Lawrence Saunders, M.A. in ethnomusicology, for reading Chapters 3, 9,
10, and 11, and for suggesting several technical improvements.
Finally, I would like to thank Will Gullette for his twelve masterful color plates of the Original
Instruments and String Winder, plus three additional plates. Will’s skill and tenacity have illumi-
nated this book in ways that words cannot convey.

Cris Forster
San Francisco, California
January 2010
 TONE NOTATION

32' 16' 8' 4' 2' 1' Z\x' Z\v' Z\,'

 

 

 

 

1. C0 C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6 C7 C8

2. C C C c c c c c cV

 
3. C2 C1 C0 c0 c1 c2 c3 c4 c5

1. American System, used throughout this text.

2. Helmholtz System.

3. German System.

ix
 LIST OF SYMBOLS

Latin

12-TET 12-tone equal temperament

a Acceleration; in/s2
a.l.r. Ancient length ratio; dimensionless
B Bending stiffness of bar; lbfin2, or micain3/s2
B¢ Bending stiffness of plate; lbfin, or micain2/s2
BA Adiabatic bulk modulus; psi, lbf/in2, or mica/(ins2)
BI Isothermal bulk modulus; psi, lbf/in2, or mica/(ins2)
b Width; in
¢ Cent, 1/100 of a “semitone,” or 1/1200 of an “octave”; dimensionless
¢ Coefficient of inharmonicity of string; cent
cB Bending wave speed; in/s
cL Longitudinal wave speed, or speed of sound; in/s
cT Transverse wave speed; in/s
c.d. Common difference of an arithmetic progression; dimensionless
c.r. Common ratio of a geometric progression; dimensionless
cps Cycle per second; 1/s
D Outside diameter; in
Di Inside diameter of wound string; in
Dm Middle diameter of wound string; in
Do Outside diameter of wound string; in
Dw Wrap wire diameter of wound string; in
d Inside diameter, or distance; in
E Young’s modulus of elasticity; psi, lbf/in2, or mica/(ins2)
F Frequency; cps
Fc Critical frequency; cps
Fn Resonant frequency; cps
Fn Inharmonic mode frequency of string; cps
f Force; lbf, or micain/s2
f.r. Frequency ratio; dimensionless
g Gravitational acceleration; 386.0886 in/s2
h Height, or thickness; in
I Area moment of inertia; in4
i.r. Interval ratio; dimensionless
J Stiffness parameter of string; dimensionless
K Radius of gyration; in
k Spring constant; lbf/in, or mica/s2
L Length; in, cm, or mm
M Multiple loop length of string; in
S Single loop length of string; in
l.r. Length ratio; dimensionless
lbf Pounds-force; micain/s2
lbm Pounds-mass; 0.00259008 mica

xi
xii List of Symbols

M/u.a. Mass per unit area; mica/in2, or lbfs2/in3

M/u.l. Mass per unit length; mica/in, or lbfs2/in2
m Mass; mica, or lbfs2/in
n Mode number, or harmonic number; any positive integer
P Pressure; psi, lbf/in2, or mica/(ins2)
p Excess acoustic pressure; psi, lbf/in2, or mica/(ins2)
psi Pounds-force per square inch; lbf/in2, or mica/(ins2)
q Bar parameter; dimensionless
R Ideal gas constant; inlbf/(mica°R), or in2/(s2°R)
r Radius; in
S Surface area; in2
SHM Simple harmonic motion
T Tension; lbf, or micain/s2
TA Absolute temperature; dimensionless
t Time; s
U Volume velocity; in3/s
u Particle velocity; in/s
V Volume; in3
v Phase velocity; in/s
W Weight density, or weight per unit volume; lbf/in3, or mica/(in2s2)
w Weight; lbf, or micain/s2
YA Acoustic admittance; in4s/mica
ZA Acoustic impedance; mica/(in4s)
Zr Acoustic impedance of room; mica/(in4s)
Zt Acoustic impedance of tube; mica/(in4s)
ZM Mechanical impedance; mica/s
Zb Mechanical impedance of soundboard; mica/s
Zp Mechanical impedance of plate; mica/s
Zs Mechanical impedance of string; mica/s
ZR Radiation impedance; mica/s
Za Radiation impedance of air; mica/s
z Specific acoustic impedance; mica/(in2s)
za Characteristic impedance of air; 0.00153 mica/(in2s)

Greek

 Correction coefficient, or end correction coefficient; dimensionless

 Correction, or end correction; in, cm, or mm
 Departure of tempered ratio from just ratio; cent
 Ratio of specific heat; dimensionless
 Angle; degree
 Conductivity; in
 Bridged canon string length; in
A Arithmetic mean string length; in
G Geometric mean string length; in
H Harmonic mean string length; in
 List of Symbols xiii

 Wavelength; in
B Bending wavelength; in
L Longitudinal wavelength; in
T Transverse wavelength; in
 Poisson’s ratio; dimensionless
 Fretted guitar string length; mm
 Pi; » 3.1416
 Mass density, or mass per unit volume; mica/in3, or lbfs2/in4
 Period, or second per cycle; s
1 / MICA MASS

There is nothing obvious about the subject of mass. For thousands of years mass remained undefined
until Isaac Newton (1642–1727) published his Principia Mathematica in 1687. The mass density of
a material as signified by the lowercase of the Greek letter rho () appears in all acoustic frequency
equations and in many other equations as well. Unfortunately, the concept of mass persists in a
shroud of unnecessary complexity and confusion. This is especially true for those who measure dis-
tances in inches. Unlike the metric system, which has two consistent mass-distance standards (the
kilogram-meter combination and the gram-centimeter combination), the English system has only
one consistent mass-distance standard: the slug-foot combination. Not only is the latter standard
totally inadequate for musical instrument builders, but countless scientists and engineers who use
inches have acknowledged the need for a second English mass unit. (See Note 19.) Although no one
has named such a unit, many designers and engineers do their calculations as though it exists. This
practice is completely unacceptable. Reason tells us that a measurement in inches should be just
as admissible as a measurement in meters, centimeters, or feet. And yet, when someone substitutes
inch measurements into an equation that also requires a mass density value, they cannot calculate
the equation without a specialized understanding for an undefined and unnamed mass unit. To
dispense with this practice, the following chapter defines and names a new unit of mass called mica.
Throughout this book we will use a consistent mica-inch standard (see Equation 1.15) designed to
make frequency and other related calculations easily manageable.
Readers not interested in the subject of mass may simply disregard this chapter. If all your
distance measurements are in inches, turn to Appendix C or E, find the mass density of a material
in the mica/in3 column, substitute this value for  into the equation, and calculate the result. This
chapter is for those interested in gaining a fundamental understanding of mass. In Part I, we will
discuss principles of force, mass, and acceleration, and in Part II, mica mass definitions, mica unit
derivations, and sample calculations. Although some of this material may seem inappropriate to
discussions on the acoustics of musical instruments, readers with a thorough understanding of mass
will avoid many conceptual and computational errors.

Part I
Principles of force, mass, and acceleration

 1.1 

All musical systems such as strings, bars, membranes, plates, and columns of air vibrate because
they have (1) an elastic property called a restoring force, and (2) an inertial property called a mass.
When we pluck a string, or strike a marimba bar, we apply an initial force to the object that ac-
celerates it from stillness to motion. Our applied force causes a displacement, or a small distortion
2 1. Mica Mass

of the object’s original shape. Because the string has tension, and because the bar has stiffness,
a restoring force responds to this displacement and returns the object to its equilibrium position.
(Gently displace and release a telephone cord, and note how this force restores the cord to the equi-
librium position. Now try the same experiment with a piece of paper or a ruler.) However, because
the string and the bar each have a mass, the motion of the object continues beyond this position.
Mass causes the object to overshoot the equilibrium position, which in turn causes another distor-
tion and a subsequent reactivation of the restoring force, etc. To understand in greater detail how
force and mass interact to produce musical vibrations,1 we turn to Newton’s first law of motion.
According to Newton’s first law, (1) an object at rest remains at rest, and in the absence of
friction, (2) an object in motion remains in motion, unless acted on by a force. This law states that
all objects have inertia; that is, all objects have a resistance to a change in either the magnitude or
the direction of motion. (1) An object without motion will not move unless a force acts to cause
motion. (2) An object in motion will not speed up, slow down, stop, or change direction unless a
force acts to cause such changes. Newton quantified this inertial property of matter and called it
the mass (m  ) of an object. Therefore, an object’s mass is a measure of its inertia.
Refer now to Figure 1.1 and consider the motion of a slowly vibrating rubber cord. If we pluck
such a cord (or any musical instrument string), it will snap back to its equilibrium position, but it
will not simply stop there. (a) As we displace the cord upward, tension (the elastic property of the
cord) acts as a restoring force (f ) that pulls the cord in a downward direction. (b) After we release
the cord and as it moves toward the equilibrium position, its particle velocity2 (u   ) increases while
the restoring force decreases.3 During this time, tension is acting in a downward direction and the
cord is moving downward. (c) Upon reaching the equilibrium position, the cord has maximum ve-
locity for the instant that the restoring force = 0, and therefore the cord’s acceleration = 0. Accord-
ing to Newton’s first law, the cord continues to move past this position because the cord’s mass (the
inertial property of the cord) will not stop moving, or change direction, unless a force acts to cause
such changes.4 (d) Once through the equilibrium position, the restoring force reverses direction.
Consequently, the velocity decreases because the restoring force is working in the opposite direc-
tion of the cord’s motion. During this time, tension acts in an upward direction as the cord moves
downward. (e) At a critical moment when the restoring force is at a maximum, the cord comes to
rest and, for an instant, the velocity is zero. (f   ) Immediately after this moment, the cord reverses
its direction and returns to the equilibrium position. Once again, the cord’s velocity increases while
the restoring force decreases. During this time, tension is acting in an upward direction and the
cord is moving upward. (g) After the cord passes through the equilibrium position, (h) the restoring
force again reverses direction, and the cord’s velocity decreases. (i) When the restoring force is at
a maximum, the cord comes to rest. This position marks the beginning of the next cycle.

 1.2 

Before we proceed, let us first distinguish between the vertical particle velocity of a string, and the
horizontal transverse speed of waves in a string.5 As transverse waves travel horizontally in the
string, each particle of the string moves vertically up and down; that is, each particle moves at right
angles to the direction of wave propagation. Furthermore, the vertical motion of musical instrument
strings is also due to the principle of superposition. Superposition occurs when two transverse waves
traveling horizontally in opposite directions combine and produce a third wave that vibrates in a
vertical direction. Such waves are called standing waves.6 (See Sections 3.1 and 3.3.) The purpose
of Figure 1.1 is to illustrate the function of tension and mass in the motion of transverse stand-
ing waves. Since the existence of transverse standing waves in strings depends on the presence of
transverse traveling waves, it follows that particle velocity calculations depend on transverse wave
2 / PLAIN STRING AND WOUND STRING
CALCULATIONS

In Western music, strings constitute the primary source of musical sound. This is a remarkable
fact because instrument builders encounter serious structural problems when they attempt to tune
strings over a wide range of frequencies. The laws of vibrating strings clearly demonstrate the dif-
ficulties involved in building stringed instruments with a range of six or more “octaves.” Despite
these obstacles, piano and harp builders persevered and eventually solved the range problem by
overwinding plain strings with copper, bronze, and silver wire. Wound strings replace the need for
extremely long plain strings. Furthermore, because of their rich tone, wound strings are also found
on narrow range instruments like violins and guitars. To help distinguish between these two differ-
ent kinds of strings and their respective calculations, this chapter is divided into two parts. Part
I covers plain strings, and Part II, wound strings. In both parts, discussions center on mass per
unit length, string length, and tension calculations. Finally, we will also consider constructive and
destructive aspects of the force of tension.

Part I
Plain Strings

 2.1 

The most commonly cited frequency equation for plain and wound strings is

n T
Fn =
2L M/u.l.
where Fn is the frequency of a given harmonic or mode of vibration, in cycles per second; n is the
mode number, any positive integer; L is the overall length of a flexible string, in inches; T is the
tension, in pounds-force (lbf); and M/u.l. is the mass per unit length, in mica per inch. (For a
definition of the mica mass unit, see Section 1.10.) Since this chapter focuses primarily on the fun-
damental frequencies of strings, we now rewrite this equation to read

1 T
F1 = (2.1)
2L M/u.l.
where F1 is the frequency of the first harmonic or the first mode of vibration, in cps.
The M/u.l. variable in Equation 2.1 does not consist of a simple measurable quantity. Rather,
it expresses the ratio of a mass to a unit length. For plain strings, mass per unit length calculations

27
28 2. Plain String and Wound String Calculations

are straightforward, but for wound strings, they are complicated. In either case, the mass per unit
length ratio deserves special consideration because it appears in several equations. Looking ahead,
we find the M/u.l. variable in equations for calculating the transverse wave speed1 (cT), the di-
mensionless stiffness parameter2 (J      ), and the characteristic mechanical impedance3 (Zs) of plain
strings.

 2.2 

Two equations enable us to calculate the M/u.l. variable of plain strings. The first equation states
m
M/u.l. = (2.2)
L
where m is the total mass of the string, in micas.4 Equation 2.2 requires a highly accurate scale.
Suppose such a scale indicates that a plain string with a length of 19.25 inches has a weight of
0.006178 lbf, and therefore a mass of 0.006178 lbm.5 Turn to Appendix B, find the lbm-to-mica
conversion factor, and make the following conversion:

æ 1.0 mica ö÷
(0.006178 lbm ) çç ÷ = 0.000016002 mica
çè 386.09 lbm ø÷

Now substitute the values for m and L into Equation 2.2 and calculate the string’s mass per unit
length:

0.000016002 mica
M/u.l. = = 0.0000008313 mica/in
19.25 in
Although this technique is mathematically valid, it is not very practical. Given thousands of
material-and-length combinations, the empirical method of weighing and measuring individual
string samples is extremely time consuming and expensive. When faced with many stringing pos-
sibilities, musical instrument builders have good reason to do all their mass per unit length calcula-
tions on paper.

 2.3 

The second M/u.l. equation6 for plain strings states

M/u.l. =  r 2 (2.3)
where r is the radius of the string, in inches; and  is the mass density, or the mass per unit volume
of the stringing material, in mica per cubic inch.7 Notice that Equation 2.3 takes into account the
radius, or the diameter of the string. However, if we examine this equation more closely, it seems
inappropriate that r   2, the equation for the area of a two-dimensional plane figure (a circle), should
appear in an equation designed to calculate the mass per unit length of a three-dimensional solid (a
cylinder). Before we explain the reason for this apparent contradiction in the context of Equation
2.3, let us reconsider Equation 2.2.
A plain string has the geometric shape of a cylinder. Placing a string on a scale gives the cyl-
inder’s total mass. As an alternative, the following equation allows us to simply calculate the mass
of a cylinder:
mcylinder = V  (2.4)
3 / FLEXIBLE STRINGS

Perfectly flexible strings do not exist. All strings must exhibit a minimum amount of stiffness;
otherwise, they could not resist the force of tension. However, from a mathematical perspective the
study of ideal strings is important because some strings have a tendency to behave as though they
were perfectly flexible. This is especially true for strings that are long, thin, and very flexible. Such
strings tend to produce higher mode frequencies that are near perfect integer multiples of a funda-
mental frequency. The physical presence of such “harmonics,” and the mathematical language used
to describe them, have greatly influenced our thoughts, ideas, and opinions about music. Since the
6th century B.C., when Pythagoras discovered the relationship between vibrating string lengths and
musical intervals, countless experiments have been conducted and hundreds of treatises have been
written to explain the nature of vibrating strings and the art of tuning to ratios. Although much of
this knowledge has great value, it is in the spirit of firsthand experience that we begin our analysis
in Part I by focusing on traveling waves, standing waves, and simple harmonic motion in strings. We
then continue in Part II with period and frequency equations of waves in strings; in Part III, with
length, frequency, and interval ratios of the harmonic series and on canon strings; in Part IV,
with length, frequency, and interval ratios of non-harmonic tones, also on canon strings; and in
Part V, with the musical, mathematical, and linguistic origins of length ratios.

Part I
transverse traveling and standing waves, and
simple harmonic motion in strings

 3.1 

When we snap a rubber cord with a single rapid up-and-down motion of the hand, a pulse in the
shape of a crest will begin to travel along the cord. Two such rapid motions of the hand in quick
succession produce a sine wave in the shape of a crest and a trough. By definition, a wave (or
one complete oscillation) consists of a positive (upward) displacement and a negative (downward)
displacement of the cord. In contrast, a pulse (or one-half oscillation) is a simpler kind of wave
because it consists only of a single positive or negative displacement. For this reason, we will begin
the discussion on waves in strings by examining pulses in cords because they are easier to observe
and illustrate.
Figure 3.1(a) shows the motion of a pulse as a crest. As it advances, individual particles of the
cord move in an upward transverse direction at the leading edge of the pulse, and in a downward
transverse direction at the trailing edge. For a pulse as a trough, Figure 3.1(b) shows that the cord
particles move downward at the leading edge and upward at the trailing edge. Note carefully that in
both examples the cord moves vertically up and down as the pulse travels horizontally from left to

44
 Section 3.1 45

Pulse Direction

(a)

(b)

Pulse Direction

Figure 3.1 Vertical particle motion of a cord. (a) As a traveling pulse in the shape of a crest moves
from left to right, vertical arrows indicate an initial upward motion followed by a downward motion
of particles in the cord. (b) As a traveling pulse in the shape of a trough moves from right to left,
vertical arrows indicate an initial downward motion followed by an upward motion of particles in
the cord.

(a)
Incident Pulse
Reected Pulse (b)

Figure 3.2 Reflection of a pulse. (a) An incident pulse in the shape of a crest travels from left to
right. (b) After reflecting from a rigid support, the same pulse in the shape of a trough travels from
right to left.
4 / INHARMONIC STRINGS

In Chapter 3, we used Equation 3.13 to calculate the frequencies of string harmonics as exact integer
multiples of the fundamental frequency. Further discussions focused on the mathematical structure
of the harmonic series and the subsequent organization of musical ratios. Although integer ratios
(see Section 3.13) are important to scales and tuning, a detailed examination of vibrating strings
reveals that exact integer harmonics do not exist. When we multiply a given fundamental frequency
by a sequence of integers, the result is a series of resonant frequencies that is only theoretically
correct. On any given string, a true harmonic series could only occur if the string were perfectly
flexible. Since all strings exhibit varying degrees of stiffness, the flexible string model no longer
applies. Stiffness causes the modes to vibrate at frequencies considerably higher than suggested by
Equation 3.13. For this reason, we call the sharp mode frequencies of stiff strings inharmonic mode
frequencies (Fn ), a term that refers to non-integer multiples of the fundamental frequency.
This chapter consists of three parts. In Part I, we will consider equations for stiffness in plain
strings; in Part II, equations for calculating coefficients of inharmonicity in cents; and in Part III,
equations for stiffness in wound strings.

Part I
Detailed equations for stiffness in plain strings

 4.1 

The language used to describe vibrating strings and other kinds of vibrating systems is of special
interest to this discussion. Figure 3.10 shows the first six modes of vibration of a flexible string, and
Figure 4.1 shows the first four modes of a stiff string. The term mode refers to the simplest physi-
cal patterns, shapes, or forms a vibrating system is capable of producing. The frequency associated
with a given mode shape is called the resonant frequency, the natural frequency, or the mode fre-
quency of the system. Within this context, the noun or adjective mode does not define a particular
kind of pattern or frequency, so that a mode frequency may be either harmonic or inharmonic.
Regarding perfectly flexible strings, however, we consistently call the mode frequencies harmon-
ics. This term (as in “second harmonic”) has a strict definition: it includes only those frequencies
that are integer multiples of the fundamental frequency. Mode frequencies of stiff strings are, there-
fore, not included. When describing stiff strings, we should not refer to the frequency of the “second
harmonic” if we mean the “second inharmonic.” Since the latter term sounds contrived, we will use
the word mode (as in “frequency of the second mode,” or “second mode frequency”) to correctly
identify a noninteger or inharmonic frequency.

 4.2 

To understand why the inharmonic mode frequencies of stiff strings sound higher than the har-
monic mode frequencies of flexible strings, recall that for ideal strings,

98
 Section 4.3 99

cT
Fn = (4.1)
n
where Fn is the mode frequency, in cps; cT is the transverse wave speed, in inches per second; and
n is the mode wavelength, in inches. Note that the numerator of this equation requires only one
transverse wave speed, which indicates that in flexible strings cT is constant. This is decidedly not
the case for stiff strings. The influence of stiffness significantly alters both the mode wave speeds
and the mode wavelengths of vibrating strings. Therefore, to calculate the inharmonic mode fre-
quencies of stiff strings we must now rewrite Equation 4.1 to state
c
Fn = n e (4.2)
n e
where cn eff is the effective mode wave speed; and n eff is the effective mode wavelength.
In comparison to flexible strings, the mode wave speeds in stiff strings are not constant. In-
stead, stiffness causes the effective wave speeds to increase with each higher mode of vibration.
Consequently, no two modes have the same wave speed. Furthermore, in stiff strings the effective
vibrating length (Leff) is shorter than the measured length of the string. Since for flexible strings,
n = 2L/n, we find that for stiff strings,
2Le
n e = (4.3)
n
Solutions to Equation 4.2 require detailed analyses of the physical properties of strings. A sim-
pler method consists of a purely mathematical approach. This equation states

Fn = nF 1 + 2J (n 2 - 1) (4.4)
where Fn is the inharmonic mode frequency relative to the fundamental frequency (F      ); J is the
dimensionless stiffness parameter of the string (see Sections 4.3–4.4); and n is the mode number,
any positive integer. Equations 4.2 and 4.4 give virtually identical results. In this chapter, we will
examine the former equation because it focuses on the mechanical aspects of vibrating strings, and
the latter because it offers convenient solutions.

 4.3 

Mathematicians use a dimensionless stiffness parameter to calculate the influence of stiffness on

the mode wave speeds, the mode wavelengths, and the mode frequencies of vibrating strings. It is,
therefore, highly appropriate to start the mechanical analysis of stiff strings with two different equa-
tions for J. The first equation, by Robert W. Young, includes a tension variable;1 and the second,
by Harvey Fletcher, includes a frequency variable.2 Young’s equation states
 2ESK 2
J = (4.5)
2TL2
where E is Young’s modulus of elasticity, in pounds-force per square inch, or psi; S is the cross-
sectional area of the string, in square inches; K is the radius of gyration, in inches; T is the tension
of the string, in pounds-force; and L is the measured length of the string, in inches. Before proceed-
ing, simplify this equation. The variables S and K   2 represent two subequations that include the
radius (r   ) of the string:
S = r 2
æ r ö÷2
K = çç ÷÷
2
çè 2 ø
5 / PIANO STRINGS VS. CANON STRINGS

The problems associated with inharmonic piano strings are far more severe than stretched “octaves”
tuned 30 ¢ sharp in the treble and 30 ¢ flat in the bass. (See Sections 4.16–4.17.) Stiff strings consti-
tute a primary source of harmonic and melodic dissonance. For this reason, no piano builder has ever
intentionally increased the inharmonicity of an instrument by installing thick strings. On the con-
trary, all builders design their instruments with the thinnest strings possible. Even so, conventional
piano strings do not encourage musical exploration and, therefore, do not advance the development
of acoustic music. Most piano tuning experiments end in failure. Unless the builder understands the
nature of inharmonically induced dissonance, and attempts to restring a piano with thin strings, the
authentic rendition of a scale — based on the intervals of the harmonic series — remains in doubt.
All scales and tunings benefit from flexible strings. Such strings are ideal because they produce truer
harmonics and, thereby, minimize the obliterating effects of excessive inharmonicity.
If inharmonicity is not just an obscure technical subject, then the musical question arises: “Why
are the dimensionless stiffness parameters (J        ), or the coefficients of inharmonicity (¢ ), of typical piano
strings so high?” (See Table 4.1.) In a word, the answer is “Power!” Since the early 18th century
when Bartolomeo Cristofori (1655–1730) built his first gravicembalo col piano e forte, or harpsichord
with soft and loud, the primary goal of all builders consisted of a single-minded determination to
make the grand piano as loud as humanly possible. At the beginning of the 20th century, this pro-
cess came to an inevitable end. To understand why instrument builders could not make the piano
any “grander,” we must discuss three fundamental concepts of the physics of stringed instruments:
(1) the transfer of energy from strings to soundboard and into the surrounding air; (2) the mechani-
cal wave impedances of strings and soundboards, and the radiation impedance of air; and (3) the
phenomenon of dispersion in soundboards. We will explore these subjects in Parts I–IV, and in Part
V, examine how piano tuners tune intervals to the beat rates of coincident string harmonics. Finally,
in Part VI a mathematical analysis will demonstrate the musical advantages of thin strings and thin
soundboards. In short, while thick strings and thick soundboards produce very loud sounds, these
heavy mechanical components severely restrict the intonational possibilities of all modern pianos.

Part I

transmission and reflection of mechanical

and acoustic energy

 5.1 

Sound production in a piano may be traced by way of an energy chain that begins when a finger
delivers a force of sufficient magnitude to depress a key. The mechanical energy resulting from this

118
 Section 5.2 119

force is then transferred through the key to the action levers, to the hammer, to the string(s), and
finally to the soundboard. Here mechanical energy is transformed and radiated as acoustic energy
(sound waves) into the surrounding air. From finger to soundboard, every link in this chain is as-
sociated with a force, and the amount of energy in the system (how loud or soft the piano sounds
at any given time) is directly proportional to the magnitude of these forces.
However, to produce loud sounds, generating large forces is not enough. The amplification of
sound is also dependent on an efficient displacement of large amounts of air. A vibrating string or
tuning fork radiates only small amounts of sound because the surface area of either object displaces
very little air. When the same string or tuning fork contacts a soundboard or table top, and trans-
fers its vibrational energy to a larger surface, the radiation of sound increases dramatically. Sud-
denly, upon contacting a large structure, a faint sound becomes clearly audible from a distance. For
pianos, both the initial intensity (how loud or soft the strings will sound) and the ensuing duration
(how long or short the strings will continue to vibrate) depend not only on the forces of the energy
chain, but also on the critical rate at which vibrational energy is transferred from the strings to
the soundboard. Consequently, if the string-to-soundboard proportion is incorrect, no amount of
pounding (forcing) will contribute to the desired dynamic range.

 5.2 

Consider for a moment two extremely different situations that illustrate how a wave either trans-
mits most of its energy (with intensity and no duration), or reflects most of its energy (with dura-
tion and no intensity) at the boundary between the string and the soundboard. In the first example,
a string is coupled over a bridge to a very thin wood plate designed to move as though it were a
physical extension of the string. A wave traveling on the string would barely notice the boundary,
and would transmit most of its energy (without significant reflection) at the bridge. As a result, the
plate would respond to this rapid transfer of vibrational energy with a loud (but brief) pitchless

(a)

Particle Velocity Phase Velocity

Particle Velocity Phase Velocity

(b)

Figure 5.1 Particle and phase velocities in solids and fluids. (a) In solids, the particle velocity (u   )
is perpendicular to the phase velocity (v   ). In this chapter, the phase velocity refers to the speed
of transverse waves in strings (cT), or the speed of transverse bending waves in soundboards (cB).
(b) In fluids, the particle velocity is parallel to the phase velocity. Here the phase velocity refers to
the speed of longitudinal sound waves in air (cL). See Sections 5.14–5.15 for detailed descriptions on
the speed (c   ) of waves. In either case, the particle velocity is associated with the amplitude, while the
phase velocity is associated with the frequency of a wave.
6 / BARS, RODS, AND TUBES

On first impression, it seems that marimbas, orchestral chimes, mbiras,1 and harmonicas do not
have many common properties. From a mathematical perspective, however, musical instruments
made from bars, rods, or tubes fall into two principal groups. The first group consists of bars, rods,
or tubes that are free at both ends. All the instruments in the free-free group are percussion in-
struments such as marimbas, xylophones, vibraphones, celestas, gamelan bars, orchestra bell bars,
glockenspiels, bell lyras, orchestral chimes, metal tubes,2 solid rods,3 and tuning forks.4 The second
group consists largely of bars and reeds clamped at one end. The instruments in this group are
either percussion instruments or wind instruments because some are played with mallets or fingers,
whereas others are driven with compressed air. Percussion instruments in the clamped-free group
include mbiras, slit drums, music boxes, and jaw’s harps; wind instruments include reed organ
pipes, accordions, harmonicas, harmoniums, and concertinas.
A mathematical classification is important because it emphasizes the acoustical similarities
among different kinds of musical instruments. For example, all the instruments in the free-free
group produce identical mode shapes; this also applies to the clamped-free group. Consequently, the
principles and techniques used to tune rosewood marimba bars and aluminum tubes are the same;
similarly, the tuning techniques of steel mbira keys and brass harmonica reeds are also the same.
Because there are more similarities than differences in the frequency equations and mode shapes
of the objects belonging to either group, the phrase “bars, rods, and tubes” will appear only when
appropriate. Future discussions will primarily focus on free-free bars and clamped-free bars with
the understanding that rods and tubes are included as well.
Because of the overall complexity of this subject, and some significant differences between free-
free bars and clamped-free bars, this chapter is divided into four parts. Part I examines frequency
equations, mode shapes, and restoring forces of free-free bars, and Part II gives a detailed descrip-
tion of free-free bar tuning techniques. Part III examines the frequency equations, mode shapes,
and restoring forces of clamped-free bars, and Part IV gives a brief description of clamped-free bar
tuning techniques.

Part I
frequency equations, mode shapes, and
restoring forces of free-free bars

 6.1 

Stiff strings, soundboards, and bars have one common property: a restoring force due to stiffness.
When an object vibrates under the influence of stiffness, two important characteristics come to mind.
(1) In strings, stiffness causes increases in the speed of transverse waves (cT), and in soundboards

147
148 6. Bars, Rods, and Tubes

and bars, stiffness causes increases in the speed of transverse bending waves (cB). (2) As a result of
such increases in mode wave speeds, these vibrating systems produce mode frequencies that do not
form a harmonic series. We call such frequencies inharmonic mode frequencies because they are not
integer multiples of a fundamental frequency.
The general topic of increasing mode wave speeds falls under the subject known as dispersion.
This phenomenon received a great deal of attention in Sections 4.8 and 5.14. The reader should
read, study, and absorb this material because it is essential for a thorough understanding of vibrat-
ing bars. Bars are extremely dispersive; here stiffness acts as the only restoring force that returns a
vibrating bar to its equilibrium position. However, there exists an important difference between stiff
strings and ribbed soundboards on the one hand, and bars on the other. Only in bars are tuners of
percussion instruments able to methodically change the restoring force due to stiffness and, thereby,
intentionally tune the inharmonic modes to a wide variety of alternate frequencies.

 6.2 

The frequency equation for a slender, uniform, isotropic bar, rod, or tube free at both ends states5

ïìïq1 » 3.01124 » 3.0112ïüï

ïï ïï
 K E / æçq n ö÷
2 ïïq2 » 4.99951 » 5 ïï
= ïq » 7.00002 » ï
Fn free-free çç ÷÷÷ í 3 7 ý (6.1)
8 èL ø ïï ïï
ïïq 4 » 8.99999 » 9 ïï
ïïq » 2n + 1 ïï
îï n > 4 þï
where Fn is the mode frequency of transverse vibrations, in cps; E is Young’s modulus of elastic-
ity of the material, in pounds-force per square inch, or psi;  is the mass density, or mass per unit
volume of the material, in mica per cubic inch;6 L is the length of the object, in inches; q n is a di-
mensionless bar parameter; and K is the radius of gyration of the object, in inches. In Section 6.7,
turn to Table 6.1, find K for bars, and rewrite Equation 6.1 to read
2
 (h / 12 ) E / æçq n ö÷
Fn bar = çç ÷÷ ÷ (6.2)
8 èL ø
where h is the height or thickness of the bar, in inches.
The dimensionless bar parameter depends on the end conditions of the bar and on the mode of
vibration.7 Although rational approximations q2 » 5, q3 » 7, . . . seem justified, the exact values of
q n represent irrational numbers.8 Therefore, none of the higher mode frequencies of free-free bars
are true harmonics. (See Equation 3.13.) Instead, all the modes consist of inharmonic frequencies
not found in the harmonic series. The following frequency ratios define the relations between the
fundamental frequency and the frequencies of the second, third, and fourth modes:

æq ö2
F2 µ çç 2 ÷÷÷ » 2.757
çè q1 ø÷

æq ö2
F3 µ çç 3 ÷÷÷ » 5.404
çè q1 ÷ø

æq 4 ö÷2
F4 µ çç ÷÷ » 8.933
çè q1 ÷ø
7 / ACOUSTIC RESONATORS

Vibrating bars do not radiate sound very efficiently. To amplify the radiation of sound from bars,
instrument builders mount tuned acoustic resonators underneath the bars of marimbas, xylophones,
and vibraphones.1 Acoustic resonators fall into two categories. The most common type consists of a
straight cylindrical tube made of bamboo, metal, or plastic that is open at the top end and closed
on the bottom end. Length and frequency equations for tube resonators are easy to understand, and
building a set of such resonators is not very difficult. The other kind of acoustic resonator consists
of a regularly or irregularly shaped cavity.2 On African marimbas and xylophones one frequently
finds hollow spherical or tubular gourd resonators, and on central American marimbas, flared pyra-
midical resonators made of wood.3 Although the mathematics of cavity resonators are far more
complicated than the mathematics of tube resonators, building and tuning such resonators does
not require a detailed knowledge of complex equations. Instead, to construct such resonators, all
one needs is a basic knowledge of cavity resonator mechanics, coupled with patience, experience,
and a little bit of luck.
Since the acoustic principles of these two types of resonators are very different, this chapter
consists of two different areas: Parts I–VI cover tube resonators, and Parts VII–VIII cover cavity
resonators. Furthermore, because vibrating air columns in narrow tubes constitute the principal
sound-producing systems of flutes, Parts I–VI also serve as an essential introduction to Chapter 8.
Included in this discussion will be the propagation of longitudinal traveling waves or sound waves
in the surrounding air and in tubes, the reflection of longitudinal traveling waves at the open and
closed ends of tubes, the acoustic impedances of tubes and rooms, and the formation of pressure
and displacement standing waves in tubes. Readers who need immediate access to tube resonator
equations should refer to Section 7.11, which cites length and frequency equations for tubes open at
both ends (called open tubes), and tubes open at one end and closed on the other end (called closed
tubes). Also, Section 7.12 includes three important practical considerations for anyone interested in
building tube resonators.

Part I
simple harmonic motion of longitudinal
traveling waves in air

 7.1 

The single most important motion associated with the vibrations of all acoustic musical instru-
ments is called simple harmonic motion. SHM describes the periodic motion of a particle in a solid,
liquid, or gas as it vibrates in a linear direction about its equilibrium position. To observe SHM in
a string, return for a moment to the slow motions of a flexible cord in Figure 3.5. The positions of

182
 Section 7.1 183

the arrows indicate that in one second, every crest and trough advances the distance of one wave-
length () to the right. Furthermore, the position of a given dot in each frame illustrates that every
displaced particle in the cord undergoes simple harmonic motion. That is, each particle moves in
a linear positive direction above its equilibrium position, and in a linear negative direction below
its equilibrium position. This kind of disturbance is called a transverse traveling wave because the
direction of particle motion is perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation.4
Now, if one plucks a stretched string fixed at both ends, the string’s fundamental mode of vibra-
tion will produce a transverse standing wave pattern5 as shown in a sequence of nine string displace-
ments along the left edge of Figure 7.1. Such a disturbance causes a compression of air particles in
front of the string’s leading surface, and a rarefaction of air particles behind the string’s trailing
surface. By definition, a compression is an area of positive pressure or high molecular density, and a
rarefaction is an area of negative pressure or low molecular density. Again, notice that the positions
of the arrows in each frame show that for a frequency of 1.0 cps, every center of compression and
rarefaction advances the distance of one wavelength per second to the right. Moreover, the loca-
tions of circles around a given air particle indicate that every particle undergoes SHM. A particle
near a compression moves in a forward or positive direction to the right, and near a rarefaction,
in a backward or negative direction to the left. Therefore, positive pressure causes a propulsion
of air particles in the forward direction, and negative pressure causes a suction of air particles in
the backward direction. Note again that only the acoustic energy associated with the disturbance
travels in the direction of wave propagation.
A close examination of SHM shows that when t = 0 s, the marked particle in Figure 7.1 is pass-
ing through the equilibrium position. At this location, the particle has maximum velocity. When t =
Z\, s, the particle is moving in the positive direction, and at t = Z\v s, it reaches maximum positive
displacement. Here the velocity = 0. When t = C\, s, the particle is now moving in the negative direc-
tion. At t = Z\x s, the particle again passes through the equilibrium position. Now, observe the follow-
ing unique feature of a longitudinal traveling wave. When a particle passes through the equilibrium
position, and moves in the same direction as the longitudinal wave, it is located at the center of a
compression. This occurs when t = 0 s, t = 1.0 s, t = 2.0 s, etc. Conversely, when a particle passes
through the equilibrium position, and moves in the opposite direction of the longitudinal wave, it
is located at the center of a rarefaction. This occurs when t = Z\x s, t = 1Z\x s, t = 2Z\x s, etc. When
t = B\, s, the particle continues its movement in the negative direction, and at t = C\v s, it reaches
maximum negative displacement. Here again, the velocity = 0. Finally, when t = M\, s, the particle
is now moving again in the positive direction, and at t = 1.0 s, it returns to the same position as in
the first frame. This position marks the beginning of the next cycle.
We may also view this motion by looking straight down onto the page. Imagine the nine marked
particles in the pathway of a pendulum bob as it swings back and forth between the left and right
margins of the page. Note, therefore, that only the mechanical energy associated with the distur-
bance travels in the direction of wave propagation. The particles of the medium do not travel, but
simply oscillate about their respective equilibrium positions. This kind of disturbance is called a
longitudinal traveling wave or sound wave because the direction of particle motion is parallel to the
direction of wave propagation.
Let us now examine a spring-mass system designed to demonstrate simple harmonic motion.
Figure 7.2 shows that such a system consists of two distinct parts: a spring or elastic component
that restores the system to its equilibrium position, and a mass or inertial component that causes
the system to overshoot its equilibrium position.6 Aspects of these two mechanical or acoustical
components belong to all vibrating systems. Scientists refer to the spring-mass system as a lumped
system because both parts exist independently of each other. In contrast, most vibrating systems
and musical instruments are called distributed  7 or continuous  8 systems because a clear physical
8 / SIMPLE FLUTES

Flutes, harps, and drums are the oldest musical instruments created by man. Wind instruments
are unique, however, because they alone embody the physical dimensions of scales and tunings.
In a work entitled The Greek Aulos, Kathleen Schlesinger (1862–1953) attempted to reconstruct
Greek music theory by analyzing the remains of ancient reed flutes.1 It is possible to approach the
subject of flute tunings from two different perspectives. We may predict the tuning of an existing
instrument by first measuring various flute bore, embouchure hole, and tone hole dimensions, and
then substituting these data into a sequence of equations. This method provides convenient solu-
tions when a flute is extremely fragile and cannot be played, or is simply not available for playing.
On the other hand, we may realize a given tuning by making a flute according to another sequence
of equations. From a mathematical perspective, these two approaches are distinctly different and
require separate discussions.
As all experienced flute players know, the intonation of a transverse flute — with either a very
simple or a very complex embouchure hole — depends not only on the precision of instrument con-
struction, but also on the performer. The mathematics of flute tubes, embouchure holes, and tone
holes does not necessarily produce an accurate sounding instrument. The intonation of a flute is
also governed by the strength of the airstream, and by the amount the lips cover the embouchure
hole. Because these two variables exist beyond the realm of mathematical predictability, they de-
pend exclusively on the skill of the performer.
Due to the overall complexity of flutes, this chapter is divided into three parts. Part I investi-
gates equations for the placement of tone holes, and Part II, mathematical procedures required to
analyze existing flutes. Since Part II is unintelligible without a thorough understanding of Part I,
the reader should study this chapter from beginning to end. Finally, Part III gives some suggestions
on how to make very inexpensive yet highly accurate simple flutes.

Part I
equations for the placement of tone holes on
concert flutes and simple flutes

 8.1 

In writing this chapter, I am indebted to Cornelis J. Nederveen. In his book entitled Acoustical
Aspects of Woodwind Instruments,2 Nederveen carefully defines all the mathematical variables
needed for a thorough investigation into woodwind acoustics. Numerous tables of woodwind instru-
ment dimensions are included at the end of the book. Because a full description of flute acoustics
requires many different variables, this discussion begins with a list of symbols originally defined by
Nederveen. Since most of these symbols appear only in this chapter, they are not included in the
List of Symbols at the beginning of this book. Furthermore, the List of Flute Symbols below gives

227
228 8. Simple Flutes

seven symbols that do not appear in Nederveen’s book: effective length LB(h) replaces H; effective
length LB(e) replaces E; correction E replaces LB(e) in the context of flute length calculations;
corrections H and T, and length T, represent simplifications. Finally, LA replaces LS when, in
predicting the frequencies of an existing flute, we cannot determine LS, which represents an exact
acoustic half-wavelength; in this context, we must calculate LA, which represents an approximate
acoustic half-wavelength. In preparation for Chapter 8, the reader should read, study, and absorb
Chapter 7. Knowledge of longitudinal pressure waves and end correction terminology is essential for
an understanding of flute acoustics.

LIST OF FLUTE SYMBOLS

d1 Bore diameter at tone hole.

d0 Bore diameter at embouchure hole.

dH Tone hole diameter.

dE Embouchure hole diameter.

SE Surface area of embouchure hole.

S0 Surface area of bore at embouchure hole.

H Geometric or measured length (or height) of tone hole; that is, (1) the shortest distance of
a tone hole chimney on a concert flute with key pads, or (2) the wall thickness of a simple
flute without key pads.

LH Acoustic or effective length of tone hole. (See Note 13.)

LB(h) Acoustic or effective length of bore at tone hole. (Nederveen: H, p. 64.)

E Geometric or measured length of embouchure hole.

LE Acoustic or effective length of embouchure hole. (See Note 13.)

LB(e) Acoustic or effective length of bore at embouchure hole. (Nederveen: E, p. 26.)

 Correction coefficient.

E Approximate correction at embouchure hole. In principle, the same as LB(e). Although E
does not have an exact mathematical value, E is always greater than LB(e).

H Correction at tone hole. (Nederveen: LX, p. 13; and zLS, p. 48.)

T End correction at open tube end: 0.3d1. (Nederveen: a, p. 27.)

K Correction at key pad. (Nederveen: d, p. 64.)

h Geometric or measured distance of key pad in the open position above the center of a tone
hole.
9 / THE GEOMETRIC PROGRESSION,
LOGARITHMS, AND CENTS

Cent calculations provide a highly accurate method to measure the relative sizes of musical inter-
vals. Equation 9.21 shows a convenient method for computing cent values on calculators equipped
with LOG keys. However, because texts on music theory and musical instrument construction sel-
dom discuss logarithms and cents in full detail, many aspects of this analytical technique remain
obscure. Furthermore, technical difficulties often occur because instrument builders, music theo-
rists, and ethnomusicologists utilize different kinds of numerical notation to record their data. For
example, suppose a researcher gives an Indonesian 7-tone pélog scale in cents, and a flute maker
wants to build an instrument in that tuning. This problem raises the inevitable question, “How
does one convert cents into decimal ratios?” Or, a piano tuner who wants to increase the pitch of
an instrument might ask, “What changes in frequency and, therefore, in string tension will occur
if I raise A4-440.0 cps by 25 ¢?” Answers to these and other related questions require thorough
investigations into logarithms and cents. Once achieved, such a study provides a powerful tool for
understanding many different tuning systems throughout the world.
In preparation for this chapter, the reader should read, study, and absorb the following topics
discussed in Chapter 3: (1) the mathematical structure of the harmonic series, (2) the distinctions
between ancient length ratios, modern length ratios, frequency ratios, and interval ratios, and (3)
the mathematical methods used in the division of canon strings. In Part I of this chapter we will
discuss human perception of the harmonic series as a geometric progression; in Part II, logarithmic
processes in mathematics and human hearing; in Part III, the derivation and application of cent
calculations; and in Part IV, logarithmic equations for the placement of guitar frets, and for the
construction of musical slide rules.

Part I
Human perception of the harmonic series
as a geometric progression

 9.1 

We begin this discussion by considering two fundamental mathematical sequences: the arithmetic
progression, and the geometric progression. Because these two progressions have profound and far-
reaching consequences, we will encounter them in many different contexts.
One may write an arithmetic progression by beginning with a given number a, and then repeat-
edly adding a constant number d. For example, the following sequence:

2, 5, 8, 11, 14

253
254 9. The Geometric Progression, Logarithms, and Cents

is an arithmetic progression in which d = 3. Since d represents a difference between consecutive

terms, it is called the common difference (c.d.) of an arithmetic progression. A general expression
for an arithmetic progressions states
a, a + d , a + 2d , a + 3d , . . .

One may write a geometric progression by beginning with a given number a, and then repeat-
edly multiplying by a constant number r. For example, the following sequence:

2, 6, 18, 54, 162

is a geometric progression in which r = 3. Since r represents a ratio between consecutive terms, it
is called the common ratio (c.r.) of a geometric progression. A general expression for a geometric
progression states
a, ar , ar 2 , ar 3 , . . .
Notice that the exponents of a geometric progression form an arithmetic progression, where c.d. =
1. Also, observe that the former arithmetic progression has a uniform increase (3, 3, 3, 3) between
terms, while the latter geometric progression has a varied increase (4, 12, 36, 108) between terms.

 9.2 

A mathematical and a musical examination of Figure 9.1 shows that we may interpret the harmonic
series as an arithmetic progression or as a geometric progression. The arithmetic progression con-
sists of a simple sequence of harmonics numbered 1, 2, 3, . . . which continues theoretically to infin-
ity. Each harmonic generates a frequency that is an integer multiple of the fundamental frequency.
So, if the first harmonic of a flexible string,1 or an open column of air,2 produces C2 at 65.0 cps,
then the first five harmonics of this arithmetic progression generate frequencies

65.0 cps, 130.0 cps, 195.0 cps, 260.0 cps, 325.0 cps

65.0 cps 65.0 cps 65.0 cps 65.0 cps

X\z C\x V\c B\v
Although the harmonics of this particular arithmetic progression have a common difference, where
c.d. = 65.0 cps, the human ear cannot identify a recurring interval pattern between the consecu-
tive tones of the harmonic series. Figure 9.1 shows that with increases in frequencies, the intervals
between harmonics never repeat, and simply become progressively smaller. Consequently, the har-
monic series as an arithmetic progression is musically meaningless!
In contrast, when a sequence of frequencies forms a geometric progression, the human ear can
identify a recurring interval pattern between tones. The underlined harmonics below constitute
such a progression:

1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, . . . (i)

Upon hearing these five harmonics, musicians recognize four identical musical intervals. Again, if
the first harmonic C2 vibrates at 65.0 cps, then the underlined harmonics of the latter geometric
progression generate frequencies

65.0 cps, 130.0 cps, 260.0 cps, 520.0 cps, 1040.0 cps (ii)

65.0 cps 130.0 cps 260.0 cps 520.0 cps

X\z X\z X\z X\z
10 / WESTERN TUNING THEORY
AND PRACTICE

Approximately 2500 years ago, the semi-legendary Greek philosopher and mathematician Pythago-
ras (c. 570 B.C. – c. 500 B.C.) reputedly discovered the crucial nexus between sound and number.
Since that time, numbers in the form of ratios enabled musicians to accurately control the tuning
of their instruments, and provided mathematicians with a means to analyze and classify new scales
and tunings. The numeration of music presented common ground to musicians and mathemati-
cians, and inspired a rich tradition of cooperation and controversy that lasted well into the 18th
century. Unfortunately, for the last two hundred years, a tendency toward specialization in the arts
and sciences produced a deep chasm between music and mathematics. Due to the universal stan-
dardization of 12-tone equal temperament, and a coexisting lack of development in the construc-
tion of new musical instruments, recent generations of musicians have shown very little interest in
mathematics. As a result, the history of music in the West since the time of the ancient Greeks con-
sists largely of an innocuous recounting of “music theory.” However, since one cannot intelligently
discuss music theory without confronting the subject of consonance and dissonance, and since the
latter topic has its roots in polemics over scales and tunings, the exclusion of mathematics from
music constitutes a deplorable aberration at best. Only a mathematical approach to music brings
to full consciousness the possibilities of consonances and dissonances not yet heard. This in essence
is the legacy of the Greek mathematician and astronomer Claudius Ptolemy (c. A.D. 100 – c. 165).
In the Harmonics, Ptolemy continuously demonstrates to his reader that the ancient synthesis
of music and mathematics inculcates an inner capacity for diversity, and encourages verification
through experimentation.
The subject of tuning theory and practice is truly vast and could easily fill a half-dozen volumes.
To help organize and limit the discussion, this chapter is divided into six parts. Part I analyzes
formal mathematical definitions of four different types of numbers; Part II, Greek classifications
of musical ratios, tetrachords, scales, and modes; Part III, arithmetic and geometric divisions on
canon strings; and Part IV, scales by Philolaus, Euclid, Aristoxenus, and Ptolemy. In Table 10.12,
Ptolemy’s Catalog of Scales also includes tunings by Archytas, Eratosthenes, and Didymus. The
remaining parts focus on two areas in the recent history of Western tuning: Part V covers tempered
tunings, and Part VI, just intoned tunings.
Chapters 3 and 9 are indispensable to an understanding of this chapter. As discussed in Chapter
3, the reader should know: (1) the mathematical structure of the harmonic series, (2) the distinc-
tions between ancient length ratios, modern length ratios, frequency ratios, and interval ratios, and
(3) the mathematical methods used in the division of canon strings. Furthermore, as discussed in
Chapter 9, the reader should also know: (1) the distinction between an arithmetic progression and
a geometric progression, (2) the procedure by which the human ear “adds” and “subtracts” musi-
cal intervals, and why this is equivalent to the multiplication and division of ratios, and (3) how to

280
 Section 10.1 281

convert length ratios and frequency ratios into cents. Furthermore, as discussed in Sections 9.2–9.3,
9.8, and 9.13, the reader should also fully understand the intellectual and mathematical processes
that make all equal temperaments, and in particular 12-tone equal temperament, possible. In
summary, the intellectual process states that in the context of the harmonic series, the human ear
identifies interval patterns according to geometric progressions, and it recognizes a single musical
interval by its signature interval ratio. The mathematical process states that geometric progres-
sions, frequency ratios, and interval ratios are governed by operations of multiplication and divi-
sion. Therefore, with respect to 12-tone equal temperament, a geometric division of ratio X\z into
1200 equal parts requires the extraction of the twelve-hundredth root of 2.
A simple canon with six or more strings and moveable bridges (see Chapter 13) is an essential
tool for a musical understanding of this chapter, but not a requirement for intellectual comprehen-
sion. Perhaps some day the discussions in this chapter will inspire a reader to build such an instru-
ment.

Part I
definitions of prime, composite, rational,
and irrational numbers

 10.1 

The numbers that constitute musical ratios are called real numbers. Real numbers consist of both
rational and irrational numbers. A rational number is defined as the quotient of two integers. With
respect to scales and tunings, the integers that constitute musical ratios are classified as positive
natural numbers, which include all odd numbers, even numbers, and prime numbers. Therefore, by
definition, ratios such as A\s, where variables x and y represent positive integers, are called integer
ratios.
Definition 1. A prime number is an integer whose only divisors are itself and 1. For example,
3 is a prime number because only 3 and 1 divide this number without a remainder. The first ten
prime numbers are
2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, . . .
Note that 1 is not a prime number,1 and that 2 is the only even prime number.
Definition 2. An integer greater than 1 that is not a prime number is called a composite number.
The first ten composite numbers are
4, 6, 8, 9, 10, 12, 14, 15, 16, 18, . . .
All composite numbers may be factored into prime numbers. To determine the prime factors of a
composite number, divide the number by primes until the result is a prime. For example, the fol-
lowing factorization:
42 6
= 6, =2
7 3
reveals that composite number 42 is a product of prime numbers 7 ´ 3 ´ 2.
A factorization into primes enables one to understand the numerical and musical structure of a
ratio. Consider the factorization

4
=2
2
11 / WORLD TUNINGS

When Westerners speak of music as a universal language, they more than likely think of a sym-
phony orchestra performance in China or Japan, or some other musical product exported from
the occident to the orient. Long before I began writing this book, I envisioned discussing Chinese,
Indonesian, Indian, and Arabian tuning theory in the same breath as Greek and Renaissance tun-
ing theory. Why not? Music is a universal language not only because human beings have ears and
a desire to make music, but also because people all over the world cultivate and investigate the
subject of musical mathematics.
Most listeners to whom “foreign” music sounds “funny” never get past a first impression because
they lack the artistic and scientific tools to analyze their initial response. If prejudice is the expres-
sion of personal opinion without a consideration of facts, then understanding is the expression of
personal opinion based on a willingness to consider facts. In this context, a factual examination of
another civilization may lead to the following questions: When a Chinese musician tunes the strings
of a ch’in, and when a European musician tunes the strings of a harpsichord, how are these two
tunings alike, and how are they different? However, such comparisons alone do not meet the require-
ments for true understanding. One must also ask, “Does an examination of facts further the experi-
ence of listening to music from distant civilizations?” If your answer is “yes,” then read on.
The reading requirements for Chapter 11 are the same as outlined at the beginning of Chapter
10. The reader should also study Sections 10.1–10.2, and know the definitions of prime numbers,
composite numbers, rational numbers, and irrational numbers. However, a complete reading of
Chapter 10 is not required. Throughout Chapter 11, I have intentionally avoided references to
Western tuning and music theory wherever possible. Finally, this chapter consists of four parts.
Part I examines Chinese music; Part II, Indonesian music; Part III, Indian music; and Part IV, Ara-
bian, Persian, and Turkish music. Due to the vastness of these subjects, I have selected only a few
basic concepts from each civilization. Without these considerations, no fundamental understanding
is possible.

Part I
CHINESE MUSIC

 11.1 

Of the texts that have survived, the earliest detailed description of Chinese tuning practice exists
in a book entitled Lü-shih ch’un-ch’iu (The Spring and Autumn of Lü Pu-wei), written c. 240 B.C.1
According to this narrative, the semi-legendary emperor Huang Ti (fl. c. 2700 B.C.) ordered music
master Ling Lun to cast a set of sixty bells, and to tune them in twelve sets of five bells each. To
accomplish this task, Ling Lun used the original 12-tone scale, where each scale degree provided

485
486 11. World Tunings: Chinese Music

him with a fundamental tone from which to tune the original pentatonic scale. The oldest extant
source that gives detailed calculations for this 12-tone scale is a book by Ssu-ma Ch’ien (c. 145 B.C. –
c. 87 B.C.) entitled Shih Chi (Records of the Historian), written c. 90 B.C.2 Here, Ssu-ma Ch’ien cites
the famous formula

San fen sun i fa: Subtract and add one-third.3

for the calculation of 12 pitch pipe lengths. An ancient pitch pipe consists of a tube closed at one
end. One plays a pitch pipe like a panpipe by blowing across the open end of the tube. Ssu-ma
Ch’ien’s formula works equally well for string lengths. Equations 7.18 and 3.10 indicate that these
two vibrating systems are very similar. The former equation states that the theoretical wavelength
of the fundamental tone of a closed tube equals four times the length of the tube; and the latter
equation, that the theoretical wavelength of the fundamental tone of a string equals two times the
length of the string. However, because the frequencies of tubes are affected by end corrections,4 lip
coverage at the embouchure hole,5 and the strength of a player’s airstream,6 the following discussion
will focus on strings; the frequencies of the latter are easier to predict and control. Furthermore,
since Ssu-ma Ch’ien based his calculations on a closed tube 8.1 units long,7 and since fractional
lengths are inconvenient, we will use an overall string length of 9 units. This length occurs in many
historical texts, including a work entitled Lung-yin-kuan ch’in-p’u by Wang Pin-lu (1867–1921).
Pin-lu’s student, Hsü Li-sun, edited and renamed this manuscript Mei-an ch’in-p’u, and published
it in 1931. Fredric Lieberman translated the latter in his book A Chinese Zither Tutor.8 We will
refer to this work throughout Sections 11.5–11.7.

 11.2 

The ancient formula subtract and add one-third consists of two mathematical operations that have
opposite effects. Subtraction of a string’s Z\c length yields variable Lshort, and addition of a string’s
Z\c length yields variable Llong. However, in the context of scale calculations, one may obtain identi-
cal results through the following operations of division and multiplication. (1) The act of subtract-
ing Z\c from a string’s vibrating length (L  ) is equivalent to dividing L by ancient length ratio C\x, or
multiplying L by modern length ratio X\c:
L L 2
Lshort = L - = = L´
3 3 3
2
(2) The act of adding Z\c to a string’s decreased length is equivalent to multiplying Lshort by ancient
length ratio V\c:
L 4
Llong = Lshort + short = Lshort ´
3 3
(3) Similar to the first operation, the act of subtracting Z\c from a string’s increased length is equiva-
lent to dividing Llong by ancient length ratio C\x, or multiplying Llong by modern length ratio X\c:

Llong Llong 2
Lshort = Llong - = = Llong ´
3 3 3
2
For a string 9.0 units long, Table 11.1 shows that the Chinese up-and-down principle of scale gen-
eration produces string lengths accurate to five decimal places.
 Part II
INDONESIAN MUSIC

Java

 11.12 

Indonesia consists of an archipelago of three thousand islands scattered throughout the Indian
Ocean in Southeast Asia. It is the birthplace of gamelan music. Gamelan orchestras, composed of
many low-lying and stationary musical instruments arranged in rectangular or circular patterns,
bring to mind unique islands of sound. Gamelan music defies standard mathematical analysis be-
cause among the thousands of orchestras that exist in Indonesia, no two are alike. For unknown
reasons, the tradition of monochord division did not flourish in Indonesia, and consequently tuning
theory did not evolve as a branch of mathematics. Instead, the subject of musical mathematics
developed on a purely experiential basis. Each village and town has its own individual sound, and
for a given gamelan, professional gamelan makers tune their instruments, without the benefit of
acoustic or electronic devices, to within a few cents of a desired scale. Given the inharmonic mode
frequencies of vibrating bars1 and gongs, such precision in the tuning of percussion instruments
constitutes a remarkable scientific and musical achievement.
Gamelans on the islands of Java and Bali are tuned to two basic scales, or laras, called sléndro
and pélog. Musicians East and West write gamelan music in cipher notation, which consists of
a progression of integers that represent the tones of a piece composed in either sléndro or pélog.
Unfortunately, unless one understands the idiosyncrasies of this notation, it is extremely easy to
misinterpret the pitches of gamelan tunings. Before we discuss this subject in full detail, let us first
review the cipher notation in Section 11.5 and Figure 11.2. Many scholars record the original Chi-
nese pentatonic scale by writing 1–2–3–5–6–1, where the last digit represents a tone an “octave”
above the first digit. Figure 11.3 shows that this technique has its origins in the Chevé System,2
which uses numbers 1 through 7 to identify the sequential tones of the standard Western diatonic
scale. For a tone an “octave” above a given pitch, the cipher-dot notation requires a dot above a
cipher, and for a tone an “octave” below a given pitch, a dot below a cipher; similarly, it requires
two dots above or below a cipher for a tone two “octaves” above or below a given pitch. When one
compares the pitches of the original Chinese pentatonic scale to five select pitches of the Western
diatonic scale, the sequence 1–2–3–5–6–1 represents the Chinese scale fairly well.

    
   
Chevé System, or diatonic cipher notation: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 
Chinese pentatonic cipher notation: 1 2 3 5 6 1
Original Chinese pentatonic scale: Z\z >\, <Z\nv C\x XM\zn X\z
Original Chinese pentatonic scale in cents: 0 203.9 407.8 702.0 905.9 1200.0

Figure 11.3 The Chevé System, or diatonic cipher notation used in many ethnomusicological texts.
Here the sequence 1–2–3–4–5–6–7– represents one “octave” of the standard Western diatonic scale.
When applied to the original Chinese pentatonic scale in Figure 11.2, the sequence reads 1–2–3–5–6–1,
which represents the latter scale fairly well.

508
 Section 11.12 509

Sléndro consists of a 5-tone or pentatonic scale. An application of the latter sequence of ciphers
to this scale does not yield favorable results. Regrettably, since most writers do not bother to dis-
cuss these inherent difficulties, the transmission of accurate information suffers. Avoidance of such
discussions is based on two perplexing facts: (1) No two gamelans have identical tunings, and (2)
differences in tuning may vary significantly. This lack of consistency is the hallmark of gamelan
tunings and, when viewed from a musical perspective, is the source of endless artistic inspiration.
However, given an accurate set of numbers, there is no reason why science should suffer at the
expense of art. Reliable tuning data reveal tendencies not supported by conventional cipher nota-
tion. For example, Figure 11.4, Row 2, indicates that the sléndro tuning system is traditionally
notated 1–2–3–5–6–, which immediately suggests the original Chinese pentatonic scale, or a spiral
of “fifths.” In contrast, Figure 11.4, Row 3, shows recalculated average cent values of 28 Javanese
sléndro gamelans analyzed by Wasisto Surjodiningrat, et al.3 Note that in the majority of cases,
traditional pitch 3 tends to sound like a “flat fourth,”4 as in frequency ratio XZ\zn [470.8 ¢], and not
like a “sharp major third,” ratio <Z\nv [407.8 ¢]. Similarly, traditional pitch 6 tends to sound like a
“flat minor seventh,”5 as in ratio M\v [968.8 ¢], and not like a “sharp major sixth,” ratio XM|zn [905.9 ¢].
Because traditional pitches 3 and 6 are generally tuned a “semitone” higher than enumerated, we
should write sléndro as 1–2–4–5–7 –, and if not, we should understand it as such.6 Furthermore,
sléndro and pélog “octaves” are frequently tuned about a syntonic comma, ratio <Z|,/ [21.5 ¢], sharp.7
This technique gives many gamelans a shimmering musical quality because “sharp octaves” cause
very noticeable beat rate patterns on powerful percussion instruments made of bronze. So, to ac-
knowledge this unique and vital feature of many Javanese gamelans, it would not be entirely incor-
rect to notate sléndro 1–2–4–5–7 –, as in Figure 11.4, Row 1, to indicate such “sharp octaves.”
A complete or double gamelan consists of a set of instruments tuned in sléndro, and a set of
instruments tuned in pélog. Consider now the sléndro scale of a saron demung, a percussion in-
strument with seven bronze bars, which belongs to a famous double gamelan called Kyahi Kan-
jutmesem.8 (Since Surjodiningrat, et al. give all frequencies rounded to zero decimal places, I will
do the same with respect to the related frequency and cent calculations below. However, wherever
warranted, I will also continue to give frequency and cent values carried out to one decimal place.)
This instrument is tuned to the following frequencies: 248 cps, 287 cps, 331 cps, 378 cps, 435 cps,
500 cps, and 580 cps. Here sléndro begins on the second bar, and the “sharp octave” resides on the
seventh bar. Since D4 of 12-TET vibrates at 293.7 cps, and since the second bar vibrates at 287 cps,
or 40.0 ¢ flat of D4, observe that the first note in Figure 11.4 does not reflect this pitch. Instead, the
cent values in Figure 11.4, Row 4, were calculated relative to the frequency of the second bar, or to
the first pitch of the sléndro scale. According to Equation 9.21,

331 cps
Pitch 2 = log10 ´ 3986.314 = 247 ¢
287 cps
378 cps
Pitch 3 = log10 ´ 3986.314 = 477 ¢ ...
287 cps
The tones in Figures 11.4 and 11.5 only give very rough approximations of the cent averages in
Rows 3. Refer to the 5-limit analysis in Figure 11.4, Row 5, and notice that sléndro in its simplest
form consists of two ascending C\x’s, or two ascending “fifths”: [Pitch 5 = Z\z ´ C\x = C\x], [Pitch 2 =
C\x ´ C\x = >\v = >\,], and two descending C\x’s, or two descending “fifths”: [Pitch 3 = Z\z  C\x = X\c =
V\c], [Pitch 6 = V\c  C\x = <\. = ZN\.]. However, because pitch 6 tends to sound like a “flat minor
seventh,” note carefully that a typical sléndro scale does not have an interval of a “major third.”
To help identify extremely sharp or flat sounding pitches, Figures 11.4 and 11.5 show such tones
with arrows pointing upward or downward, respectively; these arrows indicate tones that sound
 Part III
INDIAN MUSIC

Ancient Beginnings

 11.20 

One of the oldest and most revered texts on Indian music is a work entitled Natyasastra, written by
Bharata (early centuries A.D.). Although large portions of Bharata’s treatise recount performance
practices of the theater and dance, Volume 2, Chapters 28–33, deal exclusively with music. In
Natyasastra 28.21, Bharata begins his description of the classical 22-sruti scale by giving the names
of seven svaras, translated below as notes, and also interpreted in this discussion as tones and scale
degrees.

Nat. 28.21 — The seven notes [svaras] are: Sadja [Sa], Rsabha [Ri], Gan­
dhara [Ga], Madhyama [Ma], Pañcama [Pa], Dhaivata [Dha], and Nisada
[Ni].1 (Text in brackets mine.)

Bharata then defines the musical qualities of four different kinds of sounds, and specifies the con-
sonant and dissonant intervals contained in two different scales called Sadjagrama (Sa-grama) and
Madhyamagrama (Ma-grama).

Nat. 28.22 — [According] as they relate to an interval of [more or less] Sru-

tis, they are of four classes, such as Sonant (vadin), Consonant (samvadin),
Assonant (anuvadin), and Dissonant (vivadin).

That which is an Amsa [note] anywhere, will in this connection, be called

there Sonant (vadin). Those two notes which are at an interval of nine or
thirteen Srutis from each other are mutually Consonant (samvadin), e.g.,
Sadja and Madhyama, Sadja and Pañcama, Rsabha and Dhaivata, Gan­
dhara and Nisada in the Sadja Grama. Such is the case in the Madhyama
Grama, except that Sadja and Pañcama are not Consonant, while Pañ-
cama and Rsabha are so . . .

23 — In the Madhyama Grama, Pañcama and Rsabha are Consonant while

Sadja and Pañcama are so in the Sadja Grama [only].

The notes being at an interval of [two or] twenty Srutis are Dissonant, e.g.,
Rsabha and Gandhara, Dhaivata and Nisada.

. . . As a note [prominently] sounds it is called Sonant; as it sounds in conso-

nance [with another] it is Consonant; as it sounds discordantly [to another]
it is Dissonant, and as it follows [another note] it is called Assonant. These
notes become low or high according to the adjustment of the strings . . .
of the Vina . . .2 (Bold italics mine.)

With this general background information — which will prove crucial in constructing the scales
— Bharata then quantifies these seven scale degrees according to how many srutis (from the San-
skrit sru, lit. to hear; sruti in music, an interval) are contained between each degree.

Nat. 28.23 — . . . Now, there are two Gramas: Sadja and Madhyama. Each
of these two (lit. there) include twenty-two Srutis in the following manner:

540
 Section 11.20 541

24 — Srutis in the Sadja Grama are shown as follows: three [in Ri], two
[in Ga], four [in Ma], four [in Pa], three [in Dha], two [in Ni], and four
[in Sa].

In the Madhyama Grama, Pañcama should be made deficient in one Sruti.

The difference which occurs in Pañcama when it is raised or lowered by
a Sruti and when consequential slackness or tenseness [of strings] occurs,
will indicate a typical (pramana) Sruti.3 (Bold italics and text in brackets
mine.)
Next, Bharata describes a demonstration on two vinas, each equipped with seven strings, and
tuned exactly alike to the Sa-grama. The tuning of one vina remains unchanged. Bharata gives
directions for changing the tuning of the other vina in four separate steps. Each step requires the
lowering of all seven degrees by increments of one sruti. Consequently, after the first step, or after
lowering all the strings by 1 sruti, no two degrees of the two vinas match because the smallest in-
terval of the Sa-grama consists of 2 srutis. After the second step, or after lowering Ga by 2 srutis,
it will sound the same tone as Ri of the unchanged vina; and after lowering Ni by 2 srutis, it will
sound the same tone as Dha of the unchanged vina. Similarly, after the third step, or after lowering
Ri by 3 srutis, it will sound the same tone as Sa of the unchanged vina; and after lowering Dha by
3 srutis, it will sound the same tone as Pa of the unchanged vina. Finally, after the fourth step, or
after lowering Ma by 4 srutis, it will sound the same tone as Ga of the unchanged vina; after low-
ering Pa by 4 srutis, it will sound the same tone as Ma of the unchanged vina; and after lowering
Sa by 4 srutis, it will sound the same tone as Ni of the unchanged vina. In a passage translated by
N.A. Jairazbhoy,4 Bharata states, “. . . lower again, in exactly this manner . . .” (punarapi tad-
vadevapakarsat),5 which means that this experiment was intended to prove that all sruti intervals
are exactly equal in size. Bharata implies that only controlled decreases by identical srutis will
produce the scale degrees on the changed vina that exactly match the degrees of the unchanged
vina. In this context, the unchanged vina represents a scientific control, or an aural reminder of the
changed vina before it was lowered.
Bharata then summarizes

Nat. 28.25–26 — In the Sadja Grama, Sadja includes four Srutis, Rsabha
three, Gandhara two, Madhyama four, Pañcama four, Dhaivata three, and
Nisada two.
27–28 — [In the Madhyama Grama] Madhyama consists of four Srutis,
Pañcama three, Dhaivata four, Nisada two, Sadja four, Rsabha three, and
Gandhara two Srutis. [Thus] the system of [mutual] intervals (antara) has
been explained.6
In the absence of clearly defined length ratios and interval ratios,7 this mixture of numerical and
verbal terms seems completely open to interpretation. However, a historically accurate analysis
reveals that the musical possibilities contained in this text are extremely limited and point toward
only one plausible explanation. Before we examine this interpretation of Bharata’s text, let us first
eliminate two possibilities.
In Natyasastra 28.24, Bharata distinguishes between the Sa-grama and the Ma-grama by stat-
ing that in the former scale, Pa contains 4 srutis, and in the latter scale, Pa contains only 3 srutis.
He defines this difference based on a typical sruti, or a pramana sruti. Bharata goes on to describe
his experiment with two vinas, which only works if the pramana sruti is a standard interval, or an
interval of a constant size. All these formulations lead to one possibility, namely, that Bharata was
contemplating geometric division of the “octave” into 22 equal parts. To achieve such a “division”
 Part IV
ARABIAN, PERSIAN, AND TURKISH MUSIC

 11.45 

North American musicians who do not read Arabic, French, or German have very limited oppor-
tunities to study ancient Arabian music and tuning theory from original sources. Of the treatises
on music written by Al-Frb (d. c. 950), Ibn Sn (980–1037), a Al-Dn (d. 1294), Al-Jurjn
(d. 1413), Al-Ldhiq (d. 1494), and Al-Shirwn (d. 1626), not a single work has ever been trans-
lated into English. Furthermore, due to intractable religious, linguistic, and intellectual prejudices
against Islam, Christian-dominated institutions throughout Europe — such as Catholic and Prot-
estant churches, schools and universities, and the craft guilds — managed by 1600 to completely
eradicate the Arabian influence from the written history of European music. For example, the
works of Michael Praetorius (1571–1621) and Marin Mersenne (1588–1648) offer no information on
the origins of one of the most important instruments of their time: the lute. First in Arabian his-
tory (from approximately 700) and later in European history (to approximately 1700), the fretted
lute served for a thousand years as an instrument of scientific exploration and musical expression.
Henry George Farmer (1882–1965), an eminent historian of Arabian music, gives this etymology of
lute (from the Arabic al-ud, the lute; lit. flexible stick or branch):

Western Europe owes both the instrument and its name to the Arabic
al-ud, as we see in the Portuguese alaud, the Spanish laud, the German
Laute, the Dutch Luit, the Danish Lut, the Italian liuto, the English lute,
and the French luth.1

Are we to naïvely accept the highly improbable possibility that while Europeans inherited the lute
from the Arabs, European musicians learned absolutely nothing about tuning from Arabian musi-
cians? Consider the following fact: by the end of the 13th century, Arabian literature included not
only a voluminous and highly sophisticated collection of works on the art and science of music, but
on the precise mathematics of lute tunings as well.
Between approximately A.D. 750 and 1250, many nations in the West experienced the religious,
scientific, and artistic influences of what I call the Arabian Renaissance. After the life and death
of the prophet Mohammed (c. 570 – d. 632), a stunning series of military campaigns brought
Spain, Sicily, North Africa, Egypt, Syria, al-raq, Persia (modern Iran), Farghnah (Central Asia),
ukhristn (modern Afghanistan), and Western India (modern Pakistan) under Moslem control.
Coincidentally, most of these territories were conquered by Alexander the Great (356–323 B.C.) a
thousand years earlier. To administer their newly conquered empire, Moslem rulers created two
great cultural centers. In 762 Baghdd became the capital of the empire in the east, and subsequent
to the invasion of 711 into Spain, in 756 Cordova became the capital of the empire in the west. The
former was destroyed by Mongols in 1258, and the latter, reconquered by Christians in 1236. The
Reconquista (Reconquest) of Spain continued until the final defeat of the Moslems at Granada in
1492.2
Reminiscent of the building of Alexandria by Alexander the Great, Baghdd and Cordova
boasted running water, paved and lighted streets, world-renowned architectural monuments, inter-
national markets, universities, hospitals, and above all, libraries that contained hundreds of thou-
sands of volumes. If it were not for these libraries, and the care Arabian translators and scholars
bestowed on ancient texts, the works of Homer, Hippocrates, Plato, Aristotle, Euclid, Archimedes,
Nicomachus, and Ptolemy, to name only a few, would probably not have survived. The task of

610
 Section 11.46 611

translating these volumes began in Baghdd in approximately 750, and later became centralized
at the famous Bayt al-ikmah (House of Wisdom) in 830. By the end of the 10th century, most
of the translations were completed. This phenomenal achievement raises the inevitable question,
“Is the Italian Renaissance indebted to the Arabian Renaissance?” To contemplate the profound
interdependence of these two civilizations, consider this biographical account from Philip K. Hitti’s
exhaustive work entitled History of the Arabs:

Al-Kindi . . . flourished in Baghdd. His pure Arabian descent earned him

the title “the philosopher of the Arabs,” and indeed he was the first and
last example of an Aristotelian student in the Eastern caliphate who sprang
from Arabian stock. Eclectic in his system, Al-Kindi endeavored in Neo-
Platonic fashion to combine the views of Plato and Aristotle and regarded
the Neo-Pythagorean mathematics as the basis of all science. Al-Kindi
was more than a philosopher. He was astrologer, alchemist, optician and
music theorist. No less than two hundred and sixty-five works are ascribed
to him, but most of them unhappily have been lost. His principal work
on geometrical and physiological optics, based on the Optics of Euclid in
Theon’s recension, was widely used in both East and West until superseded
by the greater work of ibn-al-Haytham [d. c. 1039]. In its Latin translation,
De aspectibus, it influenced Roger Bacon [c. 1214 – d. 1292]. Al-Kindi’s
three or four treatises on the theory of music are the earliest extant works
in Arabic showing the influence of Greek writers on that subject. In one
of these treatises Al-Kindi describes rhythm (iq1  ) as a constituent part of
Arabic music. Measured song, or mensural music, must therefore have been
known to the Moslems centuries before it was introduced into Christian
Europe. Of Al-Kindi’s writings more have survived in Latin translations,
including those of Gerard of Cremona [d. 1187], than in the Arabic origi-
nal.3 (Dates in brackets mine.)

 11.46 

The oldest extant source on Arabian music is a work entitled Risala  hubr t2lif al-alhan (On the
composition of melodies), by Isq Al-Kind (d. c. 874). Because this text only survived as a frag-
mented 17th-century transcription of a 13th-century copy, many pages are missing; this explains
why the text begins in mid-sentence. Fortunately, the fragments provide enough information to
impart Al-Kind’s ud tuning, which bestows the following six incipient contributions on the history
of music:
(1) Outside China, this is the first mathematical description of a 12-tone chromatic scale. Al-
though Al-Kind’s scale also consists of a spiral of “fifths,” it differs from the Chinese model in that
the tonic, ratio Z\z, simultaneously functions as the origin of two different spirals: one ascends four
“fifths,” or four C\x’s, and the other descends seven “fifths,” or seven C\x’s. (See Section 11.47, Table
11.22.)
(2) Al-Kind’s 12-tone scale is the first tuning that uses identical note names to identify the
tones of the lower and upper “octave.” In his text, Al-Kind specifically states that the musical
qualities of tones separated by an “octave” are identical.
(3) This is the first mathematically verifiable scale that accounts for the comma of Pythagoras.
In his ud tuning, Al-Kind distinguishes between the apotome [C], ratio XZ<M|x/v,, and the limma
[D], ratio XBN|xvc.
788 12. Original Instruments

12 / ORIGINAL INSTRUMENTS
Acoustic music is the most difficult music. Building musical instruments from the ground up is an
expression of freedom and, therefore, an expression of imagination. Nothing about this art is hewn
in stone. The creative builder examines all aspects of musical instrument construction, and on a
case-by-case basis decides which traditions to keep, and which to throw out.
I build because the tunings and timbres I want to hear do not exist on store shelves. Robinson
Crusoe built because he had no choice. And yet, his creations also had no critics, and so his imagina-
tion became his life. Often when I hike through forests or climb mountains, I am reminded that only
man knows what time it is. When I enter Crusoe’s world, or when in building an instrument time ceas-
es to exist, I live with the knowledge that success is only a function of thought, work, and patience.
The desire for perfection is the juggernaut of creativity. All my instruments are flawed. A bar
may not ring as long as another bar; a canon bridge may be too high or too low; or a tone hole may
be too wide or too narrow. I know where all the flaws are, and could find many more. But what is
the point? The only thing that matters is to build and to make a music that is sustainable in time.
I was born a musician, and have built musical instruments since 1975. In the words of Walt Whit-
man (1819–1892), “I . . . begin, hoping to cease not till death.”
I also hope that this book and Chapters 12–13 will inspire others to think critically about
acoustic music, and perhaps to build an original instrument or two. One of the happiest moments
of my life is to finish a project, step back, and declare in a state of complete surprise, “I’d like to
meet the person who built this instrument.”

Stringed Instruments

CHRYSALIS I and CHRYSALIS II

 12.1 

Chrysalis I in Plate 1, my first concert-size instrument, was inspired by a large, round, stone-hewn
Aztec calendar. I asked myself, “What if there was a musical instrument in the shape of a wheel?
And what if this wheel had strings for spokes, could spin, and when played, would sound like the
wind?” Forty years later, I built Chrysalis II (which is a larger version of the original instrument)
and I also restored Chrysalis I. Although there are differences regarding the plywood support rings,
and the number of ribs and support screws of these two instruments, I constructed both wheels
with the same materials and mechanical components. As described below, the Chrysalises have two
sides, or two circular spruce soundboards, covered by eighty-two strings on each side.
Figure 12.1(A) shows that a stainless steel axle (a) passes through the center of an octagonal hub
(b). I made the hub from a very dense thermoplastic called acetal, also known as Delrin, which is an
extremely stable material because it does not expand or contract very much due to climatic changes.
Eight Honduras rosewood spokes (c) radiate from the hub to the centers of eight Delrin dowel spac-
ers (d), which in turn hold two birch plywood rings (e). Figure 12.1(B) illustrates two Sitka spruce
soundboards (f) glued to the rings. The rings reinforce the edges of the soundboards while leaving the
inner soundboard surface areas unobstructed for maximum resonance. The soundboards of Chrysalis
II consist of seven jointed strips of quarter-sawn spruce 6.0 in. wide by C\, in. thick. On the back sides,
spruce ribs glued against the grain give the soundboards structural support. Two bridges (g) fastened

788
 Section 12.1 789

(A) (B)

d
i

d e f
c
c
g i
e
j
b a

a b
j

i g
c

e
f
i
d

Figure 12.1 Parts and construction of the Chrysalis I and Chrysalis II wheels. (A) With soundboards
removed, this transverse cross-section shows a stainless steel axle (a) that passes through the center of
an octagonal hub (b). The hub acts as the central structural component of the wheel. Eight spokes (c)
radiate from the hub to the centers of eight dowel spacers (d), which in turn hold two plywood rings (e).
(B) This longitudinal cross-section illustrates two soundboards (f) glued to the rings, and two aluminum
bridges (g) fastened to the soundboards. Tuning gears (h) encircle both soundboards. From here, long
and short steel strings (i) pass to the bridges. Two sealed ball bearings (j) support the wheel at the ends
of the axle. These bearings enable the performer to turn the wheel in either direction. (Not to scale.)

at off-center locations on the soundboards provide the instrument with varying string lengths. The
original rosewood bridges exploded from the force of the strings; so, I replaced them with aluminum
bridges. I located the bridges directly opposite each other, which enables the performer to reach both
long and short strings from the playing position to the left of the wheel; this configuration of the
bridges also balances the motion of the wheel. Eighty-two tuning gears (h) encircle each soundboard.
From here, steel strings (i) pass to the bridges. Note that the two longest strings pass through holes in
the axle. Two sealed ball bearings (j) support the wheel at the ends of the axle. These bearings enable
the performer to turn the wheel in either direction. Finally, the wave-like stand — inspired by my
love of the ocean and many years of surfing in California and Mexico — affords maximum access to
the strings; at any given position of the wheel, all but a few strings are within reach of the performer.
All the tablature scores for Chrysalis I and Chrysalis II identify musical notes with string numbers.
The longest strings that pass through holes in the axle are strings No. 1. When one faces a sound-
board, all string numbers progress in a counterclockwise direction around the circumference of the
soundboard. (To view a journal that includes more than 250 photographs of how I built Chrysalis II
in chronological order, please visit https://www.chrysalis-foundation.org/building-new-chrysalis-ii/.)
13 / BUILDING A LITTLE CANON

Parts, Materials, Labor, and Detailed Dimensions

The Little Canon in Plate 12 is the first musical instrument I built. Since a small canon is not too
difficult to make, the following description may inspire some readers to build such an instrument,
and to verify for themselves which intervals and scales sound consonant, and which sound disso-
nant.
The Little Canon consists of a long rectangular sound box equipped with six strings. Figure
13.1 shows a transverse cross-section of the sound box. The top or soundboard (a) and two sides
(b) are redwood. Clear kiln-dried redwood is fairly resonant and, in Northern California, is easily
obtained in many different dimensions. However, Sitka spruce works just as well, and produces a
better tone. The base (c) is birch plywood. Plate 12 does not reveal the layers of the plywood base
because I veneered the exterior edge with birch veneer. A rigid base is very important because it
prevents the instrument from bending and twisting out of shape after the strings are tensioned.
Also in Figure 13.1, note that the top and base overlap the side pieces. This design ensures that the
top and base provide flat gluing surfaces. Now, in the corners along the entire lengths of the top
and side pieces, and along the entire lengths of the base and side pieces, redwood liners (d) reinforce
the sound box joints and strengthen the instrument as a whole. First, I glued the upper and lower
liners to the sides. Next, I used flat head wood screws (e) and glue to secure the base to the sides.
Finally, I fastened the top to the sides.

d d

b b

d d

e c e

Figure 13.1 Parts and construction of the sound box of the Little Canon. This transverse cross-
section shows that redwood top (a) and birch plywood base (c) overlap the redwood sides (b). Red-
wood liners (d), glued into the corners along the lengths of the top and side pieces, and along the
lengths of the base and side pieces, reinforce the sound box joints. Flat head wood screws (e) secure
the base to the sides.

834
 Building a Little Canon 835

Turn to Figure 13.2, which shows a longitudinal cross-section of the Little Canon. To close the
structure, notice that I glued redwood end pieces (a) to the top and sides at the ends of the sound
box. However, observe carefully that the plywood base (b) extends beyond the two end pieces. Flat
head wood screws secure a rounded beech hitch block (c) to the base at the right end, and a short
angled birch block (d) to the base at the left end of the instrument. I also glued these two blocks
to the end pieces. Plate 12 shows that the hitch block on the right has six holes for threading and
fastening the ends of the strings. The angled block on the left supports a birch tuning gear bracket
(e). Four oval head wood screws secure the tuning gear bracket to the angled block. Also, note that
I cut two long slots into the bracket. I then drilled three holes that pass through the front edge,
the front slot, and into the body of the bracket; similarly, three holes pass through the back edge,
the back slot, and into the body of the bracket. Next, I inserted three nylon posts of a tuning gear
assembly (f) through the front holes, and three nylon posts of a tuning gear assembly through the
back holes. Four screws hold each assembly in place. Three strings enter each slot and wind around
the nylon posts to tension the strings.
Plate 12 and Figure 13.2 show that a birch nut (g) and a stationary maple bridge (h) support
six strings (i). The nut and bridge have hard rosewood caps to prevent the strings from cutting
into these parts. I glued the nut into an angled slot in the tuning gear bracket and against the
left end piece; and I epoxied the bridge on the top near the hitch block. Both components have a
height of M\, in. above the redwood top or soundboard so that the strings run parallel to the surface
of the soundboard. Finally, six moveable oak bridges (j) divide the strings into different vibrating
lengths.
With respect to materials, there are two basic kinds of wood: softwoods and hardwoods. Spruce
and redwood are domestic softwoods; birch, beech, maple, and oak are domestic hardwoods. Rose-
wood is a tropical hardwood with a weight density greater than water, which means it does not
float. (See Appendices E and G.) For the sound box and liners, it is important to use clear kiln-
dried redwood or spruce. However, for the rest of the instrument, all domestic hardwoods work
equally well. I used five different hardwoods simply because they were available to me.
I strongly recommend yellow woodworking glue called aliphatic resin glue, and two-part clear
epoxy. Do not use white glue or hide glue. Also, I no longer use wood screws. The tapered shanks
and shallow threads of these screws do not cut into the fibers of the wood very well. Instead, I use
sheet metal screws (also called tapping screws) in wood. These screws have cylindrical shanks and
extremely sharp and deep threads.
The lengths of commercial acoustic guitar strings determine the distance of the Little Canon
from the farthest tuning gear posts to the hitch block. Since this instrument requires six identical
strings, one must buy six identical sets of guitar strings because all the strings in a single set have
different diameters. Readers interested in building large canons with long strings must make their
own strings. Piano supply houses and some local piano technicians sell high-carbon spring steel
music wire in 1 lb. rolls. However, piano wires do not work for making canon strings because the
diameters are too thick and, therefore, require too much tension to produce a good tone. See Ap-
pendix D for ordering thin steel music wire sizes with diameters in the 0.016–0.024 in. range. Also,
tuning gears equipped with long nylon posts are available from local guitar shops.
Readers who would like to own a small canon but are not inclined to build one must hire a
woodworker. A professional should require approximately 10 hours to build such an instrument.
The sound box is the most time-consuming task. First, thick boards must be either resawn or sur-
face planed to make the thin top, side, and end pieces. Then the liners must be glued to the inside
surfaces of the sides before the sound box can be assembled. While the glue is drying, all the other
parts can be made. To minimize labor charges, the reader should have the tuning gears and strings
available for measuring before the building begins.
 Musical Mathematics: On the Art and Science of Acoustic Instruments
© 2000–2010 Cristiano M.L. Forster All rights reserved.

www.chrysalis-foundation.org

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Chapters 1–9

Askenfelt, A., Editor (1990). Five Lectures on The Acoustics of the Piano. Royal Swedish Academy of Music,
No. 64, Stockholm, Sweden.

Askill, J. (1979). Physics of Musical Sound. D. Van Nostrand Company, New York.

Baines, A. (1967). Woodwind Instruments and Their History. Dover Publications, Inc., New York, 1991.

Barbera, A., Translator (1991). The Euclidean Division of the Canon: Greek and Latin Sources. University of
Nebraska Press, Lincoln, Nebraska.

Barker, A., Translator (1989). Greek Musical Writings. Two Volumes. Cambridge University Press, Cam-
bridge, Massachusetts.

Bell, A.J., and Firth, I.M. (1986). The physical properties of gut musical instrument strings. Acustica 60,
No. 1, pp. 87–89.

Benade, A.H., and French, J.W. (1965). Analysis of the flute head joint. Journal of the Acoustical Society of
America 37, No. 4, pp. 679–691.

Benade, A.H. (1967). Measured end corrections for woodwind toneholes. Journal of the Acoustical Society of
America 41, No. 6, p. 1609.

Benade, A.H. (1976). Fundamentals of Musical Acoustics. Dover Publications, Inc., New York, 1990.

Berliner, P.F. (1978). The Soul of Mbira. University of California Press, Berkeley, California, 1981.

Blevins, R.D. (1979). Formulas for Natural Frequency and Mode Shape, Reprint. Krieger Publishing Com-
pany, Malabar, Florida, 1993.

Boehm, T. (1847). On the Construction of Flutes, Über den Flötenbau. Frits Knuf Buren, Amsterdam, Neth-
erlands, 1982.

Boehm, T. (1871). The Flute and Flute-Playing. Dover Publications, Inc., New York, 1964.

Boyer, H.E., and Gall, T.L., Editors (1984). Metals Handbook, Desk Edition. American Society for Metals,
Metals Park, Ohio, 1989.

Bray, A., Barbato, G., and Levi, R. (1990). Theory and Practice of Force Measurement. Academic Press, San
Diego, California.

Burkert, W. (1962). Lore and Science in Ancient Pythagoreanism. Translated by E.L. Minar, Jr. Harvard
University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1972.

Cadillac Plastic Buyer’s Guide. Cadillac Plastic and Chemical Company, Troy, Michigan, 1986.

Campbell, M., and Greated, C. (1987). The Musician’s Guide to Acoustics. Schirmer Books, New York,
1988.

Capstick, J.W. (1913). Sound. Cambridge University Press, London, England, 1932.

Chapman, R.E., Translator (1957). Harmonie universelle: The Books on Instruments, by Marin Mersenne.
Martinus Nijhoff, The Hague, Netherlands.

861
862 Bibliography

Cohen, H.F. (1984). Quantifying Music. D. Reidel Publishing Company, Dordrecht, Netherlands.

Coltman, J.W. (1979). Acoustical analysis of the Boehm flute. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America
65, No. 2, pp. 499–506.

Cremer, L., Heckl, M., and Ungar, E.E. (1973). Structure-Borne Sound, 2nd ed. Springer-Verlag, Berlin and
New York, 1988.

Cremer, L. (1981). The Physics of the Violin, 2nd ed. The MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1984.

Crew, H., and De Salvio, A., Translators (1914). Dialogues Concerning Two New Sciences, by Galileo Galilei.
Dover Publications, Inc., New York.

D’Addario Brochure (2007). “Catalog Supplement/String Tension Specifications.” Online publication,

pp. 1–14. J. D’Addario & Company, Inc., Farmingdale, New York.

Den Hartog, J.P. (1934). Mechanical Vibrations. Dover Publications, Inc., New York, 1985.

Den Hartog, J.P. (1948). Mechanics. Dover Publications, Inc., New York, 1984.

D’Erlanger, R., Bakkouch, .., and Al-Sans, M., Translators (Vol. 1, 1930; Vol. 2, 1935; Vol. 3, 1938;
Vol. 4, 1939; Vol. 5, 1949; Vol. 6, 1959). La Musique Arabe. Librairie Orientaliste Paul Geuthner, Paris,
France.

Diels, H. (1903). Die Fragmente der Vorsokratiker, Griechisch und Deutsch. Three Volumes. Weidmannsche
Verlagsbuchhandlung, Berlin, Germany, 1951.

D’Ooge, M.L., Translator (1926). Nicomachus of Gerasa: Introduction to Arithmetic. The Macmillan Com-
pany, New York.

Dunlop, J.I. (1981). Testing of poles by using acoustic pulse method. Wood Science and Technology 15,
pp. 301–310.

Du Pont Bulletin: “Tynex 612 Nylon Filament.” Du Pont Company, Wilmington, Delaware.

Düring, I., Translator (1934). Ptolemaios und Porphyrios über die Musik. Georg Olms Verlag, Hildesheim,
Germany, 1987.

Einarson, B., Translator (1967). On Music, by Plutarch. In Plutarch’s Moralia, Volume 14. Harvard Univer-
sity Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts.

Elmore, W.C., and Heald, M.A. (1969). Physics of Waves. Dover Publications, Inc. New York, 1985.

Fenner, K., On the Calculation of the Tension of Wound Strings, 2nd ed. Verlag Das Musikinstrument, Frank-
furt, Germany, 1976.

Fishbane, P.M., Gasiorowicz, S., and Thornton, S.T. (1993). Physics for Scientists and Engineers. Prentice-
Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey.

Fletcher, H., Blackham, E.D., and Stratton, R.S. (1962). Quality of piano tones. Journal of the Acoustical
Society of America 34, No. 6, pp. 749–761.

Fletcher, H. (1964). Normal vibration frequencies of a stiff piano string. Journal of the Acoustical Society of
America 36, No. 1, pp. 203–209.

Fletcher, N.H., and Rossing, T.D. (1991). The Physics of Musical Instruments, 2nd ed. Springer-Verlag, Ber-
lin and New York, 1998.
 Bibliography: Chapters 1–9 863

Fogiel, M., Editor (1980). The Strength of Materials & Mechanics of Solids Problem Solver. Research and
Education Association, Piscataway, New Jersey, 1990.

Goodway, M., and Odell, J.S. (1987). The Historical Harpsichord, Volume Two: The Metallurgy of 17th– and
18th–Century Music Wire. Pendragon Press, Stuyvesant, New York.

Gray, D.E., Editor (1957). American Institute of Physics Handbook, 3rd ed. McGraw-Hill Book Company,
New York, 1972.

Halliday, D., and Resnick, R. (1970). Fundamentals of Physics, 2nd ed. John Wiley & Sons, New York,
1981.

Hamilton, E., and Cairns, H., Editors (1963). The Collected Dialogues of Plato. Random House, Inc., New
York, 1966.

Helmholtz, H.L.F., and Ellis A.J., Translator (1885). On the Sensations of Tone. Dover Publications, Inc.,
New York, 1954.

Hoadley, R.B. (1980). Understanding Wood. The Taunton Press, Newtown, Connecticut, 1981.

Hubbard, F. (1965). Three Centuries of Harpsichord Making, 4th ed. Harvard University Press, Cambridge,
Massachusetts, 1972.

Ingard, U. (1953). On the theory and design of acoustic resonators. Journal of the Acoustical Society of
America 25, No. 6, pp. 1037–1061.

Ingard, K.U. (1988). Fundamentals of Waves and Oscillations. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, Mas-
sachusetts, 1990.

Jan, K. von, Editor (1895). Musici Scriptores Graeci. Lipsiae, in aedibus B.G. Teubneri.

Jerrard, H.G., and McNeill, D.B. (1963). Dictionary of Scientific Units, 6th ed. Chapman and Hall, London,
England, 1992.

Jones, A.T. (1941). End corrections of organ pipes. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 12,
pp. 387–394.

Kinsler, L.E., and Frey, A.R. (1950). Fundamentals of Acoustics, 2nd ed. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York,
1962.

Klein, H.A. (1974). The Science of Measurement. Dover Publications, Inc., New York, 1988.

Land, F. (1960). The Language of Mathematics. Doubleday & Company, Inc., Garden City, New York.

Lemon, H.B., and Ference, M., Jr. (1943). Analytical Experimental Physics. The University of Chicago Press,
Chicago, Illinois.

Levin, F.R., Translator (1994). The Manual of Harmonics, of Nicomachus the Pythagorean. Phanes Press,
Grand Rapids, Michigan.

Liddell, H.G., and Scott, R. (1843). A Greek-English Lexicon. The Clarendon Press, Oxford, England, 1992.

Lide, D.R., Editor (1918). CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 73rd ed. CRC Press, Boca Raton,
Florida, 1992.

Lindeburg, M.R. (1988). Engineering Unit Conversions, 2nd ed. Professional Publications, Inc., Belmont,
California, 1990.
864 Bibliography

Lindeburg, M.R. (1990). Engineer-in-Training Reference Manual, 8th ed. Professional Publications, Inc.,
Belmont, California, 1992.

Lindley, M. (1987). “Stimmung und Temperatur.” In Geschichte der Musiktheorie, Volume 6, F. Zaminer,
Editor. Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, Darmstadt, Germany.

McLeish, J. (1991). Number. Bloomsbury Publishing Limited, London, England.

Moore, J.L. (1971). Acoustics of Bar Percussion Instruments. Ph.D. dissertation printed and distributed by
University Microfilms, Inc., Ann Arbor, Michigan.

Morse, P.M., and Ingard, K.U. (1968). Theoretical Acoustics. Princeton University Press, Princeton, New
Jersey, 1986.

Nash, W.A. (1957). Strength of Materials, 3rd ed. Schaum’s Outline Series, McGraw-Hill, Inc., New York,
1994.

Nederveen, C.J. (1969). Acoustical Aspects of Woodwind Instruments. Frits Knuf, Amsterdam, Netherlands.

Nederveen, C.J. (1973). Blown, passive and calculated resonance frequencies of the flute. Acustica 28,
pp. 12–23.

Newton, R.E.I. (1990). Wave Physics. Edward Arnold, a division of Hodder & Stoughton, London, Eng-
land.

Norton, M.P. (1989). Fundamentals of Noise and Vibration Analysis for Engineers. Cambridge University
Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts.

Oberg, E., Jones, F.D., Horton, H.L., and Ryffel, H.H. (1914). Machinery’s Handbook, 24th ed. Industrial
Press Inc., New York, 1992.

Olson, H.F. (1952). Music, Physics and Engineering, 2nd ed. Dover Publications, Inc., New York, 1967.

Pierce, A.D. (1981). Acoustics. Acoustical Society of America, Woodbury, New York. 1991.

Pierce, J.R. (1983). The Science of Musical Sound. Scientific American Books, W.H. Freeman and Company,
New York.

Pikler, A.G. (1966). Logarithmic frequency systems. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 39, No. 6,
pp. 1102–1110.

Rao, S.S. (1986). Mechanical Vibrations, 2nd ed. Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Reading, Massachu-
setts, 1990.

Richardson, E.G. (1929). The Acoustics of Orchestral Instruments and of the Organ. Edward Arnold & Co.,
London, England.

Rossing, T.D. (1989). The Science of Sound, 2nd ed. Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., Inc., Reading, Mas-
sachusetts, 1990.

Sadie, S., Editor (1984). The New Grove Dictionary of Musical Instruments. Macmillan Press Limited, Lon-
don, England.

Schlesinger, K. (1939). The Greek Aulos. Methuen & Co. Ltd., London, England.

Schuck, O.H., and Young, R.W. (1943). Observations on the vibrations of piano strings. Journal of the Acous-
tical Society of America 15, No. 1, pp. 1–11.
 Bibliography: Chapters 1–9 865

Sears, F.W., Zemansky, M.W., and Young, H.D., University Physics, 7th ed. Addison-Wesley Publishing
Company, Reading, Massachusetts, 1988.

Skudrzyk, E. (1968). Simple and Complex Vibratory Systems. Pennsylvania State University Press, University
Park, Pennsylvania, 1981.

Smith, D.E. (1925). History of Mathematics. Two Volumes. Dover Publications, Inc., New York, 1958.

Standards Handbook, Part 2 — Alloy Data, Wrought Copper and Copper Alloy Mill Products, Eighth Edition,
Copper Development Association, Inc., Greenwich, Connecticut, 1985.

Stauss, H.E., Martin, F.E., and Billington, D.S. (1951). A piezoelectric method for determining Young’s
modulus and its temperature dependence. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 23, No. 6,
pp. 695–696.

Steinkopf, O. (1983). Zur Akustik der Blasinstrumente. Moeck Verlag, Celle, Germany.

Stiller, A. (1985). Handbook of Instrumentation. University of California Press, Berkeley, California.

Suzuki, H. (1986). Vibration and sound radiation of a piano soundboard. Journal of the Acoustical Society of
America 80, No. 6, pp. 1573–1582.

Thompson, S.P. (1910). Calculus Made Easy, 3rd ed. St. Martin’s Press, New York, 1984.

Timoshenko, S., and Woinowsky-Krieger, S. (1940). Theory of Plates and Shells, 2nd ed., McGraw-Hill Book
Company, New York, 1959.

Timoshenko, S.P. (1953). History of Strength of Materials. Dover Publications, Inc., New York, 1983.

Towne, D.H. (1967). Wave Phenomena. Dover Publications, Inc., New York, 1988.

Tropfke, J. (1921). Geschichte der Elementar-Mathematik. Seven Volumes. Vereinigung Wissenschaftlicher

Verleger, Walter de Gruyter & Co., Berlin and Leipzig, Germany.

U.S. Business and Defense Services Administration (1956). Materials Survey: Aluminum. Department of
Commerce, Washington, D.C.

Weaver, W., Jr., Timoshenko, S.P., and Young, D.H., Vibration Problems in Engineering, 5th ed. John Wiley
and Sons, New York, 1990.

White, W.B. (1917). Piano Tuning and Allied Arts, 5th ed. Tuners Supply Company, Boston, Massachusetts,
1972.

Wogram, K. (1981). Akustische Untersuchungen an Klavieren. Teil I: Schwingungseigenschaften des Reso-

nanzbodens. Das Musikinstrument 24, pp. 694–702, 776–782, 872–879. English translation: Acoustical
research on pianos. Part I: Vibrational characteristics of the soundboard. In Musical Acoustics: Selected
Reprints, T.D. Rossing, Editor, pp. 85–98. American Association of Physics Teachers, College Park,
Maryland, 1988.

Wolfenden, S. (1916). A Treatise on the Art of Pianoforte Construction. The British Piano Museum Chari-
table Trust, Brentford, Middlesex, England, 1975.

Wood, A.B. (1930). A Textbook of Sound. The Macmillan Company, New York, 1937.

Wood, A. (1940). Acoustics. Dover Publications, Inc., New York, 1966.

866 Bibliography

Young, R.W. (1952). Inharmonicity of plain wire piano strings. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America
24, No. 3, pp. 267–272.

Zanoncelli, L., Translator (1990). La Manualistica Musicale Greca. Angelo Guerini e Associati, Milan, Italy.

Zebrowski, E., Jr. (1979). Fundamentals of Physical Measurement. Duxbury Press, Belmont, California.

Chapter 10

Adkins, C.D. (1963). The Theory and Practice of the Monochord. Ph.D. dissertation printed and distributed
by University Microfilms, Inc., Ann Arbor, Michigan.

Al-Faruqi, L.I. (1974). The Nature of the Musical Art of Islamic Culture: A Theoretical and Empirical Study
of Arabian Music. Ph.D. dissertation printed and distributed by University Microfilms, Inc., Ann Arbor,
Michigan.

Asselin, P. (1985). Musique et Tempérament. Éditions Costallat, Paris, France.

Barbera, C.A. (1977). Arithmetic and geometric divisions of the tetrachord. Journal of Music Theory 21, No.
2, pp. 294–323.

Barbera, A., Translator (1991). The Euclidean Division of the Canon: Greek and Latin Sources. University of
Nebraska Press, Lincoln, Nebraska.

Barbour, J.M. (1933). The persistence of the Pythagorean tuning system. Scripta Mathematica, Vol. 1,
pp. 286–304.

Barbour, J.M. (1951). Tuning and Temperament. Da Capo Press, New York, 1972.

Barker, A., Translator (1989). Greek Musical Writings. Two Volumes. Cambridge University Press, Cam-
bridge, England.

Barnes, J. (1979). Bach’s keyboard temperament. Early Music 7, No. 2, pp. 236–249.

Beck, C., Translator (1868). Flores musice omnis cantus Gregoriani, by Hugo Spechtshart [von Reutlingen].
Bibliothek des Litterarischen Vereins, Stuttgart, Germany.

Bower, C.M., Translator (1989). Fundamentals of Music, by A.M.S. Boethius. Yale University Press, New
Haven, Connecticut.

Briscoe, R.L., Translator (1975). Rameau’s “Démonstration du principe de l’harmonie” and “Nouvelles reflec-
tions de M. Rameau sur sa démonstration du principe de l’harmonie:” An Annotated Translation of Two
Treatises by Jean-Philippe Rameau. Ph.D. dissertation printed and distributed by University Microfilms,
Inc., Ann Arbor, Michigan.

Brun, V. (1964). Euclidean algorithms and musical theory. L’Enseignement Mathématique X, pp. 125–137.

Burkert, W. (1962). Lore and Science in Ancient Pythagoreanism. Translated by E.L. Minar, Jr. Harvard
University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1972.

Chalmers, J.H., Jr. (1993). Divisions of the Tetrachord. Frog Peak Music, Hanover, New Hampshire.

Chandler, B.G., Translator (1975). Rameau’s “Nouveau système de musique théorique:” An Annotated Trans-
lation with Commentary. Ph.D. dissertation printed and distributed by University Microfilms, Inc., Ann
Arbor, Michigan.
 Bibliography: Chapter 10 867

Chapman, R.E., Translator (1957). Harmonie universelle: The Books on Instruments, by Marin Mersenne.
Martinus Nijhoff, The Hague, Netherlands.

Coelho, V., Editor (1992). Music and Science in the Age of Galileo. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht,
Netherlands.

Cohen, H.F. (1984). Quantifying Music. D. Reidel Publishing Company, Dordrecht, Netherlands.

Compact Edition of the Oxford English Dictionary. Oxford University Press, Oxford, England, 1974.

Crew, H., and De Salvio, A., Translators (1914). Dialogues Concerning Two New Sciences, by Galileo Galilei.
Dover Publications, Inc., New York.

Crocker, R.L. (1963). Pythagorean mathematics and music. The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism
XXII, No. 2, Part I: pp. 189–198, and No. 3, Part II: pp. 325–335.

Crocker, R.L. (1966). “Aristoxenus and Greek Mathematics.” In Aspects of Medieval and Renaissance Music:
A Birthday Offering to Gustave Reese, J. LaRue, Editor. Pendragon Press, New York.

Crone, E., Editor; Fokker, A.D., Music Editor; Dikshoorn, C., Translator (1966). The Principal Works of
Simon Stevin. Five Volumes. C.V. Swets & Zeitlinger, Amsterdam.

Crookes, D.Z., Translator (1986). Syntagma musicum II: De organographia, Parts I and II, by Michael Prae-
torius. The Clarendon Press, Oxford, England.

Daniels, A.M. (1962). The De musica libri VII of Francisco de Salinas. Ph.D. dissertation printed and distrib-
uted by University Microfilms, Inc., Ann Arbor, Michigan.

De Haan, D.B., Publisher (1884). Vande Spiegeling der Singconst, by Simon Stevin. Amsterdam.

D’Erlanger, R., Bakkouch, .., and Al-Sans, M., Translators (Vol. 1, 1930; Vol. 2, 1935; Vol. 3, 1938; Vol. 4,
1939; Vol. 5, 1949; Vol. 6, 1959). La Musique Arabe, Librairie Orientaliste Paul Geuthner, Paris, France.

Diels, H. (1903). Die Fragmente der Vorsokratiker, Griechisch und Deutsch. Three Volumes. Weidmannsche
Verlagsbuchhandlung, Berlin, Germany, 1951.

D’Ooge, M.L., Translator (1926). Nicomachus of Gerasa: Introduction to Arithmetic. The Macmillan Com-
pany, New York.

Dupont, W. (1935). Geschichte der musikalischen Temperatur. C.H. Beck’sche Buchdruckerei, Nördlingen,
Germany.

Düring, I., Editor (1930). Die Harmonielehre des Klaudios Ptolemaios. Original Greek text of Ptolemy’s
Harmonics. Wettergren & Kerbers Förlag, Göteborg, Sweden.

Düring, I., Translator (1934). Ptolemaios und Porphyrios über die Musik. Georg Olms Verlag, Hildesheim,
Germany, 1987.

Farmer, H.G. (1965). The Sources of Arabian Music. E.J. Brill, Leiden, Netherlands.

Farmer, H.G., Translator (1965). Al-Farabi’s Arabic-Latin Writings on Music. Hinrichsen Edition Ltd., New
York.

Fend, M., Translator (1989). Theorie des Tonsystems: Das erste und zweite Buch der Istitutioni harmoniche
(1573), von Gioseffo Zarlino. Peter Lang, Frankfurt am Main, Germany.

Fernandez de la Cuesta, I., Translator (1983). Siete libros sobre la musica, by Francisco Salinas. Editorial
Alpuerto, Madrid, Spain.
868 Bibliography

Flegg, G., Hay, C., and Moss, B., Translators (1985). Nicolas Chuquet, Renaissance Mathematician. D. Reidel
Publishing Company, Dordrecht, Holland.

Forster, C. (2015). “The Partch Hoax Doctrines.” Online article, pp. 1–24. The Chrysalis Foundation, San
Francisco, California.

Gossett, P., Translator (1971). Traité de l’harmonie [Treatise on Harmony], by Jean-Philippe Rameau. Dover
Publications, Inc., New York.

Green, B.L. (1969). The Harmonic Series From Mersenne to Rameau: An Historical Study of Circumstances
Leading to Its Recognition and Application to Music. Ph.D. dissertation printed and distributed by Uni-
versity Microfilms, Inc., Ann Arbor, Michigan.

Guthrie, K.S., Translator (1987). The Pythagorean Sourcebook and Library. Phanes Press, Grand Rapids,
Michigan.

Hamilton, E., and Cairns, H., Editors (1966). The Collected Dialogues of Plato. Random House, Inc., New York.

Hawkins, J. (1853). A General History of the Science and Practice of Music. Dover Publications, Inc., New
York, 1963.

Hayes, D., Translator (1968). Rameau’s Theory of Harmonic Generation; An Annotated Translation and
Commentary of “Génération harmonique” by Jean-Philippe Rameau. Ph.D. dissertation printed and dis-
tributed by University Microfilms, Inc., Ann Arbor, Michigan.

Heath, T.L., Translator (1908). Euclid’s Elements. Dover Publications, Inc., New York, 1956.

Heath, T. (1921). A History of Greek Mathematics. Dover Publications, Inc., New York, 1981.

Hitti, P.K. (1937). History of the Arabs. Macmillan and Co. Ltd., London, England, 1956.

Hubbard, F. (1965). Three Centuries of Harpsichord Making, 4th ed. Harvard University Press, Cambridge,
Massachusetts, 1972.

Hyde, F.B. (1954). The Position of Marin Mersenne in the History of Music. Two Volumes. Ph.D. disserta-
tion printed and distributed by University Microfilms, Inc., Ann Arbor, Michigan.

Ibn Sn (Avicenna): Auicene perhypatetici philosophi: ac medicorum facile primi opera in luce redacta... This
Latin translation was published in 1508. Facsimile Edition: Minerva, Frankfurt am Main, Germany, 1961.

Jacobi, E.R., Editor (1968). Jean-Philippe Rameau (1683–1764): Complete Theoretical Writings. American
Institute of Musicology, [Rome, Italy].

James, G., and James, R.C. (1976). Mathematics Dictionary, 4th ed. Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York.

Jorgensen, O. (1977). Tuning the Historical Temperaments by Ear. The Northern Michigan University Press,
Marquette, Michigan.

Jorgenson, D.A. (1957). A History of Theories of the Minor Triad. Ph.D. dissertation printed and distributed
by University Microfilms, Inc., Ann Arbor, Michigan.

Jorgenson, D.A. (1963). A résumé of harmonic dualism. Music and Letters XLIV, No. 1, pp. 31–42.

Kastner, M.S., Editor (1958). De musica libri VII, by Francisco Salinas. Facsimile Edition. Bärenreiter-
Verlag, Kassel, Germany.

Kelleher, J.E. (1993). Zarlino’s “Dimostrationi harmoniche” and Demonstrative Methodologies in the Six-
teenth Century. Ph.D. dissertation printed and distributed by University Microfilms, Inc., Ann Arbor,
Michigan.
 Bibliography: Chapter 10 869

Lawlor, R. and D., Translators (1978). Mathematics Useful for Understanding Plato, by Theon of Smyrna.
Wizards Bookshelf, San Diego, California, 1979.

Levin, F.R., Translator (1994). The Manual of Harmonics, of Nicomachus the Pythagorean. Phanes Press,
Grand Rapids, Michigan.

Lindley, M. (1984). Lutes, Viols and Temperaments. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, England.

Litchfield, M. (1988). Aristoxenus and empiricism: A reevaluation based on his theories. Journal of Music
Theory 32, No. 1, pp. 51–73.

Mackenzie, D.C., Translator (1950). Harmonic Introduction, by Cleonides. In Source Readings in Music His-
tory, O. Strunk, Editor. W. W. Norton & Company, Inc., New York.

Macran, H.S., Translator (1902). The Harmonics of Aristoxenus. Georg Olms Verlag, Hildesheim, Germany,
1990.

Marcuse, S. (1964). Musical Instruments: A Comprehensive Dictionary. W. W. Norton & Company, Inc.,
New York, 1975.

Maxham, R.E., Translator (1976). The Contributions of Joseph Sauveur to Acoustics. Two Volumes. Ph.D.
dissertation printed and distributed by University Microfilms, Inc., Ann Arbor, Michigan.

Mersenne, M. (1636–37). Harmonie universelle contenant la théorie et la pratique de la musique. Three Vol-
umes. Facsimile Edition. Éditions du Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Paris, France, 1963.

Meyer, M.F. (1929). The Musician’s Arithmetic. Oliver Ditson Company, Boston, Massachusetts.

Miller, C.A., Translator (1993). Musica practica, by Bartolomeo Ramis de Pareia. Hänssler-Verlag, Neuhausen-
Stuttgart, Germany.

Niven, I. (1961). Numbers: Rational and Irrational. Random House, New York.

Palisca, C.V. (1961). “Scientific Empiricism in Musical Thought.” In Seventeenth Century Science and the
Arts, H.H. Rhys, Editor. Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey.

Palisca, C.V. (1985). Humanism in Italian Renaissance Musical Thought. Yale University Press, New Haven,
Connecticut.

Palisca, C.V., Translator (2003). Dialogue on Ancient and Modern Music, by Vincenzo Galilei. Yale Univer-
sity Press, New Haven, Connecticut.

Partch, H. (1949). Genesis of a Music, 2nd ed. Da Capo Press, New York, 1974.

Rameau, J.P. (1722). Traité de l’harmonie reduite à ses principes naturels. Facsimile Edition. Biblioteca
Nacional de Madrid, Spain, 1984.

Rasch, R., Editor (1983). Musicalische Temperatur, by Andreas Werckmeister. The Diapason Press, Utrecht,
Netherlands.

Rasch, R., Editor (1984). Collected Writings on Musical Acoustics, by Joseph Sauveur. The Diapason Press,
Utrecht, Netherlands.

Rasch, R., Editor (1986). Le cycle harmonique (1691), Novus cyclus harmonicus (1724), by Christiaan Huy-
gens. The Diapason Press, Utrecht, Netherlands.

Reichenbach, H. (1951). The Rise of Scientific Philosophy. The University of California Press, Berkeley and
Los Angeles, California, 1958.
870 Bibliography

Roberts, F. (1692). A discourse concerning the musical notes of the trumpet, and the trumpet-marine,
and of the defects of the same. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London XVII,
pp. 559–563.

Rossing, T.D. (1989). The Science of Sound, 2nd ed. Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., Inc., Reading, Mas-
sachusetts, 1990.

Sadie, S., Editor (1980). The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians. Macmillan Publishers Limited,
London, England, 1995.

Shirlaw, M. (1917). The Theory of Harmony. Da Capo Press Reprint Edition. Da Capo Press, New York,
1969.

Solomon, J., Translator (2000). Ptolemy Harmonics. Brill, Leiden, Netherlands.

Soukhanov, A.H., Executive Editor (1992). The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, 3rd
ed. Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston, Massachusetts.

Stephan, B. (1991). Geometry: Plane and Practical. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Publishers, San Diego, Cali-
fornia.

Truesdell, C. (1960). The Rational Mechanics of Flexible or Elastic Bodies: 1638–1788. Orell Füssli, Zürich,
Switzerland.

Wallis, J. (1677). Dr. Wallis’ letter to the publisher, concerning a new musical discovery. Philosophical Trans-
actions of the Royal Society of London XII, pp. 839–842.

West, M.L. (1992). Ancient Greek Music. The Clarendon Press, Oxford, England, 1994.

White, W.B. (1917). Piano Tuning and Allied Arts, 5th ed. Tuners Supply Company, Boston, Massachusetts,
1972.

Wienpahl, R.W. (1959). Zarlino, the Senario, and tonality. Journal of the American Musicological Society
XII, No. 1, pp. 27–41.

Williams, R.F., Translator (1972). Marin Mersenne: An Edited Translation of the Fourth Treatise of the “Har-
monie universelle.” Three Volumes. Ph.D. dissertation printed and distributed by University Microfilms,
Inc., Ann Arbor, Michigan.

Williamson, C. (1938). The frequency ratios of the tempered scale. Journal of the Acoustical Society of
America 10, pp. 135–136.

Winnington-Ingram, R.P. (1932). Aristoxenus and the intervals of Greek music. The Classical Quarterly
XXVI, Nos. 3–4, pp. 195–208.

Winnington-Ingram, R.P. (1936). Mode in Ancient Greek Music. Cambridge University Press, London, Eng-
land.

Winnington-Ingram, R.P. (1954). “Greek Music (Ancient).” In Grove’s Dictionary of Music and Musicians,
Volume 3, 5th ed., E. Blom, Editor. St. Martin’s Press, Inc., New York, 1970.

Zarlino, R.M.G. (1571). Dimostrationi harmoniche. Facsimile Edition, The Gregg Press Incorporated, Ridge-
wood, New Jersey, 1966.

Zarlino, R.M.G. (1573). Istitutioni harmoniche. Facsimile Edition, The Gregg Press Limited, Farnborough,
Hants., England, 1966.
 Bibliography: Chapter 11 871

Chapter 11

Chinese Music

Apel, W., Editor (1944). Harvard Dictionary of Music, 2nd ed. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mas-
sachusetts, 1972.

Gulik, R.H., Translator (1941). Poetical Essay on the Lute, by Hsi K’ang. In Gulik’s Hsi K’ang and His Poeti-
cal Essay on the Lute, Sophia University, Tokyo, Japan.

Kaufmann, W. (1967). Musical Notations of the Orient. Indiana University Press, Bloomington, Indiana.

Kaufmann, W. (1976). Musical References in the Chinese Classics. Detroit Monographs in Musicology, De-
troit, Michigan.

Kuttner, F.A. (1965). A musicological interpretation of the twelve lüs in China’s traditional tone system.
Journal of the Society for Ethnomusicology IX, No. 1, pp. 22–38.

Lieberman, F., Translator (1977). The Mei-an Ch’in-p’u, by Hsü Li-sun. In Lieberman’s The Chinese Long
Zither Ch’in: A Study Based on the Mei-an Ch’in-p’u. Ph.D. dissertation printed and distributed by
University Microfilms, Inc., Ann Arbor, Michigan.

Lieberman, F., Translator (1983). The Mei-an Ch’in-p’u, by Hsü Li-sun. In Lieberman’s A Chinese Zither
Tutor. University of Washington Press, Seattle, Washington.

Lui, T. (1968). A short guide to ch’in. Selected Reports I, No. 2, pp. 180–201. Publication of the Institute of
Ethnomusicology of the University of California at Los Angeles.

Needham, J. (1962). Science and Civilization in China, Volume 4, Part I. Cambridge University Press, Cam-
bridge, England.

Reinhard, K. (1956). Chinesische Musik, 2nd ed. Im Erich Röth-Verlag, Kassel, Germany.

Robinson, K. (1980). A Critical Study of Chu Tsai-yü’s Contribution to the Theory of Equal Temperament in
Chinese Music. Franz Steiner Verlag GmbH, Wiesbaden, Germany.

Sachs, C. (1940). The History of Musical Instruments. W. W. Norton & Company, Inc., New York.

Sadie, S., Editor (1980). The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians. Macmillan Publishers Limited,
London, England, 1995.

Wang, L., and Needham, J. (1955). Horner’s Method in Chinese Mathematics: Its origins in the root-extraction
procedures of the Han Dynasty. T’oung Pao Archives XLIII, No. 5, pp. 345–401. Leiden, Netherlands.

Wang, K. (1956). Chung-kuo yin yueh shih. Taipei, Formosa: Chung hua shu chu.

Indonesian Music

Apel, W., Editor (1944). Harvard Dictionary of Music, 2nd ed. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mas-
sachusetts, 1972.

Blom, E., Editor (1954). Grove’s Dictionary of Music and Musicians, 5th ed. St. Martin’s Press, Inc., New
York, 1970.

Hood, M. (1954). The Nuclear Theme as a Determinant of Patet in Javanese Music. Da Capo Press, Inc.,
New York, 1977.
872 Bibliography

Hood, M. (1966). Sléndro and pélog redefined. Selected Reports I, No. 1, pp. 28–48. Publication of the Insti-
tute of Ethnomusicology of the University of California at Los Angeles.

Lentz, D.A. (1965). The Gamelan Music of Java and Bali. University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln, Nebraska.

Martopangrawit, R.L. (1972). Catatan-Catatan Pengetahuan Karawitan [Notes on Knowledge of Gamelan

Music], translated by M.F. Hatch. In Karawitan, Volume 1, J. Becker and A.H. Feinstein, Editors. Center
for South and Southeast Asian Studies, The University of Michigan, 1984.

McDermott, V., and Sumarsam (1975). Central Javanese music: The patet of laras sléndro and the gendèr
barung. Journal of the Society for Ethnomusicology XIX, No. 2, pp. 233–244.

McPhee, C. (1966). Music in Bali: A Study in Form and Instrumental Organization in Balinese Orchestral
Music. Yale University Press, New Haven, Connecticut.

Ornstein, R.S. (1971). Gamelan Gong Kebjar: The Development of a Balinese Musical Tradition. Ph.D. dis-
sertation printed and distributed by University Microfilms, Inc., Ann Arbor, Michigan.

Poerbapangrawit, R.M.K. (1955). Gendhing Jawa [Javanese Gamelan Music], translated by J. Becker. In
Karawitan, Volume 1, J. Becker and A.H. Feinstein, Editors. Center for South and Southeast Asian Stud-
ies, The University of Michigan, 1984.

Rai, I, W. (1996). Balinese Gamelan Semar Pagulingan Saih Pitu: The Modal System. Ph.D. dissertation
printed and distributed by University Microfilms, Inc., Ann Arbor, Michigan.

Randel, D.M., Editor (1986). The New Harvard Dictionary of Music, 6th ed. The Belknap Press of Harvard
University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1993.

Sadie, S., Editor (1984). The New Grove Dictionary of Musical Instruments. Macmillan Press Limited, Lon-
don, England.

Schaareman, D., Editor (1992). Balinese Music in Context: A Sixty-fifth Birthday Tribute to Hans Oesch.
Amadeus Verlag, Winterthur, Switzerland.

Sindoesawarno, K. (1955). Ilmu Karawitan [Knowledge About Gamelan Music], translated by M.F. Hatch.
In Karawitan, Volume 2, J. Becker and A.H. Feinstein, Editors. Center for South and Southeast Asian
Studies, The University of Michigan, 1987.

Sumarsam (1975). Gendèr barung, its technique and function in the context of Javanese gamelan. Indonesia
20, pp. 161–172.

Sumarsam (1992). Gamelan: Cultural Interaction and Musical Development in Central Java. The University
of Chicago Press, Chicago, Illinois, 1995.

Surjodiningrat, W., Sudarjana, P.J., and Susanto, A. (1972). Tone Measurements of Outstanding Javanese
Gamelans in Jogjakarta and Surakarta, 2nd ed. Gadjah Mada University Press, Jogjakarta, Indonesia.

Tenzer, M. (2000). Gamelan Gong Kebyar: The Art of Twentieth-Century Balinese Music. The University of
Chicago Press, Chicago, Illinois.

Toth, A.F. (1975). The Gamelan Luang of Tangkas, Bali. Selected Reports II, No. 2, pp. 65–79. Publication
of the Institute of Ethnomusicology of the University of California at Los Angeles.

Toth, A.F. (1993). “Selera Yang Selaras: Pepatutan Gong Ditinjau Dari Segi Akustika dan Estetika.” Mudra:
Jurnal Seni Budaya, pp. 92–117. Edisi Khusus.
 Bibliography: Chapter 11 873

Indian Music

Aiyar, M.S.R., Translator (1932). Svaramelakalanidhi, by Rmmtya. The Annamalai University, India.

Ayyar, C.S. (1939). The Grammar of South Indian (Karnatic) Music. Smt. Vidya Shankar, Madras, India,
1976.

Bhandarkar, R.S.P.R. (1912). Contribution to the study of ancient Hindu music. The Indian Antiquary XLI,
pp. 157–164, pp. 185–195, pp. 254–265.

Bhandarkar, R.S.P.R. (1913–1914). Kuimiymalai inscription on music. Epigraphia Indica XII, No. 28,
pp. 226–237.

Bhatkhande, V.N. (1930). A Comparative Study of Some of the Leading Music Systems of the 15th, 16th, 17th,
and 18th Centuries. Indian Musicological Society, Baroda, India, 1972.

Bhise, U.R., Translator (1986). Naradiya Siksa, by Nrada. Bhandarkar Institute Press, Poona, India.

Coomaraswamy, A.K. (1930). The parts of a vina. Journal of the American Oriental Society 50, No. 3,
pp. 244–253.

Gangoly, O.C. (1935). Ragas and Raginis. Nalanda Publications, Bombay, India, 1948.

Ghosh, M., Translator (Vol. 1, Ch. 1–27, 1950; Vol. 2, Ch. 28–36, 1961). The Natyasastra, by Bharata. Bib-
liotheca Indica, The Asiatic Society, Calcutta, India.

Iyer, T.L.V. (1940). The scheme of 72 melas in Carnatic Music. The Journal of the Music Academy XI, Parts
I–IV, pp. 80–86, Madras, India.

Jairazbhoy, N.A. (1971). The Rags of North Indian Music. Wesleyan University Press, Middletown, Con-
necticut.

Jairazbhoy, N.A. (1975). An interpretation of the 22 srutis. Asian Music VI, Nos. 1–2, pp. 38–59.

Junius, M.M. (1974). The Sitar. Heinrichshofen’s Verlag, Wilhelmshaven, Germany.

Kaufmann, W. (1968). The Ragas of North India. Indiana University Press, Bloomington, Indiana.

Kaufmann, W. (1976). The Ragas of South India. Indiana University Press, Bloomington, Indiana.

Krishnaswamy, A. (1981). Melakarta and Janya Raga Chart. Sakthi Priya Publication, Madras, India.

Lath, M., Translator (1978). A Study of Dattilam: A Treatise on the Sacred Music of Ancient India. Impex
India, New Delhi, India.

Marcotty, T. (1974). Djovari: Giving Life to the Sitar. This essay on how to make a parabolic sitar bridge is
in The Sitar, by Manfred M. Junius. Heinrichshofen’s Verlag, Wilhelmshaven, Germany.

Nijenhuis, E.W., Translator (1970). Dattilam: A Compendium of Ancient Indian Music. E. J. Brill, Leiden,
Netherlands.

Powers, H.S. (1958). The Background of the South Indian Raga-System. Ph.D. dissertation printed and dis-
tributed by University Microfilms, Inc., Ann Arbor, Michigan.

Ramachandran, K.V. (1938). The melakarta — a critique. The Journal of the Music Academy IX, Parts I–IV,
pp. 31–33, Madras, India.

Ramachandran, K.V. (1950). Carnatic ragas from a new angle — Sankarabharana. The Journal of the Music
Academy XXI, Parts I–IV, pp. 88–99, Madras, India.
874 Bibliography

Ramachandran, K.V. (1950). Carnatic ragas and the textual tradition. The Journal of the Music Academy
XXI, Parts I–IV, pp. 99–106, Madras, India.

Ramachandran, K.V. (1950). Apurva ragas of Tygarja’s songs. The Journal of the Music Academy XXI,
Parts I–IV, pp. 107–109, Madras, India.

Ramachandran, N.S. (1938). The Ragas of Karnatic Music. University of Madras, Madras, India.

Rao, T.V.S. (1945 and 1946). The ragas of the Sangita Saramrita. The Journal of the Music Academy XVI,
Parts I–IV, pp. 45–64, and XVII, Parts I–IV, pp. 104–134, Madras, India.

Rowell, L. (1981). Early Indian musical speculation and the theory of melody. Journal of Music Theory 25.2,
pp. 217–244.

Roy, H.L. (1937). Problems of Hindustani Music. Bharati Bhavan, Calcutta, India.

Sachs, C. (1940). The History of Musical Instruments. W. W. Norton & Company, Inc., New York.

Sadie, S., Editor (1980). The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians. Macmillan Publishers Limited,
London, England, 1995.

Sadie, S., Editor (1984). The New Grove Dictionary of Musical Instruments. Macmillan Press Limited, Lon-
don, England.

Sambamoorthy, P. (1960). History of Indian Music. The Indian Music Publishing House, Madras, India.

Sambamoorthy, P. (Vol. 1, A–F, 1952; Vol. 2, G–K, 1959; Vol. 3, L–N, 1971). A Dictionary of South Indian
Music and Musicians. The Indian Music Publishing House, Madras, India.

Sastri, S.S. (1931). Venkaamakhi and his twelve notes. The Journal of the Music Academy II, No. 1,
pp. 22–23, Madras, India.

Sathyanarayana, R., Editor (1957). Kudimiyamalai Inscription on Music. ri Varalakshmi Academies of Fine
Arts, Parimala Press, Mysore, India.

Shankar, R. (1968). My Music, My Life. Simon and Schuster, New York, New York.

Sharma, P.L., Editor and Translator (Vol. 1, Ch. 1, 1992; Vol. 2, Ch. 2–6, 1994). Brhaddesi of ri Mataga
Muni. Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts in association with Motilal Banarsidass Publishers,
Delhi, India.

Shringy, R.K., and Sharma, P.L., Translators (Vol. 1, Ch. 1, 1978; Vol. 2, Ch. 2–4, 1989). Sangitaratnakara,
by Srgadeva. Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi, India; Volume 2, Munshiram Manoharlal, New
Delhi, India.

Sorrell, N., and Narayan, R. (1980). Indian Music in Performance. New York University Press, New York,
New York. This book comes boxed with an excellent cassette tape recording.

Widdess, R. (1995). The Ragas of Early Indian Music. The Clarendon Press, Oxford, England.

Arabian, Persian, and Turkish Music

Al-Faruqi, L.I. (1974). The Nature of the Musical Art of Islamic Culture: A Theoretical and Empirical Study
of Arabian Music. Ph.D. dissertation printed and distributed by University Microfilms, Inc., Ann Arbor,
Michigan.

Al-Faruqi, L.I. (1981). An Annotated Glossary of Arabic Musical Terms. Greenwood Press, Westport, Con-
necticut.
 Bibliography: Chapter 11 875

Avenary, H., Translator (1974). The Hebrew version of Ab l-alt’s treatise on music. Yuval III, pp. 7–82.

Barker, A., Translator (1989). Greek Musical Writings. Two Volumes. Cambridge University Press, Cam-
bridge, England.

Cowl, C., Translator (1966). Al-Kind’s essay on the composition of melodies. The Consort, No. 23,
pp. 129–159.

Crookes, D.Z., Translator (1986). Syntagma musicum II: De organographia, Parts I and II, by Michael Prae-
torius. The Clarendon Press, Oxford, England. The first edition of this work was published in 1618.

D’Erlanger, R., Bakkouch, .., and Al-Sans, M., Translators (Vol. 1, 1930; Vol. 2, 1935; Vol. 3, 1938; Vol. 4,
1939; Vol. 5, 1949; Vol. 6, 1959). La Musique Arabe, Librairie Orientaliste Paul Geuthner, Paris, France.

Dieterici, F., Translator (1858–1890; 16 Volumes). Die Philosophie der Araber im IX. und X. Jahrhundert
n. Chr. aus der Theologie des Aristoteles, den Abhandlungen Alfarabis und den Schriften der Lautern
Brüder. The quoted passage on music is in Volume 6, entitled: Die Propaedeutik der Araber im zehnten
Jahrhundert. E.S. Mittler und Sohn, Berlin, Germany, 1865.

El-Hefny, M., Translator (1931). Ibn Sina’s Musiklehre [Ibn Sn’s teaching on music]. Ph.D. dissertation
printed by Otto Hellwig, Berlin, Germany.

Farhat, H. (1965). The Dastgah Concept in Persian Music. Ph.D. dissertation printed and distributed by
University Microfilms, Inc., Ann Arbor, Michigan.

Farhat, H. (1990). The Dastgah Concept in Persian Music. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, Eng-
land.

Farmer, H.G. (1925). Clues for the Arabian influence on European musical theory. The Journal of the Royal
Asiatic Society, First Quarter, pp. 61–80.

Farmer, H.G. (1928). Ibn Khurddhbih on musical instruments. The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society,
Third Quarter, pp. 509–518.

Farmer, H.G. (1929). A History of Arabian Music. Luzac Oriental, London, England, 1994.

Farmer, H.G. (1953–1954). The song captions in the Kitab al-aghani al-kabir. Transactions of the Glasgow
University Oriental Society XV, pp. 1–10.

Farmer, H.G. (1954). “d.” In Grove’s Dictionary of Music and Musicians, Volume 8, 5th ed., E. Blom, Edi-
tor. St. Martin’s Press, Inc., New York, 1970.

Farmer, H.G. (1957). “The Music of Islam.” In New Oxford History of Music, Volume 1: Ancient and Oriental
Music, E. Wellesz, Editor. Oxford University Press, London, England, 1960.

Farmer, H.G. (1965). The Sources of Arabian Music. E.J. Brill, Leiden, Netherlands.

Farmer, H.G., Translator (1965). Al-Farabi’s Arabic-Latin Writings on Music. Hinrichsen Edition Ltd., New
York.

Farmer, H.G. (1965). The old Arabian melodic modes. Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, Parts 3 & 4,
pp. 99–102.

Farmer, H.G. (1978). Studies in Oriental Musical Instruments, First and Second Series. Longwood Press Ltd.,
Tortola, British Virgin Islands.

Hitti, P.K. (1937). History of the Arabs. Macmillan and Co. Ltd., London, England, 1956.
876 Bibliography

Lachmann, R. and El-Hefni, M., Translators (1931). Risala  hubr t2lif al-alhan [Über die Komposition der
Melodien], by Al-Kind. Fr. Kistner & C.F.W. Siegel, Leipzig, Germany.

Lewis, B., Editor (1976). Islam and the Arab World. Alfred A. Knopf, New York.

Maas, M. and Snyder, J.M. (1989). Stringed Instruments of Ancient Greece. Yale University Press, New Ha-
ven, Connecticut.

Marcus, S.L. (1989). Arab Music Theory in the Modern Period. Ph.D. dissertation printed and distributed by
University Microfilms, Inc., Ann Arbor, Michigan.

Marcus, S.L. (1992). Modulation in Arab music: Documenting oral concepts, performance rules and strate-
gies. Ethnomusicology 36, No. 2, pp. 171–195.

Muallem, D. (2010). The Maqam Book: A Doorway to Arab Scales and Modes. OR-TAV Music Publications,
Kfar Sava, Israel.

Racy, A.J. (1977). Musical Change and Commercial Recording in Egypt, 1904–1932. Ph.D. dissertation print-
ed and distributed by University Microfilms, Inc., Ann Arbor, Michigan.

Racy, A.J. (1978). “Music.” In The Genius of Arab Civilization, 2nd ed., J.R. Hayes, Editor. MIT Press,
Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1983.

Ribera, J. (1929). Music in Ancient Arabia and Spain. Translated and abridged from the Spanish by Eleanor
Hague and Marion Leffingwell. Stanford University Press, Stanford University, California.

Ronzevalle, P.L., Translator (1913). Un Traité de Musique Arabe Moderne, by Mkhl Mashqah. Mélanges
de la Faculté Orientale VI, pp. 1–120. Université Saint-Joseph, Beirut, Lebanon.

Sachs, C. (1940). The History of Musical Instruments. W. W. Norton & Company, Inc., New York.

Sadie, S., Editor (1984). The New Grove Dictionary of Musical Instruments. Macmillan Press Limited, Lon-
don, England.

Shiloah, A. (1972). The simsimiyya: A stringed instrument of the Red Sea area. Asian Music IV, No. 1,
pp. 15–26.

Shiloah, A., Translator (1978). The Epistle on Music of the Ikhwan Al-Sa. Tel-Aviv University, Tel-Aviv, Israel.

Shiloah, A. (1979). The Theory of Music in Arabic Writings (c. 900–1900). G. Henle Verlag, München, Germany.

Shiloah, A. (1981). The Arabic concept of mode. Journal of the American Musicological Society XXXIV,
No. 1, pp. 19–42.

Signell, K.L. (1973). The Turkish ‘Makam’ System in Contemporary Theory and Practice. Ph.D. dissertation
printed and distributed by University Microfilms, Inc., Ann Arbor, Michigan.

Signell, K.L. (1986). Makam: Modal Practice in Turkish Art Music. Da Capo Press, New York, New York.

Smith, E., Translator (1847). A Treatise on Arab Music, by Mkhl Mashqah. Journal of the American
Oriental Society I, No. 3, pp. 173–217. Boston, Massachusetts.

Touma, H.H. (1996). The Music of the Arabs. Amadeus Press, Portland, Oregon.

Wright, O. (1966). Ibn al-Munajjim and the early Arabian modes. The Galpin Society Journal XIX,
pp. 27–48.
 Bibliography: Chapter 12 877

Chapter 12

Writings on Cris Forster

Editors. “Cris Forster.” In Für Augen und Ohren, Magazine of the Berlin Music Festival. January–February,
1980, pp. 16–17. Dr. Ulrich Eckhardt, Publisher. Berlin, Germany.

Mahlke, S. “Barde mit zwei Saitenspielen.” Der Tagesspiegel. January 25, 1980. Berlin, Germany.

Garr, D. “The Endless Scale.” Omni. March, 1981, p. 48. New York, New York.

McDonald, R. “Cris Forster: Making Music.” San Diego Magazine. September, 1982, pp. 136–139, 198, 228.
San Diego, California.

Fleischer, D. “Sounds of Infinity.” Connoisseur. August, 1983, pp. 102, 105. New York, New York.

Levine, J. “Expanded Musical Palette Is Inventor’s Note-able Goal.” The Tribune. September 6, 1983. San
Diego, California.

Brewster, T. “A Medley of New Instruments: A Wheel Like the Wind.” Life. November, 1983, p. 142. New
York, New York.

Editors. “Klingen wie der Wind.” Stern. January, 1984, pp. 146–148. Hamburg, Germany.

Davies, H. (1984). “Microtonal Instruments,” pp. 656–657. In The New Grove Dictionary of Musical Instru-
ments, Volume 2, S. Sadie, Editor. Macmillan Press Limited, London, England.

Drye, S.L. (1984). The History and Development of the Musical Glasses, pp. 46–49. Master’s thesis, North
Texas State University.

Arnautoff, V. “Hill Musician Composes, Builds Own Instruments.” The Potrero View. November, 1985, p. 5.
San Francisco, California.

Editors. “This Californian and His Bearings Are Making Beautiful Music Together.” Precisionist: A Publica-
tion of the Torrington Company. Summer, 1987, pp. 14–15. Torrington, Connecticut.

Bowen, C. “Making Music from Scratch.” Métier. Fall, 1987, p. 7. San Francisco, California.

Snider, J. “Chrysalis: A Transformation in Music.” Magical Blend. April, 1989, pp. 98–102. San Francisco,
California.

Hopkin, B. “Review.” Experimental Musical Instruments. April, 1990, p. 4. Nicasio, California.

Editors. “Forster, Cris.” PITCH for the International Microtonalist I, No. 4, Spring 1990, p. 142. Johnny
Reinhard, Editor. New York, New York.

Canright, D. “Performance: Concert in Celebration of the Chrysalis New Music Studio — Instruments
and Music by Cris Forster.” 1/1, the Journal of the Just Intonation Network 11, No. 4. Spring, 2004,
pp. 19–20. San Francisco, California.

Seven extensive reviews of Musical Mathematics: On the Art and Science of Acoustic Instruments.

Kaliss, J. “Cris Forster’s ‘Just’ Musical Menagerie.” San Francisco Classical Voice. July 23, 2013. San Fran-
cisco, California. (See San Francisco Classical Voice Article.)
878 Bibliography

Spaulding, B. “How Math Is Helping One Man Push the Boundaries of Acoustic Music.” PTC Product
Lifecycle Report. January 4, 2016. Needham, Massachusetts. (See PTC Mathcad Article.)

Forster, H. “Support the Evolution of Acoustic Music.” Kickstarter Project. November 29, 2016–January 15,
2017. Brooklyn, New York. (See Kickstarter Article.)

Videos on Cris Forster

Gaikowski, R., Videographer and Editor (1988). Musical Wood, Steel, and Glass: A video featuring Cris
Forster, composer, musician, inventor. Production by One Way Films/Videos, San Francisco, Califor-
nia.

Noyes, E., Videographer and Editor; Forster, H., Producer and Writer (2006). A Voyage in Music: A retro-
spective of Cris Forster’s work over the past thirty years. Production by Alligator Planet, San Francisco,
California.

Video performances of solo and ensemble compositions at the Chrysalis New Music Studio.
https://www.youtube.com/user/CrisForster/feed

Thomas, R., Videographer and Editor; Forster, H., Writer (2016). Support the Evolution of Acoustic Music.
Production by Sponsored Films, San Francisco, California.
 Musical Mathematics: On the Art and Science of Acoustic Instruments
© 2000–2011 Cristiano M.L. Forster All rights reserved.

www.chrysalis-foundation.org

February 18, 2011

Index
Internet Version: no diacritics

A Latin ratios; superparticular and superpartient,

Abul-Salt, 628, 630–632 384–385
Acceleration Ptolemy, 321–322
of bar, 156–158 string length of 120 parts, 316–317
definition, 4 Ramamatya, 568–573
dimensional analysis, 4, 6 Rameau, 431–434, 442–447, 452
English Gravitational System, 9. Ssu-ma Ch’ien, 486–487
consistent system, 9–10, 14–15 vs. frequency ratios, 75–76, 91, 93, 305, 307, 427,
experiment, 8–11, 15 431, 487, 576–577, 587
gravitational, 6–7, 10–12, 14 vs. modern length ratio, 305–307, 427, 440–441
of mass vs. “vibration ratios,” 85–86, 93, 435–436
mica, 14–16 vs. “weight ratios,” 83, 85–86, 93
slug, 10–11
Zarlino, 378, 436, 452
Newton, 5–6
Antinodes. See Bars, rods, and tubes; Flexible
standard gravity, 11–12
strings; Just intonation, Sauveur; Resonators,
of string, 2–3
Adiabatic bulk modulus tube
of air, 22 Arabian musical terms. See also Scales, Arabian
definition, 21–22 24-TET
Admittance. See Flutes 5 nim (Pers. lowered) notes, 756, 759
Ahobala, 93, 587–591 5 tik (Pers. raised) notes, 756, 759
Al-Din, Salah, 761–762 7 fundamental notes; naghamat (notes),
Al-Farabi, Abu Nasr, 93, 326, 354–355, 366, 375, asasiyyah (fundamental), 756, 759
378, 401, 610, 622, 625, 628, 632–666, 669, 7 half notes, or “semitones”; arabat (sing.
673–674, 676–677, 679–681, 696, 701–707, arabah, half note), 756, 759
709–710, 712, 715, 717, 720–722, 727, 733–736, 24 quarter tones, Mashaqah, (sing. rub,
749–752, 754–755, 757–758, 771 quarter; pl. arba, quarters), 756, 759
Al-Faruqi, Lois I., 641–642, 648, 760 interval
Al-Isfahani, Abul-Faraj, 619–620, 624 Al-Farabi
Al-Jurjani, 401–403, 448, 610, 626–631, 707, awdah (whole step), 355, 647
717–722, 726–727, 731–733, 744, 746, 748 fadlah (half step), 355, 647
Al-Khulai, M. Kamil, 749, 755 Al-Jurjani
Al-Kindi, Ishaq, 93, 334, 611–617, 619–620, baqiyyah, limma, [L], 721–723
642–643, 646, 709–710, 755 fadlah, comma of Pythagoras, [C], 722–723
Al-Mauaili, Ishaq, 619–620, 622 mutammam, apotome, [L×C], 722–723
Al-Sanusi, Al-Manubi, 402, 720 tanini, double-limma plus comma,
Alexander the Great, 610 [L×L×C], 721–723
Ambisonance, 779n.74 tatimmah, double-limma, [L×L], 722–723
Ancient length ratios (a.l.r.) mode
definition, 75–77, 287 6 hierarchical functions of tones: qarar,
Al-Farabi, 378 quwwah, zahir, ghammaz, markaz, mabda,
Needham, 487 738
equations, for stopped (bridged) string, 77 46 Modern Maqamat (sing. maqam, position
Euclid, 76, 81–82, 302–307 or place; mode), 738, 761–771, 786n.209
Greek ratios; multiple, epimore, and epimere, Al-Farabi, 8 Ajnas (sing. jins, genus or kind;
286–287 mode), 640, 646–655

895
896 Index

Arabian musical terms (Continued) “minor third,” oldest ud tuning, 3-limit ratio,
Al-Munajjim 620–622
8 majari (sing. majra, course or path; Persian middle finger fret, Al-Farabi’s ud  s,
mode), 622–625 17-limit ratio, 634–639, 650–651, 653
and Philolaus’ diatonic scale, 624 “neutral second”
Ibn Sina Arabian theory, modern
12 shudud (sing. shadd), primary or 46 Maqamat, 763–766
principal mode, 727 of basic 16-tone scale, 770–771
Mustaqim (direct, straight, or regular mode), Safi Al-Din, 84 Melodic Modes, Second
Melodic Mode 8, 681–682, 685, 727, Ud Tuning; in six of nine unchanged
754 modes, 767–768
majra (course or path; mode), 617, 622. tik Zirkulah [D], 756
Safi Al-Din origins in near-equal divisions of intervals;
6 awazat (sing. awaz; also shubah), Ptolemy, Al-Farabi, and Ibn Sina,
secondary or derived mode, 727, 677–681
730–733, 744 Persian theory, modern
12 shudud (sing. shadd), primary or of basic 17-tone scale, 770
principal mode, 726–731, 737, 740–743, Farhat
767–768 of 2 tars and 3 setars, two different
Rast (Pers. direct, straight, or regular kinds, 686–689
mode), Melodic Mode 40, 727–730, 12 Dastgaha, 692–696
733, 740–741, 746–748 as tone on ud
Arabian ratios. See also Greek ratios; Latin ratios Al-Farabi
apotome Fret 5 on 12-fret ud, 641–643
Al-Farabi, 636, 655 Frets 3 and 4, Mujannab frets, on 10-fret
Al-Jurjani, 722–723 ud, 632–635, 639, 673–674
Al-Kindi, 334, 611, 615–616 Ibn Sina
apyknon, Al-Farabi, 659–663 Fret 2, Assistant to the middle finger of
comma of Pythagoras (ditonic comma) Zalzal fret, 668, 671, 673–674
Arabian theory two different kinds, 672
Al-Farabi, 655, 702–706 Safi Al-Din, Fret 2, Mujannab, Anterior
Al-Jurjani, 722–723 fret, Second Ud Tuning, 714–716
Al-Kindi, 611, 615–616, 620 as tone or interval of a genus or mode
of tunbur and ud, ancient, 696–697 Al-Farabi, Jins 2/Jins 8, 651–654, 676–677,
variants of, notation, 697–701 679–680
Al-Farabi’s tunbur of Khurasan and Ibn Sina
original tunbur, 696–706 11 Melodic Modes, 681–685
Safi Al-Din, First Ud Tuning, 712–713 Diatonic Genus 4 and 7, 674–677
Turkish theory, modern Safi Al-Din, 84 Melodic Modes, Second Ud
of tunbur, 733–737 Tuning, 724–725, 729
variants of, notation, 734 “neutral seventh”
epimere, Al-Farabi, 661–663 Arabian theory, modern
epimore Awj [B], 749, 756, 758–759
Al-Farabi, 661–663 of basic 16-tone scale, 770
Ibn Sina, 673–676, 678–679 used to justify 24-TET
limma D’Erlanger, 755–758
Al-Farabi, 633, 636–640, 643, 655–656, Marcus, 760–761
702–707 historical context of, Al-Farabi’s and Ibn
Al-Jurjani, 722–723 Sina’s ud  s, 749–754
Al-Kindi, 334–335, 611, 615–617 “neutral third”
double-limma, 697, 699–700, 703–705, 722–723 Arabian theory, modern
Ibn Sina, 667–668, 671, 682–685 of basic 16-tone scale, 770
Safi Al-Din, 708–713, 722–723, 741–743 Safi Al-Din, 84 Melodic Modes, Second
triple-limma, 722–723, 739–745, 767 Ud Tuning; in six of nine unchanged
Turkish theory, modern, 736–737 modes, 767–768
triple-limma, 739–745, 767 Sikah [E], 749, 756, 758–761
 Index 897

fasilah (genus), 761–762, 765 schisma

maqam, 767–769 definition, 373, 697
used to justify 24-TET variants of, notation, 697–701
D’Erlanger, 755–758 Al-Farabi’s tunbur of Khurasan and original
Marcus, 760–761 tunbur, 696–707
historical context of, 749, 754–755, 761 Safi Al-Din
Farmer, 716
First Ud Tuning, 373–375, 710–713, 717
origins in near-equal divisions of intervals;
Ptolemy, Al-Farabi, and Ibn Sina, Second Ud Tuning, 716
677–681 superparticular (epimore)
Persian theory, modern Al-Farabi, 660–661
of basic 17-tone scale, 770 Ibn Sina, 678–679
Farhat superpartient (epimere), Al-Farabi, 661
of 2 tars and 3 setars, two different Arabian scales. See Scales, Arabian
kinds, 686–689 Arabian tetrachords
12 Dastgaha, 692–696 Al-Farabi
as tone on ud 8 Ajnas
middle finger of Zalzal fret description of, 646–648
Al-Farabi, 11-limit ratio
fractional and integer parts of tones,
Fret 8 on 10-fret ud, 634–640
Fret 9 on 12-fret ud, 641–645 Aristoxenian theory, 648–649
Ibn Sina, 13-limit ratio, Fret 5, 667, interpretation of
671–674, 676–677 as length ratios on ud, 650–655
Safi Al-Din, Fret 5, Persian middle finger modern, in cents, 650
fret, Second Ud Tuning, 714–717 Jins 2, 676–677, 679–680
as tone or interval of a genus or mode Jins 8, 679–680
Al-Farabi, Jins 2, 651–654, 676–677, conjunct, three standard modes, 644–645
679–680 genera, soft genus and strong genus, 659–660
Ibn Sina classification of 15 tetrachords
11 Melodic Modes, 681–686 soft ordered consecutive and non-
Diatonic Genus 7, 675–677 consecutive, 660–663
Safi Al-Din, 84 Melodic Modes, Second Ud strong doubling, strong conjunct, and
Tuning, 724–725, 729 strong disjunct, 661–663
Ptolemy’s classifications in Greater Perfect System. See also Greek
Al-Farabi, 658–659 tetrachords
Ibn Sina, 678–679 three conjunct/disjunct systems for the
Safi Al-Din, 711–713
distribution of, 662–666
emmelic/melodic intervals
inversion of intervalic order
B (baqiyyah or fadlah), 721–723, 740
Aristoxenus’ tetrachords, 648
J (tatimmah or mutammam), 721–723,
Philolaus’ tetrachord, 648–649
740, 744
T (tanini), 721–723, 727, 740, 744 Al-Kindi’s ud, 612
pyknon, Al-Farabi, 659–663 description of, 613
“quarter-tone” Philolaus’ tetrachord, three harmoniai,
4 modern musical symbols of, 713–714 616–617
half-flat and half-sharp signs, Racy, 760 classification, modern
koron and sori signs, Farhat, 640 9 fasail (genera): seven tetrachords, one
Arabian theory trichord, and one pentachord, 762
Al-Farabi, origin and function of ratio CC|cx, 46 Maqamat, 763–766
354–355 Safi Al-Din, 84 Melodic Modes, Second Ud
Ibn Sina, origin and function of ratio CN|cb, Tuning
679 9 modern maqamat, interval patterns
Marcus identical to, 767–768
ambiguity of “quarter-tones” in musical 32 modern tetrachords and modes,
practice, 760–761 traceable to, 763–768
description of Mashaqah’s twenty-four fasail (sing. fasilah, family or genus), maqamat
“quarter” tones, 759 with similar lower tetrachords, 761–762
898 Index

Arabian tetrachords (Continued) Rameau, 434–436, 441–444

jins al-asl or jins al-jidh, primary lower of “octave,” ratio X|z, 91–93, 437
tetrachord, 761, 767–769 of “triple-octave,” ratio -|z, Rameau, 428–433
jins al-far, secondary upper tetrachord, 761, of harmonic series, 254–255
767–769 length ratios
munfasil, disjunct, 767 of “double-octave and a fifth,” ratio N|z
mutadakhil, overlapping, 767 Rameau, in context of dual-generator,
muttasil, conjunct, 767 444–446
Ibn Sina Salinas, 402–403
11 Melodic Modes, 681–686 Stifel, 386–390
12 Dastgaha, Persian theory, modern, 692–696 Zarlino, 392, 394
16 tetrachords, based on strong and soft of “fifth,” ratio C|x, 325, 396, 437
genera, 676 Rameau, 442–444, 446–448
construction of, with epimore ratios, Safi Al-Din, 381
673–674 Stifel, 401
diatonic genus, preferred over chromatic and Zarlino, 377–378, 382–384, 385–386,
enharmonic genera, 673 399–401
Diatonic Genus 4 and 7, 13-limit ratios, of five tetrachords, Ptolemy, 328
674–677, 679–681 of “fourth,” ratio V|c, 297, 325
Rast or Mustaqim, 727–731 Ptolemy’s Even Diatonic, 329
modal origins of “octave,” ratio X|z, 87–89, 91, 295–296, 437
Arabian, on Al-Farabi’s and Ibn Sina’s ud  s, ancient length ratios vs. frequency ratios,
747–754 87–91
Turkish, on Safi Al-Din First Ud, 732–733, Ibn Sina, 379–381
744–748 Ptolemy, 295–297, 324
Safi Al-Din Rameau, 431–432
84 Melodic Modes Zarlino, 382–383
First and Second Ud Tunings, 724–725 of “whole tone,” ratio =|,
35 modes, conjunct tetrachord/ Al-Farabi, 354–355, 636
pentachord combinations of, Cardan, 355
722–726 Galilei, Vincenzo, 355–356
49 modes, conjunct tetrachord Mersenne, 356
combinations of, 722–726 Ptolemy, 354, 636
of seven-by-twelve matrix system, 728–729 Zarlino, compound unities, 390–391
6 Awazat (secondary or derived), Aron, Pietro, 342, 345, 347, 352–353
730–733 Ayyar, C. Subrahmanya, 586
12 Shudud (primary or principle),
726–727, 730–733 B
Turkish theory, modern, on First Ud Bach, Johann S., vi, 350
5 of 6 ‘Variant’ Maqamat, 744–745 Barbera, Andre, 82, 308
10 of 13 Basic Maqamat, 740–744 Barnes, John, 349–350
Archimedes, 265, 610 Bars, rods, and tubes
Archytas, 86–89, 92, 280, 283, 288–289, 297, 311, antinode (clamped-free bar)
318 bending (BA), 175
Area moment of inertia. See Bars, rods, and tubes location of, first four modes (bar, rod, and
Arel, H. Sadettin, 738 tube), 177
Aristoxenus, 280, 289, 308–321, 624–625, 642, displacement (DA), 175
646–649, 651, 655 local reduction at, tuning process, 176–177
Arithmetic divisions/progressions. See also Cents, antinode (free-free bar)
harmonic series; Means bending (BA), 153–154
definition, 253–254 bending moment at, 155–157
Archytas, 86–87 local reduction at, tuning process, 160–163
frequency ratios location of, first five modes (bar, rod, and
of “double-octave and a fifth,” ratio N|z, tube), 162
426–428 displacement (DA), 153
of “fifth,” ratio C|x, 437 experiment, 153–154
 Index 899

area moment of inertia (bar, rod, and tube), 159 shear force, 154–158, 160–161
bending tuning effect on, 160
stiffness, 158 tuning process (clamped-free bar), 176–177
and bending moment, direct mass loading, bars vs. reeds, 178
proportionality, 159–160 tools and techniques, 177
effect on mode frequencies, 159 tuning process (free-free bar), 160–161
as restoring force, 148, 152 bass marimba bar
tuning effect on, 160 frequencies, first three modes; before,
wave speed, 149–150, 159 during, and after tuning, 165
and bending wavelength, inverse frequency changes
proportionality, 149 eighteen analysis/decision steps, 168–170
and dispersion, 148–149 eighteen tuning steps, 165–168
effect on inharmonic frequencies, 148–149 length limitations of, 164–165
triple-arch design, bar profile, 161–163
experiment, 149, 153–154
tuning function of first three antinodes,
stiffness effect on, 147–148
161–163
tuning effect on, 160
higher mode frequencies
wavelength, 150
effect on pitch perception of fundamental,
effect on bending moment, 154 163–164
experiment, 149 tuning possibilities of, 164
dispersion tools and techniques, 164
definition, 149 treble marimba bar
variables, indicators of, 152–153 frequencies, first two modes; before and
mode after tuning, 171
frequency (clamped-free bar), 174–175 length limitations of, 171
ratios of second, third, and fourth modes, single-arch design, bar profile, 171
174 tuning function of first two antinodes,
frequency (free-free bar), 148–149, 151–152 170–171
and bending moment, 154 Bass Canon
and height, direct proportionality, 158–160 construction of, 800, 805
ratios of second, third, and fourth modes, dimensions, 805
148 Plate 3, 847
theoretical vs. actual, rosewood test bar, Bass Marimba
163 24 bars of, frequency ratios, 827
tuning effect on, 160–161 dimensions of, longest and shortest bars, 826
shape (clamped-free bar), of first three modes, mode tuning of, 161–165
175 properties of, Honduras rosewood, 172–173,
shape (free-free bar), of first three modes, 153 885–886
node (clamped-free bar) C2 cavity resonator, Resonator II, 221
bending moment and shear force at, 175 dimensions
local reduction at, tuning process, 176–177 inside, 217
locations of, first four modes (bar, rod, and outside, 220
tube), 177 tuning of, 219–222
node (free-free bar) dimensions, 826
bar mounting considerations, 163, 170–171 Plate 8, 852
locations of, first five modes (bar, rod, and Beat rates. See also Inharmonic strings
tube), 162 of 12-TET, 136
shear force at, 155–157 “fifth,” 136
plane sections (bar, rod, and tube), 159 “fourth,” 137
radius of gyration (bar, rod, and tube), 159 “major third,” 136–137, 139–140, 146n.28
restoring forces (clamped-free bar), 154 beating phenomenon, 135–137, 365
bending moment, 175–176 effect on musical quality, 108, 118, 135
shear force, 175–176 limits of human perception, 136
tuning effect on, 176–177 Huygens, on the consonance of 7-limit ratios: M|b,
restoring forces (free-free bar), 154 Z?|m, and M|v, 364–365
bending moment, 154–161 Ramamatya, description of dissonance on vina,
effect on geometry of bar elements, 156 572
900 Index

Beat rates (Continued) Euclid, 76, 81–82

of shimmering “octave,” 509, 515 Plato, 91–92
Balinese gamelan Ptolemy, 78
gender rambat, 529 Canright, David R., v–vi, 101, 156, 877
penjorog (beat rate), 524 Plate 15, 859
Javanese gamelan Cardan, Jerome, 355
gender barung, 516, 519–522 Cents
saron demung, 509–511 calculation
of string adding and subtracting, 269
consonance vs. dissonance, 365 conversion
flexible canon strings vs. stiff piano strings, cents to decimal ratio, 270
140–142 cents to integer ratio. See Euclidean
small integer ratios vs. large integer ratios,
algorithm
138–140
frequency ratio to cents, 268–269
harmonics
Ellis, 1200th root of 2, 267
coincident, 136.
intermediate, 137. increasing or decreasing frequency by cents,
Beeckman, Isaac, 406 270–271
Benade, Arthur H., 126, 235, 247 interval comparison, 270
Bending moment. See Bars, rods, and tubes, definition, 268
restoring forces exponent
Benedetti, Giovanni Battista, 415–416 definition, 257–258
Bernoulli, Daniel, 426 exponential function, 257
Bharata, 540–550, 552–562, 564, 572, 577, 598–599 as logarithmic function, three aspects, 258
Bhatkhande, V.N., 581, 587, 594–596 first law of, 259
Boehm, Theobald, 235 four laws of, 277n.11
Boethius, 284, 380 Stifel’s description, 276n.6
Break strength harmonic series
definition, 35 as arithmetic progression, 254–255
of string human process of adding intervals in
high-carbon spring steel music wire, 884 sequences, 260–265
plain, 35, 111, 134 no human perception of interval patterns,
wound, 40 254
Brothers of Sincerity (Ikhwan al-Safa), 620–622 as geometric progression, 254–255
Brown, Robert E., 528 human perception of interval patterns,
Brun, Viggo, 458 254–255
Buskirk, Cheryl M., viii mathematical process of multiplying
frequencies in sequences, 256–262,
C 263–265
Canons. See also Bass Canon; Harmonic/Melodic intervals of, verbal terms vs. mathematical
Canon; Little Canon terms, 64–65, 256
Arabian qanun, ancient instrument, 628 logarithm
Abul-Salt, 628, 630–632 antilogarithm., 259, 262.
Al-Farabi, 632 common
Al-Jurjani, 629–631 base 1.00057779, 109, 267–268
hamila (moveable bridge), 628, 631–632 base 2, 262–264, 274
Ibn Sina, 670–672 base 10, 258–262
Ibn Zaila, 628 definition, 258
from qanun to ud, evolutionary process, 632, four laws of, 278n.13
669–670 guitar frets, 271–273
construction requirements and human hearing, adding process, 262
bridge, 65 logarithmic function, 258
original design, 792–794 as exponential function, three aspects, 258
string, 65, 118 musical slide rule, 273–275
function of, 77–78, 80, 792 Napier, inventor of, Greek logos + arithmos,
Greek kanon 257
definitions, 65 natural, base e, 109, 258
 Index 901

“octave” equivalence D
definition, 257 D’Alembert, Jean le Rond, 423
as human trait, 257 Dattila, 545, 548–549, 558
ratio, simplification of, 257 de Fontanelle, Bernard Le Bovier, 438
Chalmers, John H., viii, 308 de Villiers, Christophe, 406
Cheve System D’Erlanger, Baron Rodolphe, 625, 666, 675, 755,
cipher and cipher-dot notation, 508, 535n.2 758–760
letter-dot notation, 599 Descartes, Rene, 404
Chiao Yen-shou, 502 Diamond Marimba, 13-Limit
49 bars + 5 bars of, frequency ratios, 824–825
Ch’ien Lo-chih, 502
dimensions of, longest and shortest bars, 825
Ch’in (qin)
mode tuning of, 171–172
construction of, 488–489
properties of, Honduras rosewood, 172–173,
as microtonal instrument, 496
885–886
Chinese scales. See Scales, Chinese construction of, 825–826
Ching Fang, 502 dimensions, 825
Chrysalis expansion of
construction of, 788–789 Meyer’s 7-limit Tonality Diamond, 824
dimensions, 790 Partch’s 11-limit Diamond Marimba, 824
Plate 1, 845 Plate 7, 851
Plate 13, 857 resonator
score, excerpt from Song of Myself, 800–802 airtight seal, making, 211
stringing and tuning of, for Song of Myself, dimensions of lowest, G3 at 196.0 cps, 198
794–797 Didymus, 280, 319, 329–332, 664
Chrysalis Foundation, 839, 841, 843 Dieterici, Friedrich, 620
New Music Studio, 842–843 Dispersion
Workshop, Plate 16, 860 definition, 104, 149
Chu Hsi, 492 variables, indicators of, 152–153
Chu Tsai-yü, 354, 502–504, 542, 569, 749 Downbearing force
Chuquet, Nicolas, 339–341 of string on canon bridge, 792
Cleonides, 309–310, 649, 655 string’s angle of deflection, 794
Cohen, H.F., 139
Comma of Didymus. See Greek ratios, comma E
Comma of Pythagoras. See Arabian ratios; Greek el-Hefni, Mahmud, 612
Ellis, Alexander J., 265, 267
ratios, comma
End corrections. See Flutes, corrections;
Compression and rarefaction
Resonators, cavity; Resonators, tube
alternating regions
Equal temperaments
of plane wave, in solid, liquid, gas, 186–187
12-TET, 361–362
of sound wave, 183–184 !|1@ ditonic comma
of bar-to-cavity resonator coupling, 214, 222 calculation of, 352–353
of bar-to-tube resonator coupling, 196 cumulative reduction of twelve consecutive
definition, 130–131, 183, 200 “fifths,” 353–354
dependence on wave speed, 131 cent comparisons
in infinite tube, 200–203 to 3-limit, 5-limit, 7-limit, and !|$-Comma
in resonator Meantone scales, 376–377
cavity, 213, 219 Ramis vs. Stevin, 375–376
tube, 190–196, 203–208 discovery of
of soundboard, inefficient regions, 133 Chu Tsai-yü, 502–504
of string, leading and trailing surfaces, 130–131, Stevin, 358–362
183–184 ditonic comma (comma of Pythagoras),
Conductivity. See Flutes, admittance definition, 335, 350
Cremer, L., 123, 131 “fifths”
Cristofori, Bartolomeo, 118, 130 circle of 12, That produces, 352–353
Crocker, Richard L., 308 spiral of 12 flat “fifths,” That closely
Crusoe, Robinson, 788 approximates, Liu An, 500–501
902 Index

Equal temperaments (Continued) Eratosthenes, 280, 318, 329–332

frequencies of eight octaves, 879 Euclid, 76, 81–82, 86, 92–93, 280, 283, 287–289,
frequency ratios, powers of the 12th root of 2, 297–298, 302–308, 311, 318, 337–339, 341,
271 610–611, 619, 624–625, 759
fret equations for, 272–273 Euclidean algorithm
on fretted lutes and viols, 340, 348 12-TET, eleven integer ratio approximations,
“major third” of, two integer ratio 459
approximations, 140 Brun, 458
“semitone” of and continued fractions, 484n.364
approximate value, rational, ratio Z-|zm for converting irrational decimal ratio to rational
Al-Farabi, 354–355 integer ratio approximation, 458–459
Cardan, 355 Exponent. See Cents
lute fretting instructions
Galilei, 355–356 F
Mersenne, 356–359 Farhat, Hormoz, 677, 686–696, 744, 759, 771–772
lutenists’ preference over exact value, Farmer, Henry George, 366, 379, 401, 610, 619–621,
357 623–628, 635, 668, 709, 716, 727
origin of, Ptolemy’s arithmetic division Flageolet tones
of “whole tone,” ratio =|, 354 of ch’in, 488–492
exact value, irrational, 353–354 experiments
12th root of 2, 353–354 Roberts, 421
Chu Tsai-yü, 503 Sauveur, 424–426
Stevin, 360–361 of trumpet marine, 408–409
vs. eleven integer ratio approximations, to the Fletcher, Harvey, 99–100, 113, 135
nearest cent, 459 Flexible strings
vs. frequencies of the harmonic series, 63–64 antinode
22-TET, Indian theory, ancient definition, 53, 55
Bharata formation of, as regions of maximum motion,
22-sruti scale, 540–543, 544–547 47–48, 51–54
logarithmic pramana sruti, 541–542 locations of, first six modes, 58
no basis in fact, 542–543, 572–573 equations, for stopped (bridged) string
24-TET, Arabian theory, modern, 755–758 frequency, 77
formulaic imposition of, 749, 755–758 length, 77
on fretless ud, as moot issue, 760–761 equilibrium position, dynamic, 48–49
Marcus frequency. See also Flexible strings, mode
ambiguity of “quarter tones” in musical definition, 55, 57
practice, 760–761 dimensional analysis, 55
description of Mashaqah’s twenty-four as function of wavelength, 80
“quarter” tones, 759 harmonic series
used to justify “incorporation” of “quarter definition
tones,” D’Erlanger and Marcus, 755–758, mathematical: length ratios of subdividing
760–671 string, 63–64, 427–428
31-TET verbal: frequency ratios of subdividing
Huygens, logarithmic calculations, 362–364 string, 63–64, 427–428
spiral of 31 “fifths,” That closely discovery of
approximates, 362–363 infinite series, first thirty-two harmonics,
53-TET Sauveur, 423–424
spiral of 53 “fifths,” That closely limited series, first six harmonics,
approximates, Ching Fang, 502 Mersenne, 404–408
Turkish theory, modern, close approximations first sixteen harmonics, two series, 64
of 4-, 5-, 8-, 9-, and 12-comma intervals, intervals of, verbal vs. mathematical, 64–65,
736–737 256
60-TET, spiral of 60 “fifths,” That closely harmonics
approximates, Chiao Yen-shou, 502 definition, 63–64
360-TET, spiral of 360 “fifths,” That closely first six on bridged canon string, 66
approximates, Ch’ien Lo-chih, 502 first sixteen of subdividing string, 64
 Index 903

frequency ratio, 73 of particle motion, in cord/string, 50–51

ideal characteristics, 44 superposition
impedance, mechanical wave, 121 definition, 48
loop interference
count (mode number), 59, 105 constructive, 47–48
definition, 59 destructive, 48–49
multiple loop length, 70 standing wave, production of, 48, 51–54
ratio, 73 wave
pattern, 59 standing
single loop length, 59–60 definition, 2, 48, 51–52
ratio, 73 of first six modes, 58
mode motion of, 52–53
definition, 98 and sound production, 53–54
frequency transverse traveling
definition, 59, 62 in cord, 50–51
and mode wavelength, inverse definition, 50, 183
proportionality, 61 in string, 2–3, 44–53, 58
shape, first six modes, 58 superposition of, 51–54
node wave speed, transverse traveling, 60–61
definition, 53, 55 wave train (waveform)
formation of, as points of minimum motion, definition, 50–51
48–49, 51–54 frequency of, 55, 57
function of, 53, 116n.5 period of, 54, 56
locations of, first six modes, 58 as transverse traveling wave, 50–51
two different kinds, 55–56 wavelength
period definition, 54
definition, 54, 56 equations, 60, 71
dimensional analysis, 54 of first six modes, 58
pulse, transverse traveling as function of frequency, 80
crest and trough, 44–46 Flutes
collision, 46–49 admittance
reflection, 45–46 complex/non-complex, 233
definition, 44 definition, 233
and Pythagoras, 44 terminating, 234
ratios. See also Ancient length ratios and cutoff frequency, 247
frequency of embouchure hole and flute bore, 235
definition, 62, 72 of tone hole, flute bore, and tube-piece, 236
as function of length ratio, 80, 93 conductivity
of harmonics, 73 definition, 233
and length ratio, inverse proportionality, of duct, fictitious and actual, 234–236
63, 80 of embouchure hole and flute bore, 234
of non-harmonic tone, 73 of tone hole diameter, limitations, 233–234
interval corrections, 232
definition, 67 at embouchure hole, 228, 231–232
of harmonics, right sides of bridged canon empirical data
strings, 68–69 concert flute, 235
of non-harmonic tone, 74 simple flute, 240
length at key pad, 228
complementary, 69, 78 Nederveen and Benade, 237
definition, 59, 69–70 at open tube end (end correction), 228,
and frequency ratio, inverse proportionality, 231–233
63, 80 at tone hole, 228, 231–232, 236, 244–245
human comprehension of, 79, 80, 93 Nederveen, 238
of non-harmonic tone, 73 cutoff frequency, Benade, 247
simple harmonic motion (SHM) embouchure hole, typical dimensions
definition, 50 concert flute, 235
904 Index

Flutes (Continued) of tension, 18–19

simple flute, 240 unit, 10, 14–15
frequency Forster
when known, predicting flute dimension and Cris, v–viii, 839–844
tone hole location, 229–241 Plate 13, 857
when unknown, determining from flute Plate 15, 859
dimension and tone hole location,
Heidi, viii, 839–844
242–246
impedance, acoustic, non-complex, 233 Plate 14, 858
intonation, 227 Plate 15, 859
at embouchure hole Forster instruments. See Bass Canon; Bass
airstream, 227, 240 Marimba; Chrysalis; Diamond Marimba,
blowing technique, 236 13-Limit; Glassdance; Harmonic/Melodic
lip coverage, 227, 233, 240 Canon; Just Keys; Little Canon; Simple Flutes
flute tube effect on, 235–236 Franklin, Benjamin, 828
making, simple flute, 236, 246–248 Frequency
critical variables of bar
embouchure hole correction, 240 clamped-free, 174–175
flute wall thickness, effect on timbre, 247
mass loaded, 178
musical interval, Nederveen, 237–238
free-free, 148, 151–152, 158
tone hole diameter, 239, 240–242
speed of sound in, 229 definition, 54–55
subharmonic series, 246 dimensional analysis, 55
standing wave, 231, 234, 245, 248n.10 of longitudinal mode: in plain string, uniform
substitution tube, Nederveen, 229–230 bar, and fluid in tube, 187
two different kinds, 230–232 of resonator
tone hole cavity, 215–217
dimension and location tube
concert flute, 239 closed, 210
simple flutes, 241 closed-closed, 230
from embouchure hole, strategy for length open, 209
calculation, 231–232 of spring-mass system, 185, 219, 223n.9
tube length of string
closed-closed (substitution tube), acoustic and flexible, 58–62, 102–103
effective, 230–232 stiff, 99, 105–107, 112
effective and wavelength
at embouchure hole, approximate, 234–235 as function of, 80–93
Nederveen, 233 inverse proportionality, 61–62
at tone hole, exact, 236 Frequency ratios. See Flexible strings, ratios
Nederveen, 237 Freud, Sigmund, 557
open, measured vs. effective, 229–231
tuning process, simple flute, 236 G
variables, twenty-seven symbols, 228–229 Gaffurio, Franchino, 367
Force. See also Restoring force; Weight; Weight Galilei
density Galileo, 283, 338, 356
definition, 5–6, 8 Vincenzo, 315, 355–356, 358
English Engineering System, 9, 12, 16 Gamelan. See also Scales, Indonesian
pounds-force (1 lbf), 7–9 instruments
inconsistent system, 9–10 Bali
English Gravitational System, 9 bar percussion instruments, built in pairs:
pounds-force (1 lbf), 10. pengumbang (low) and pengisep (high),
consistent system, 9–11, 14–15 524, 532–533
experiment, 7–8, 10, 15 penjorog (beat rate) of, 524
of gravity, 6–8, 10–12 shimmering “octaves” of, tuned
of muscular effort, 5, 8, 16 sharp, 524
Newton, 2, 5 sharp and flat, 529–530
of spring, 11 gangsa (saron), 533
 Index 905

gender Euclid’s mean proportional, 297–298

dasa, 523 Zarlino, 338–339
jegogan, 524 of “whole tone,” ratio =|,
rambat, 529–530, 532 Ptolemy’s rational approximation, 320
tjalung (jublag), 530–534 Zarlino, 338–339
wayang, 522 Ghosh, M., 549, 556–557, 559
suling gambuh, 524–528, 530, 532 Glassdance
trompong, 523–524, 527–528, 532 48 crystal glasses, frequency ratios, 830–831
Java Ptolemy’s Soft Diatonic, 832
bar percussion instruments, beat rates construction of, 828–830
four different kinds, 522 dimensions, 832
of tumbuk tuning, 519–522 Plates 9, 10, and 14, 853–854, 858
gender tuning process, of brandy snifter glasses,
barung, 513–517, 519–521 830–831
panerus, 519 Govinda, 565, 574–576, 578–584
saron Greek ratios
demung, 509–511, 517–520 classification
ritjik (saron barung), 510–511 epimere, 285, 287
shimmering “octaves,” tuned epimore, 284, 287
sharp, 509–511 Euclid, 287
sharp and flat, 515–516, 519–521 Ptolemy, 288, 321–323, 325–326, 328–329,
orchestras, 508 354
Bali Pythagoreans, 288, 323
Court of Tabanan, 526 Zarlino, 397
Kuta Village, 523 equal, 284
Pliatan Village, 524, 530–534 Ptolemy, 324
Puri Agung Gianyar, 529–530 multiple, 284, 286
Tampak Gangsal, 523, 527 Euclid, 287
Java Mersenne, 417
Kangjeng Kyahi Sirat Madu, 520 Ptolemy, 288, 321, 323
Kyahi Kanjutmesem, 509–510, 515–516, Pythagoreans, 288
519–522 multiple-epimere, 285–286
Geometric divisions/progressions. See also Cents, Ptolemy, 288, 319
harmonic series Pythagoreans, 288, 319
definition, 254 multiple-epimore, 284–285
Archytas, 86–87 comma
of harmonic series, 254–255 of Didymus (syntonic comma), 315, 350, 363,
length ratios 400, 547, 697
of 12-TET Aron, 344–345
Chu Tsai-yü’s solution, 503–504, 542 definition, 344
Stevin’s solution, 358–362, 542 Ramamatya, 572
of “fifth,” ratio C|x, Chuquet, 339–341 Safi Al-Din, 372–374
of “fourth,” ratio V|c of Pythagoras (ditonic comma), 319–320, 487,
Aristoxenus, 309–318 542
Al-Farabi’s interpretations of, especially 12-TET, 352–354
Jins 8, 646–655 Al-Farabi, 655
arithmetic-geometric asymptote, tunbur of Khurasan and original tunbur,
313–315, 318 697–706
modern interpretations of, 309–313, Al-Jurjani, 722–723
466n.75, 655 Al-Kindi, 334, 611, 615–616, 620
Ptolemy’s interpretation of, 316–317 Aristoxenus, 314, 318
of “major third,” ratio B|v; meantone ratio, definition, 314–315, 334–335
342–343 Ramamatya, 571–572
of “minor third,” ratio N|b, Chuquet, 339–341 Safi Al-Din, 372–374
of “octave,” ratio X|z, 297–299 Turkish theory, modern, 736–737
Chuquet, 399–341 Werckmeister, 350–351
906 Index

Greek ratios (Continued) Greek scales. See Scales, Greek

Euclid, 76, 81–82, 287 Greek tetrachords
interval Aristoxenus, six different kinds, 309–310
apotome, 314–315, 319 fractional and integer parts of tones, 309–310
‘Apotome Scale’, 336, 418–419 interpretation of
Ptolemy, 314–315, 319 arithmetic-geometric asymptote,
Ramamatya, 571 313–315, 318
apyknon, 326–327, 659–660 modern, in cents, 310
Al-Farabi, 660–663 Ptolemy, as length ratios, 313, 316–317,
Ptolemy, 328–329, 334 320–321
diesis, modern, 464n.48
conjunct, Terpander’s heptachord, 289, 291–293
Aristoxenus, 314–315, 318
definition, 289
Philolaus, 299–300
disjunct, Pythagoras’ octachord, 289, 293
diplasios, 81, 86, 286–287
genera of; diatonic, chromatic, and enharmonic,
diapason, 81, 407, 416
disdiapason, 407, 410 289–290
ditonon, 384 Archytas, 289
ditone, 314, 416, 633–634 Aristoxenus, 289, 309–310
epi prefix, 81, 384 Ptolemy, 326–332
epitetartos (epitetartic), 286–288, 657 Greater Perfect System (GPS)
epitritos (epitritic), 81–82, 86, 286–287 composed of four different kinds, 289–292
diatessaron, 81, 384 diatonic genus, in context of
epogdoos (epiogdoos), 81–82, 86, 287 Euclid, 303–304
tonon, 82, 384 Philolaus, 301
hemiolios, 81–82, 86, 287 Ptolemy, 333
diapente, 81, 382, 384, 412–413 Euclid, description of 15-tone “double-
limma, 300, 314–315, 319 octave,” 289, 302–303
Aristoxenus, 315–316 harmoniai (modes) of, seven different kinds,
‘Limma Scale’, 336 290–292
Ptolemy, 314–315, 319–320 standard “octave” of
Ramamatya, 571 Dorian Mode, Greek, 301
pyknon, 326–327, 659–660 Lydian Mode, Western, 301
Al-Farabi, 660–663 three scales, based on three genera, 292
Didymus, 329–330 Lesser Perfect System (LPS), composed of three
Eratosthenes, 229–330 different kinds, 289–291
Ptolemy, 326–329 Philolaus
schisma, 372–373 Diatonic, ancient and original division,
“schismatic fifth,” 372–375 299–301, 462n.17, 464n.47
Nicomachus on Al-Kindi’s ud, 615–617
classification, translated as Latin ratios, 486 in Euclid, 302–307
dimoirou (two-thirds), 84, 96n.30 plagiarized by Plato, 91–92
hemiseias (half), 84, 96n.30 Ptolemy
sound (frequency) and string length, inverse Catalog of Scales, 318–319, 330–332
proportionality, 84–85 Even Diatonic, origin of Arabian “neutral
“vibration ratio,” 85 second” and “neutral third” tetrachords,
“weight ratio,” 82–84, 86 329, 679–681
Plato, 91–92 pyknon and apyknon, three conceptual
Ptolemy. See also Arabian ratios principles for the division of tetrachords,
classification, 323 326–330
emmelic/melodic (epimores smaller than Soft Diatonic, unique musical quality of a
V|c), 288–289, 323–326 minor scale, 334, 832
homophonic (multiples), 295, 323–324 Tense Diatonic, origin of Western major scale,
symphonic (first two epimores, C|x and V|c), in Zarlino, 333, 832
322–326 theory of graduated consonance,
“quarter-tone,” origin and function of ratios CX|cz mathematical/musical basis for the
and CZ|c/, 290–292 division of tetrachords, 321–326
 Index 907

Guitar frets. See Cents, logarithm soundboard

Gullette, Will, viii, 845–856, 858–860 critical frequency, 132–133
Gupta, Abhinava, 550 dimensions, typical
surface area, 129
H thickness, 125
Harmonic divisions/progressions. See also Means impedance
definition, Archytas, 86–87 plate vs. soundboard, 124, 126
frequency ratios radiation, of air at soundboard, 129
of “fifth,” ratio C|x, 437 sound radiation, 133
Rameau, 435 string, D4 (d')
of “octave,” ratio X|z, 91–93, 437 dimensions and tension, typical, 125
harmonic series, context of, 63–64, 80, 427–428 Hubbard, 144n.10
length ratios impedance, 125–126
of “double-octave and a fifth,” ratio N|z, Harrison, Lou, v
426–427 Heath, Thomas L., 308
Rameau, in context of dual-generator, Helmholtz, Hermann, 212
444–446 resonator. See Resonators, cavity
Salinas, 403 Hitti, Philip K., 611
Stifel, 378, 386–390 Hood, Mantle, 512, 517–519, 521, 524
Zarlino, 378, 392–395 Hsu Li-sun, 486, 492
of “fifth,” ratio C|x, 397, 437 Huang Ti, 485
Rameau, 440–443, 446–448 Hubbard, Frank, 125
Safi Al-Din, 381 Huygens, Christiaan, 289, 362–365
Stifel, 401
Zarlino, 377–378, 382–383, 386, 399–401 I
of “octave,” ratio X|z, 89–91, 437 Ibn Al-Munajjim, 619–624, 644–645
ancient length ratios vs. frequency ratios, Ibn Khallikan, 619
87–91 Ibn Misjah, 619
Ibn Sina, 379–381 Ibn Sina, 93, 326, 366, 378–380, 384, 435, 610, 614,
Rameau, 431–432 625, 628, 636, 666–689, 692–696, 703, 715–716,
Zarlino, 382–383 722, 727, 744, 749–755, 758–759
of “triple-octave,” ratio -|z, Rameau, 430, Ibn Suraij, 619–620
Ibn Zaila, Al-Husain, 628
432–433
Ikhwan al-Safa (Brothers of Sincerity), 620–622
Zarlino, sonorous quantities, 390–391
Impedance
Harmonic/Melodic Canon. See also Canons
acoustic
construction of, 790–792
complex, 197
bridge, original design, 792–794 non-complex, 197
dimensions, 794 of duct, 233
Plate 2, 846 of room, 199
score, excerpt from Song of Myself, 800, 803–804 of tube, 198
stringing and tuning of, for Song of Myself, definition, 120, 127, 129, 197, 233
794–795, 798–799 mechanical
Harmonic series. See Cents; Flexible strings; Just complex, 120–121, 124
intonation radiation impedance, 129
Harmonics. See Flexible strings; Inharmonic of soundboard, vs. infinite plate, 122–124
strings, tone quality; Just intonation non-complex
Harpsichords. See also Pianos, vs. harpsichords of air at soundboard (radiation impedance),
Huygens, keyboard for 31-TET, 363–364 129
impedance ratio of plate, 123
air-to-soundboard, 129 of string, 121
soundboard-to-string, 126 specific acoustic
inharmonicity complex, 127
analysis of, 110–111 non-complex, 127–128
coefficients of, plain strings, 111, 126 of air (characteristic impedance), 128–129
908 Index

Indian musical terms. See also Scales, Indian Matanga, 556

ancient 4 suddharagas (pure ragas), 562–563
Bharata, 540 raga (elements of melodic sound), first
grama (tone-system, tuning, or parent formal definition, 561–562
scale), 547 Narada, 559
jati (melodic mode), three different types 7 gramaragas, first complete compilation,
(1) samsarga (combined), 549–550 559
(2) suddha (pure), 548–550, 552–554 gramaraga
(3) vikrta (modified), 548–550, 552, first formal definition, 560
555–556 or gana (song), 559–561, 563–564
4 hierarchical functions of tones: graha, guna (qualities) of, 560
amsa, apanyasa, nyasa, 548, 552, Sarngadeva, 548
gramaraga, 562–564
560, 576, 602n.30, 691
suddha jatis and laksana, definition, 548
laksana (properties) of, 547–548, 552,
svaras
554–555, 558–559, 602n.30
suddha, 566
possible influence on, 556–557 vikrta, 566
dastgah, 691 North India
maqam, 738 Bhatkhande, 587
patet, 512 10 most popular Thats, 581, 596
rasa (qualities) of, 547, 557–560 Bilaval That, modern suddha scale, 592–593,
raga (charm) of a note, 560–561 600
songs, of the theater Narayana and Ahobala, 587
dhruva, 558–560 12-tone vina tuning, 587–592
gana, spurious text, 559–560 samvaditva (consonant intervals),
characteristics of, 560 590–592
gitaka, 558 suddha svaras (pure notes), 587
sruti (interval) vikrta svaras (modified notes), 590
of 22-sruti scale, ratio analysis of Sa- raga, 558, 564, 576, 585
grama and Ma-grama, 544–547, Roy, 595
550–551 32 Thats, of eight-by-four matrix system,
definition, 540 595–596
of harp-vina tuning experiment, 541, chromatic Thats, not used, 593–594
543–544 sitar
of jatis, 554–555 construction of, 597
pramana (typical), 541–543, 547 melodic, drone, and cikari strings,
of Sa-grama and Ma-grama, 540–541, 597–599
544–545 moveable frets, 597–598
svaras (notes) definition, Sachs, 597
7 svaras of Sa-grama and Ma-grama, letter-dot notation, based on Cheve
540–541 System, 598–599
of 22-sruti scale, ratio analysis of Sa- Shankar’s mastery of String II, Junius, 597
grama and Ma-grama, 544–547 tuning of, example, 598
definition, 540 That
suddha (pure), 566 definition
of svarasadharana (overlapping note), Bhatkhande, 594
ratio analysis of An and Ka, Kaufmann, 594
549–551 vs. modern mela of South India, 594
vina (harp-vina), 541–544, 547, 550–551, South India
553, 564 Govinda, 565
gramaragas mela raga
definition, 562 14 most popular mela ragas, 581
and laksana 72 abstract raga-categories, 565
of Kudimiyamalai inscription, 562–564 72 musical heptatonic scales, first formal
of Matanga, 562–564 implementation of, 565
of Narada, 562–564 krama (straight) or vakra (zigzag)
of Sarngadeva, 562–564 sequences, 565
 Index 909

two-directional krama (straight) Venkatamakhi’s avoidance of, Iyer,

sampurna (complete) principle, 582–583
579–582 denominative raga, definition, 574
alphanumeric prefixes, 580 example of, Mela Gaula and Raga Gaula,
Kanakangi-Ratnangi system, 580–581 574
critique of janya (born, or derived) raga
Iyer, 582–584
definition, 574
K.V. Ramachandran, 584–585
N.S. Ramachandran, 580 laksana properties, absence of, 576
Mela musical raga, 564–565
Chakravakam, 580–581 Raga Gaula, 574–575
Kharaharapriya, 574, 581 melakartas
Mayamalavagaula, 574, 580–581 14 most popular mela ragas, 581
Natabhairavi, 576, 581 abstract raga-categories, 565
vs. Venkatamakhi’s melakartas, 580 definition, 577–579
raga, 558, 564, 576, 585 Mela
Ramamatya, 565 Bhairavi, 576, 579, 581
12-tone practical scale, suddha mela vina Gaula, 579, 581
tuning, 569–573
Malavagaula, 575, 579, 581
Antara Ga and Kakali Ni, elimination of,
Sri-raga, 575, 579, 581
572
14-tone theoretical scale, 566–567 Indian scales. See Scales, Indian
7 suddha svaras, 566–568 Indian tetrachords. See also Scales, Indian
7 vikrta svaras, 566–568 North Indian theory
denominative raga, definition, 574 Bhatkhande, 587
example of, Mela Sri-raga and Sri-raga, 10 most popular Thats, 581, 596
574–576 Roy, 595
janaka (parent) raga, abstract raga- 32 Thats, of eight-by-four matrix system,
category, 574 595–596
janya (born, or derived) raga chromatic Thats, not used, 593–594
definition, 574 South Indian theory
laksana properties, absence of, 574, 576 Govinda, 565
musical raga, 565 72 musical heptatonic scales, first formal
Raga Mechabauli, 574–575 implementation of, 565
Raga Suddhabairavi, 574–575 Kanakangi-Ratnangi system, 580–581
Sri-raga, 575–576 Venkatamakhi, 565
modern Sadjagrama, Rao, 576 72 Melakartas, of twelve-by-six matrix
svara system, 565, 576–579, 581
anya (foreign note), 575–576 36 vivadi melas, chromatic melas, not
vakra (note out of order), 575 used, 579, 582, 593–594, 607n.119
varjya (omitted note), 575 Indonesian scales. See Gamelan; Scales, Indonesian
mela (unifier) ragas Ingard, K. Uno, 149
abstract raga-category, 565 Inharmonic strings
definition, 574 coefficient of inharmonicity
Mela Malavagaula, 574–575 diameter effect on, 110, 118, 134–135, 808–809
Mela Sri-raga, 574–576 frequency effect on, 110, 809
vs. Venkatamakhi’s melakartas, 578 length effect on, 110, 809
Venkatamakhi, 565 steel stringing constants, logarithmic
12-tone scale; new and modern svara plain string, 110
names; ratios by Ramamatya, 576–577 wound string, 115
72 Melakartas, of twelve-by-six matrix of string
system, 565, 577–579, 581 harpsichord, average values, 111
19 melakartas, most popular in piano, average values, 110–111
Venkatamakhi’s time, 577–579 piano vs. harpsichord, 126
36 vivadi (dissonant) melas, or chromatic plain, 110–111
melas, not used, 579, 582, 593–594, wound, 114–115
607n.119 tension effect on, 110–111
910 Index

Inharmonic strings (Continued) perception of, dissonance effect, 108, 118, 135,
dispersion 138–141
definition, 104 thick string vs. thin string, 104, 118, 135,
and wave speed, effective, 104–107 141–142
inharmonicity wave speed, effective, 106
analysis of, stringing and restringing, 110–111, and dispersion, 104–105
118 experiment, 104
cent calculation, strings and modes, 108–112 mode number effect on, 105–106
length, effective stiffness parameter effect on, 106
Inharmonicity. See Inharmonic strings
and effective wavelength, 99, 101–102
Interference
stiffness parameter effect on, 101–102
definition, 48
vs. measured length, 101–102
in infinite tube, constructive and destructive,
mode
200–203
cents equation, 110 in string
definition, 98 constructive, 47–48, 51–52
frequency equations, 99 destructive, 48–49, 51–52
shape, first four modes, 101–102 Interval ratios. See Flexible strings, ratios
node, two different kinds, 101–102 Isothermal bulk modulus, liquids, 188
piano tuning, 118, 135–137 Iyer, T.L. Venkatarama, 582
stretched octaves
in bass, tuned flat, 112–114 J
in treble, tuned sharp, 111–112 Jairazbhoy, N.A., 541, 594, 596
restoring force Junius, Manfred M., 597
experiment, 104 Just intonation
tension and stiffness, composite force, 104–105 commensurable numbers of, 365–366
stiffness effect Galileo, 283
experiment, 104 definitions, two different kinds, 365
on mode Mersenne
cents, 110 harmonic-diatonic system, 404–405, 408, 436
frequencies, 98 harmonic series
shape, 101–102 as infinite series, not defined, 404–406, 420
on wave speed, effective, 99, 104–106 as limited series
on wavelength, effective, 99, 101–102 discovery of the first six harmonics,
stiffness parameter 404–408
diameter effect on, 100 influenced by
frequency effect on, 100 personal convictions, religious and
length effect on, 100, 105 moral, 407–408
steel stringing constant Ptolemy’s Tense Diatonic, 407
plain string, 100 Zarlino’s Senario, 407
wound string, 114 harmonics
of string first 14 trumpet harmonics vs. length ratios
plain, 99–100, 111 of “old” trumpet marine, 410–412
wound, 113 “leaps” of natural trumpet vs. harmonics of
tension effect on, 99–100, 111 monochord, four identical ratios, 406
tone quality. See also Beat rates “leaps” of trumpet marine vs. harmonics of
beat rate, 108, 135–136, 138, 140 monochord, five identical ratios, 406
of harmonics length ratios of “new” trumpet marine vs.
coincident, 136. “old” trumpet marine, 410–415
flexible canon strings, 141–142 with prime numbers greater than 5, not
stiff piano strings, 140–141 acknowledged, 408, 412, 415
intermediate, 137. problems comprehending cause of; no
of keyboard instrument knowledge of traveling waves, 404,
Benade, 126 422–423
Fletcher, 135 solved by D’Alembert, 423
mode number effect on, 140–142 three different terms for, 404
 Index 911

theory of consonance subharmonic series, Rameau’s recantation

based on Benedetti’s observations, of, 446
mechanical motions of strings, 415–416 Generation harmonique (1737)
contemplated ratios vs. endorsed ratios, 7-limit ratios, rejection of, 440
416–419 generator (dual-generator), function of,
7-limit ratios 444–446
detailed analysis and conflicted harmonic progression of fractional string
rejection of, 417–420 lengths, modern length ratios, 440–443
qualified acceptance of ratios -|m and and Zarlino’s ancient length ratios, same
M|n, 420 definition of major tonality, 441
origin of, Ptolemy’s theory of graduated harmonic series
consonance, 321–326 consonances produced by nature,
Meyer 440–441
7-limit Tonality Diamond, original design, major tonality, directly related to
448–452, 824 fundamental, 441
8 tonalities of, 449–451 minor tonality, not directly related to
13-tone scale of, 449 fundamental, 441–446
minor tonality as inversion of major subharmonic series, fallacy of, 441–446
tonality, 452 Nouveau systeme... (1726)
moveable boundaries of, 451–452 harmonic generation, theory of, 436
origins of harmonic series
in Rameau’s dual-generator, 444–446, hierarchy of consonances, 438
448–449, 452 “major third,” directly related to
in triangular tables of fundamental, 438
Al-Jurjani, 401–402, 448 “minor third,” not directly related to
Salinas, 402–403, 448, 452 fundamental, 439–440
“table of spans,” original description, 451 of single strings, 436–438
on 11-limit ratios, 448 Mersenne and Sauveur, acknowledged,
plagiarized by Partch, 452–453 436
Partch Traite de l’harmonie (1722)
11-limit Diamond Marimba 7-limit ratios, rejection of, 434
36 bars of, frequency ratios, 452–455 arithmetic progression of vibration
minor tonality as inversion of major numbers, frequency ratios, 428–434
tonality, 454 vs. Zarlino’s ancient length ratios,
Otonality and Utonality, theory of, 453–454 diametrically opposed descriptions
43-tone scale, 454–457 of major and minor tonalities,
7 ratio pairs, to fill chromatic gaps of 434–436
11-limit Tonality Diamond, 454–455 harmonic generation, theory of, 428–429,
29 ratios, 67% of 11-limit Tonality 434
Diamond, 454–455 harmonic progression
tuning lattice of, Wilson, 455–457 of fractional string lengths (length
Meyer’s 7-limit Tonality Diamond, three ratios)
changes to, 452–453, 824 knowledge of, 433–434
Monophony, theory of, 453 not included, 431
Zarlino’s philosophy of Unita (Unity), 429, of Stifel’s string length integers (length
484n.359 ratios), 428–430, 432–434
Rameau’s dual-generator, 444–446, 454 least common multiple (LCM), of length
Rameau numbers, 432–433
Demonstration du principe... (1750) Zarlino’s
minor tonality philosophy of Unita (Unity), 429–431
attempted to rationalized, 446–447 Senario, 434, 440
failed to rationalize, 447 Ramis
as inversion of major tonality, Shirlaw, 5-limit ratios, four different kinds, 366–367
448, 452 12-tone scale, 367–373
‘relative’ minor, origin of, 447–448 with a default schismatic fifth, 372–375
912 Index

Just intonation (Continued) Zarlino

vs. Safi Al-Din’s scale, with six schisma major and minor tonalities, origins of,
variants, 373–375 377–378, 391–397, 399–401
vs. Stevin’s 12-TET, 375–377 arithmetic and harmonic divisions of
Roberts “fifth,” ratio C|x, 399–400
harmonic series Stifel’s arithmetic and harmonic divisions
as infinite series of ratio N|z, 392–397
of discrete flageolet tones, 421 numero Senario (Number Series 1–6),
of natural trumpet tones, 421 377–378, 381–384, 390–397
as series of simultaneously sounding rationalized consonance of “major sixth”
harmonics, not defined, 421–422 and “minor sixth,” 397–399
Western theory of consonance, modern,
harmonics, with prime numbers greater That
400–401
5, considered defective, 421
philosophy of Unita (Unity), corporeal or
Salinas
spiritual manifestations, 429, 484n.359
7-limit ratios, rejection of, 403 Just Keys
harmonic division of ratio N|z, 403 Plate 6, 850
triangular table, 402–403 score, “The Letter,” from Ellis Island/Angel
arithmetic division of ratio N|z, 402–403 Island
origin of, Al-Jurjani, 401–402 description of, 811, 824
Zarlino’s Senario, 401–403 tablature score, 812–817
Sauveur traditional score, 818–823
‘acoustique’, science of sound, 422 tuning of, 808–811
discoveries on vibrating strings
‘noeuds’ (nodes) and ‘ventres’ (antinodes), K
422 Kanon. See Canons
significance to other vibrating systems, Kasyapa, 562
426 Kaufmann, Walter, 490, 578, 594
simultaneous subdivisions/mode Kepler, Johannes, 336, 418
frequencies, 422–423 Khan, Vilayat, 599
‘sons harmoniques’, consistent with Kitharas
intervals of harmonic divisions and description
harmonic series, 422, 427–428 Maas and Snyder, 618–619
standing wave of fifth harmonic, 424–426 Sachs, 617–618
harmonic series, as an infinite series tension, only variable after stringing, 323
discovery of, 422–424 tuning limitations
historic significance of, 426–427 four significant structural problems, 617–619
no knowledge of traveling waves, 423 GPS not tunable, 619
first thirty-two harmonics of strings and of gut strings, 618
wind instruments, 423–424 Krishan, Gopal, 599
scales Kudimiyamalai inscription, 561–564
3-, 5-, and 7-limit scales vs. !|$-Comma
Meantone and 12-TET scales, 376–377 L
prime number limit of, 282. See also Limit of Lachmann, Robert, 612
3; Limit of 5; Limit of 7 Lath, Mukund, 545, 550
Stifel Latin ratios
division of “double-octave and a fifth,” classification
ratio N|z, into four arithmetic and four multiple-superparticular, 284–285
harmonic means, 386–390 multiple-superpartient, 284–286
on the importance of both divisions, 401 superparticular (epimore), 284, 385
plagiarized by Zarlino, 378, 389 Al-Farabi, 661
Wallis Ibn Sina, 678–679
experiments, sympathetic resonance, 420–421 Mersenne, 417–418
nodes Zarlino, 397
discovery of, 420–421 superpartient (epimere), 285, 385
Sauveur’s acknowledgment, 426 Al-Farabi, 661
infinite number of, not defined, 421–422 Zarlino, 398
 Index 913

interval Mersenne
sesqui prefix, definition, 384 conflicted rejection of, 417–420
sesquialtera, 384–385 qualified acceptance of ratios -|m and M|n, 420
Mersenne, 417 Meyer, of original Tonality Diamond, or “table
Zarlino, 385–386, 392 of spans,” 448–451
sesquioctava, 384–385 Ptolemy, of Soft Diatonic Scale, 334, 832
sesquiquarta, 384–385 Rameau, rejection of, 440
Mersenne, 417 Salinas, rejection of, 403
Zarlino, 385–386, 399 Limit of 11
sesquiquinta, 385 Al-Farabi
Mersenne, 417 of Jins 2 tetrachord, 653–654, 679–680
Zarlino, 385–386, 398–399 of middle finger of Zalzal fret on ud  s, 636–339,
sesquitertia, 384–385 643
Mersenne, 417 Javanese slendro and pelog scales, close rational
Zarlino, 398 approximations, 510–511
Length ratios. See Flexible strings, ratios Partch, of Diamond Marimba, 452–454
Lieberman, Fredric, 486, 492, 496 Ptolemy
Limit of 3 of Even Diatonic Scale, 329, 679–680
Al-Kindi, of original 12-tone “double-octave” ud of Tense Chromatic Scale, 331
tuning, 615 Limit of 13
Chinese 12-tone scale, spiral of eleven ascending Forster
“fifths,” 487–488 of Bass Marimba, 827
compared to 12-TET, 377 of Diamond Marimba, 824–825
definition, 282 of Glassdance, 831
Philolaus, of original Diatonic Tetrachord, Ibn Sina
299–301 of Diatonic Genus 4 and 7 tetrachords, 676,
Pythagorean theory, 288, 336, 367 679–680
Safi Al-Din, of original 17-tone ud tuning, 712 influence on modern Persian dastgahs,
tunbur of Khurasan, 704 686–689, 692–696
Western and Eastern music, two 12-tone scales, of Zalzal frets on ud, 671, 674
spirals of ascending and descending “fifths,” Limit of 17
335 Al-Farabi, of Persian middle finger fret on ud  s,
Limit of 5 636–639, 643, 674
Al-Farabi, on consonance of ratios B|v and N|b, Limit of 19
Eratosthenes, of Enharmonic and Chromatic
326, 655–658
Scales, 330–331
Bharata, of Sadjagrama and Madhyamagrama,
Forster
546
of Chrysalis, 796–797
compared to 12-TET, 377
of Harmonic/Melodic Canon, 798–799
Gaffurio, rejection of, 367 Ibn Sina, of Chromatic Genus 11 tetrachord, 676
Mersenne, of 12-tone lute scale, 358–359 Ling Lun, 485
Ptolemy Litchfield, Malcolm, 308–309, 311, 317
argumentative acceptance of, 288 Little Canon
original emmelic/melodic classification of, construction of, 834–836
325–326 dimensions, 837–838
of Tense Diatonic Scale, in Zarlino, 233 Plate 12, 856
Pythagoreans, rejection of, 288–289 tuning of, 837
Ramis, of original 12-tone monochord scale, Liu An, 500–501
372–373, 376 Locana, 594
Zarlino, of numero Senario, 381–384, 397–399 Logarithm. See Cents
Limit of 7 Loops. See Flexible strings
compared to 12-TET, 377 Lutes. See also Tunbur; Ud
Forster, of Just Keys, 808–811 description of, Sachs, 597
Huygens, consonance of ratios M|b, Z?|m, and M|v, etymology of, Farmer, 610
364–365 experiment with, Wallis, 421
914 Index

Lutes (Continued) Rameau, harmonic progression of modern length

inheritance of, from the Arabian Renaissance, ratios, 440–443
610–612 of dual-generator, 444–446
moveable frets of Marcus, Scott Lloyd, 749, 759–762, 767–771
lute and ud, 632, 669–670 Marimba bars. See Bars, rods, and tubes
sitar, 586 Marimbas. See Bass Marimba; Diamond Marimba
tunbur of Khurasan, 696, 701–704 Martopangrawit, Raden Lurah, 513, 517, 519–521
of North India Mashaqah, Mikhail, 759
sarangi, 600 Mass, 5–6, 12, 17, 23. See also Mass per unit area;
sitar, 597–598 Mass per unit length; Mica mass
of Persia, tunbur of Khurasan, 696 air mass, of cavity resonator, 212–215, 221
of South India, vina, 543, 586 definition, 1–2, 8
tuning density, 1, 23
!|$-comma meantone vs. approximation of 12- of air, 23, 892
TET, 340, 348–349, 354 of the earth, 6
of “semitone,” ratio Z-|zm of fluid (liquid or gas), 4, 21
Al-Farabi of solid, 4, 16
12 equal “semitones” per “octave,” 355 English Engineering System, 9, 12, 16
on two different ud  s, 354–355, 639, 643 pounds-mass, 7.
approximation of 12-TET experiment, 7–8
in concert music, Cardan, 355 inconsistent system, 9, 16
fretting instructions lbm-to-mica conversion factor, 14, 880
Galilei, 356 English Gravitational System, 9–10
Mersenne, 356–359 slug, 1, 9.
origin of, Ptolemy, 354–355 consistent system, 9–10
Lyres experiment, 10–11
description slug-to-mica conversion factor, 880
Maas and Snyder, 618–619 English mass unit, undefined, 1, 13, 16
Sachs, 617–618 experiment, 7–10, 15
tension, only variable after stringing, 323 and frequency, 1, 4, 16, 18–21
tuning of glass, snifter, 830–831
designs inertial property, 1–2, 4, 8
of ancient Greece, 289 metric system
of Arabian simsimiyya, modern, 787n.228 gram, 1
of Pythagoras, 293 gram-to-mica conversion factor, 880
of Terpander, 291–293 kilogram, 1
limitations kg-to-mica conversion factor, 24, 880
four structural problems, 617–619 Newton, 1–2, 5–7
GPS not tunable, 619 of spring-mass system, 183–184, 223n.9
of gut strings, 618 of string
plain, 2–3, 18–19, 338, 792
M wound, 806
Maas, Martha, 618 Mass per unit area
Major tonality. See also Minor tonality of plate, 123
of 7-limit ratios of soundboard
16-tone scale, 420 harpsichord, 125–126
Meyer’s tonality diamond, 449–452 piano, 123–124
of 11-limit ratios, Partch Mass per unit length
43-tone scale, 454–457 of bar, 158
Diamond Marimba, 453 of cylinder
Otonality, 453–454 hollow, 38
Al-Farabi’s ‘Diatonic Mode’, 645 solid, 38
definition, harmonic division of “fifth,” of of stiffness parameter
ancient length ratios C|x, 396–397 plain string, 100
Zarlino, 377–378, 399–401 wound string, 113–114
 Index 915

of string Zarlino, 401

plain, 4, 18–19, 27–29 vs. X|m-comma meantone temperament, 343
wound, 36–41 based on irrational length ratios; geometric
Mass per unit volume. See Mass, density; Mica division of canon strings, 336–337
mass, density Euclid’s method, mean proportional, 297–298
Matanga, 556, 561–562, 572 interpretation of
McPhee, Colin, 522–528, 530–533 Chuquet, 399–341
Means, 86 Zarlino, 338–339
arithmetic, and minor tonality, 90–91 on keyboard instruments, 336, 340
vs. fretted lutes and viols, 348
arithmetic-geometric asymptote, 313–314
meantone, definition, 342
definition; arithmetic, harmonic, and geometric,
geometric division of “major third,” ratio B|v,
86
on canon string, 342–343
Archytas, 87–89
origin of, Ramis’ advocacy of 5-limit “major
harmonic, and major tonality, 90 third,” ratio B|v, 340–342, 375
interpretations of, ancient length ratio vs. Mersenne, Marin, 338, 349, 356, 358–359, 377,
frequency ratio, 87–91, 93 404–408, 410–420, 422–423, 428, 436, 438, 610,
Plato, description of, 91–92 642
explanation by Meyer, Max F., 448–453, 824
Nicomachus, 92 Mica mass, 14–16, 18, 23
Plutarch, 93 acronym, 14–15
Stifel, division of “double-octave and a fifth,” consistent system, 14–15
ratio N|z, into four arithmetic and four definition, 14–15
harmonic means, 386–390, 401 user defined units, 23
Zarlino, arithmetic and harmonic divisions of density
“fifth,” ratio C|x, 399–400 of bar making materials, 885
incorporation of Stifel’s arithmetic and of bronze, modified, 37
harmonic divisions of ratio N|z, 390–397 of copper, modified, 40
origins of major and minor tonalities, dimensional analysis, 23
377–378, 396–397, 399–401 of gases, 892
Meantone temperaments of liquids, 890
Aron’s !|$-Comma Meantone Temperament, 342, of solids, 888
347 of string making materials, 882
!|$ syntonic comma dimensional analysis, 17–20, 22–23
calculation of, 344 experiment, 15
cumulative reduction of four consecutive mica-to-kg conversion factor, 24, 880
“fifths,” 344–345 mica-to-lbm conversion factor, 14, 880
comparisons to 3-limit, 5-limit, 7-limit, and new mass unit, need for, 1, 13, 25n.19
12-TET scales, 376–377 Minor tonality. See also Major tonality
harmonic analysis of, twelve usable keys, of 7-limit ratios
346–347, 349–350 16-tone scale, 420
Huygens Mersenne, conflicted acceptance/rejection of,
cent comparisons 418–420
comparable intervals of 31-TET, 363–364 Meyer’s tonality diamond, 448–452
“fifth” of 31-TET, 363 of 11-limit ratios, Partch
three septimal ratios; M|n, M|b, and M|v, 364 43-tone scale, 454–457
key color of, unequal temperament with two Diamond Marimba, 453
different “semitones,” 349 Utonality, 453–454
syntonic comma (comma of Didymus), Al-Farabi’s ‘Persian Mode’, 645
definition, 343–344 definition, arithmetic division of “fifth,” of
tuning ancient length ratio C|x, 396–397
lattice, 345 Zarlino, 378, 399–401, 452
sequence, three steps, 344–346 as inversion of major tonality
vs. Werckmeister’s No. III Well-Temperament, Meyer, 449–452
352–353 Rameau, 444–446, 452
“wolf fifth” and “wolf fourth” of, 346–347 Shirlaw, 448, 452
916 Index

Minor tonality (Continued) gushe, individual mode, 690.

Rameau, arithmetic progression of ancient vs. raga, 690
length ratios, 441–444 musical notation sign
of dual-generator, 444–448 koron, 636–640
Mode shape, 98 sori, 636, 640
Modes. See Scales Persian scales. See Scales, Persian
Modulus of elasticity. See Young’s modulus of Persian tetrachords, modern
elasticity all 12 Dastgaha on Ibn Sina’s ud, 687–689,
Mohammed, 610 692–696
Monsour, Douglas, Dedication Page, 843 Farhat
Morse, Philip K., 149 of 12 Dastgaha, 692–693
Musical slide rule. See Cents, logarithm chromaticism, not used, 687
of Mahur, intervalic structure, 771–772
N Philolaus, 91, 280, 288, 299–301, 304, 333, 617,
Napier, John, 257, 340 624–625, 648–649, 662, 681, 686, 758–759
Narada, 559–560, 564, 572 Pianos
Narayana, 93, 587–592 Cristofori, gravicembalo col piano e forte, 118,
Nederveen, Cornelis, J., 227–230, 233, 235–238, 244 130
Needham, Joseph, 487 design change ideas, 142
Newton, Isaac, 1, 428 impedance ratio
laws of motion air-to-soundboard, 129
first, 2, 5, 8, 11, 158, 186 soundboard-to-string, 125
second, 5–7, 9, 15 inharmonicity
Nicomachus of Gerasa, 82–85, 92–93, 284, 286, analysis of, 110–111
293–294, 299, 319, 380, 610, 624–625 coefficients of, plain strings, 111
Nijenhuis, E. Wiersma-Te, 545, 556, 560 effect on
Nodes. See Bars, rods, and tubes; Flexible strings; beat rates, uncontrollable, 105, 108, 135
Inharmonic strings; Just intonation, Sauveur; timbre, 110–111, 118, 135
Just intonation, Wallis; Resonators, tube tuning, 111–112, 118
Numero Senario. See Just intonation, Zarlino tuning possibilities, 105, 108, 118, 135,
808–809
O limitations, structural and musical
“Octave” equivalence. See Cents soundboard, thickness, 133–134
Old Arabian School, 619–620, 636 string tension, total force, 134–135
Ornstein, Ruby Sue, 524, 530–531 tuning, inharmonicity, 134–135
soundboard
P bending wave speed, 131–132
Palisca, Claude V., 356, 415 components
Partch, Harry, v, 452–457, 824, 840 bridges, 124
Period. See Flexible strings liners, 124
Persian musical terms. See also Scales, Persian ribs, 123–124
dastan (fret), 628, 630–632 critical frequency, 130–133
dastgah Mahur, pishdaramad (overture), 771–773 dimensions, typical
instruments surface area, 129
tar and setar (three strings), 597, 687–689 thickness, 123
tunbur of Khurasan, 696–697, 701–704 impedance
ud al-farisi, ancient lute, 619 data, Wogram, 122–124, 129–130, 132–133
mode plate vs. soundboard, 123–124
5 hierarchical functions of tones: aqaz, shahed, radiation, of air at soundboard, 129
ist, [finalis], and moteqayyer, 690–694, sound radiation, 132–133
772 spruce
vs. laksana, 691 European (Picea abies), 886n.8
12 Modern Dastgaha (sing. dastgah), Farhat, Sitka (Picea sitchensis), 123, 885
692–696 stringing scale
dastgah, group of modes/dominant mode, 1.88 : 1, need for, 34
690. 2:1, structural problems of, 33
 Index 917

strings Poisson’s ratio

coefficients of inharmonicity, 109–111, 126 of hardwood plywood, 222
dimensions and tension, typical of Sitka spruce, 123
bass, G2, 40 Powers, Harold S., 580–582, 586
treble Praetorius, Michael, 336, 349, 610
D4, 121 Pressure
G3 and C4 ... G7 and C8, 111 adiabatic bulk modulus, 21–22
energy transfer, to soundboard, 118–119, 125 in cavity resonator, 212–214, 216–219, 226n.50
impedance, D4, 122 definition, 22
dimensional analysis, 22
length vs. diameter, changes in, 115
driving
stiffness parameters, 111
of acoustic (wave) impedance, complex, 197
tension equation
specific, 127–128
plain, 31
of bar, 196, 214, 217–218
wound, 41 definition, 127
wound, need for, 27, 34 of soundboard, 128
tuning process, general, 302 of tube resonator, 198–199
12-TET, 136 English system
of “fifth,” 136 of air
of “fourth,” 137 at 1 standard atmosphere, 22
of “major third,” 136–137, 139–140, adiabatic bulk modulus, 22
146n.28 psi, 13, 22
vs. harpsichords at flute embouchure and tone hole, 240–241
coefficient of inharmonicity, average values, of gas, 188
126 wave
critical frequency of soundboard, 132–134 in air, 130–131, 182–184
impedance ratio of bar, 214, 217
air-to-soundboard, 129–130 in flute, 230, 234, 239, 247
soundboard-to-string, 125–126 of plane wave, 186–187
sound radiation, 133 in tube resonator, 189–195, 198–199, 200–208
soundboard thickness, string tension, and Young’s modulus of elasticity, 13
inharmonicity, 130 Ptolemy, Claudius, vi, 78, 86, 90, 93, 280, 287–289,
Plain strings 295, 312–314, 316–334, 338, 354–355, 358–359,
equations 399–401, 403–404, 407–408, 413, 415, 553, 564,
diameter, 31 610, 624–625, 628, 636–637, 642, 646–647, 651,
frequency, 27, 31 657–659, 661, 664–665, 674, 677, 679–681, 707,
length, 31 712, 759, 792, 832
mass per unit length, 28–29 Pulse. See Waves
tension, 31 Pythagoras, vi, 44, 82–83, 280, 284, 288–289,
four laws of, 31–32 293–295
length Pythagoreans, 288, 308, 318–319, 322–324, 336, 657
and frequency, inverse proportionality, 32–33
piano stringing, structural problems, 33–34 Q
piano stringing scale, treble strings, 34 Quadrivium, 630
tension
break strength R
calculation, 35, 40, 134 Racy, Ali Jihad, 760–761
definition, 35 Radius of gyration. See Bars, rods, and tubes
considerations; structural, technical, and Rai, I Wayan, 524–525, 529–530
musical, 35 Ramachandran
instrument limitations, 35 K.V., 584–585
Plane sections. See Bars, rods, and tubes N.S., 580
Plato, 91–93, 288, 308, 610–611, 624–625, 759 Ramamatya, 93, 565–580, 582, 584, 586–587, 599
Plutarch, 82, 85, 91–93 Rameau, Jean-Philippe, 90–91, 428–436, 438–449,
Poerbapangrawit, Raden Mas Kodrat, 513, 451–452, 454
517–519, 521–522 Ramis, Bartolomeo, 93, 340, 342, 358, 366–377, 401
918 Index

Rao, T.V. Subba, 576 tuning process

Rarefaction. See Compression and rarefaction attack tone vs. decay tone, 222
Ratio of specific heats at opening, 215–217, 222
of adiabatic bulk modulus, 22 at sidewalls, with tuning dowels, 219–221
of gases, 892 tube
of liquids, 890 antinode (closed tube), 203
Ratios. See also Ancient length ratios; Arabian displacement (DA), 205, 207–208
ratios; Flexible strings, ratios; Greek ratios; pressure (PA), 205
Latin ratios antinode (infinite tube)
integer, definition, 71, 281 displacement (DA), 201–203
numbers That compose pressure (PA), 201–203
commensurable vs. incommensurable, 365–366 antinode (open tube), 203
Galileo, 283 displacement (DA), 204
composite pressure (PA), 204
definition, 281 closed, 203
prime factorization, 281–282 airtight seal, making, 211
irrational end correction, 207–209
cube root of 3, Archytas, 283 and diameter, direct proportionality, 208
definition, 283 and frequency, inverse proportionality,
square root of real 211
Chuquet, 339–341 frequency
Euclid, 283, 297–298 actual, 210
Zarlino, 338–339 theoretical, 207
positive natural; odd, even, and prime, 281 length
prime cut, 210
definition, 281 measured vs. effective, 207–208
factorization, 281–282 theoretical, 207
limit, definition, of intervals and scales, closed-closed
282. See also Limit of 3 frequency, theoretical and actual, 230
rational length, measured and effective, 230
definition, 281 impedance, acoustic wave, 197
two types, 282–283 bar-to-resonator relation, 198
Ray, Satyajit, 600 of resonator, 196–197
Resonators
of room, 199
cavity
of tube, 198
air mass, in neck, 212–213
tube-to-room ratio, 199
actual, 215, 221
node (closed tube), 203
theoretical, 214
air spring displacement (DN), 205
in cavity, 212–213, 215–216 pressure (PN), 205, 207–208
at sidewalls, 217–219, 221 node (infinite tube)
air spring-air mass system, two different displacement (DN), 201–203
kinds, 212–213, 217–219 pressure (PN), 201–203
end correction node (open tube), 203
of duct opening, 214 displacement (DN), 204
of flange opening, 214 pressure (PN), 204
and frequency, inverse proportionality, 215 open, 203
frequency, 215 end correction, 209
equation, limitations of, 212 frequency
theoretical vs. actual, 217 actual, 209
Helmholtz, 212 theoretical, 206
making, size considerations, 218–221 length
neck, effective length of, 212–215 cut, 209
reason for, 212 measured vs. effective, 229–230
sidewall stiffness, 221–222 theoretical, 206
 Index 919

pulse reflection tetrachords; Turkish musical terms; Turkish

at closed end tetrachords; Well-temperaments
compression, 190, 192 Arabian
rarefaction, 190–191, 193 8 tetrachords, origins in near-equal divisions
at open end of intervals; Ptolemy, Al-Farabi, and Ibn
compression, 191, 194 Sina, 677–681
rarefaction, 191, 195 24-TET, modern scale, 755–761
reason for, 196 46 Modern Maqamat, 761–771, 786n.209
standing waves, pressure/displacement 9 fasail, for the construction of, 762
closed, 203, 205, 208 16-tone scale, for the playing of, 770–771
closed-closed, 230 of Al-Farabi
infinite, 201 3 standard modes, 7-tone scales, 644–646
open, 203–204, 230 3 tetrachordal conjunct/disjunct systems;
Restoring force in the context of GPS, 662–666
of bar 8 Ajnas, tetrachords, 640–641, 646–655
clamped-free, 174–177 10-fret ud tuning, theoretical, 632–639
free-free, 147–148, 154–162 15 tetrachords, 2 genera, 658–663
bending stiffness 17-tone scale
of bar, 152, 154–155, 158–160 original tunbur, 703–707, 735
of plate, 123 tunbur of Khurasan, 696–697, 701–704
of rod and tube, 158 22-tone scale, ud tuning, 640–643
of soundboard of Al-Kindi, original 12-tone scale, ud tuning,
harpsichord, 125 611–617
piano, 123, 130–132 of Al-Munajjim, 8 majari, 7-tone scales,
of cavity resonator, 226n.50 621–625
definition, 2 of Brothers of Sincerity, 9-tone scale, ud
elastic property, 2–4, 21 tuning, 620–622
of fluid, 4 of Ibn Sina
of glass, snifter, 830–831 11 Melodic Modes, 681–686
of plane wave, 186–187 16 tetrachords, 3 genera, 673–676
of solid, 4 17-tone scale, ud tuning, 666–673
of spring-mass system, 226n.50 of Safi Al-Din
of string. See also Downbearing force 17-tone scale
flexible, 1–4, 18–19 ascending spiral of “fourths,” original
stiff, 104–105, 107–108 construction, 731–733
Roberts, Francis, 421–422 First Ud Tuning, 707–713
Robinson, Kenneth, 503 monochord/ud tuning, 717–719
Rods. See Bars, rods, and tubes tunbur/ud tuning, 720–721
Roy, Hemendra Lal, 595–597 Second Ud Tuning, 714–717
19-tone scale, theoretical; ascending and
S descending spirals of “fifths,” 710–713
Sachs, Curt, 489, 556, 597, 617–618 84 Melodic Modes, 721–726, 728–729, 768
Safi Al-Din, 93, 326, 366, 373–375, 379, 381, 384, 6 Awazat, 730–731
401–402, 610, 622, 626–627, 673, 696, 705, 12 genera, for the construction of, 726
707–733, 735, 737, 740–745, 747–749, 754–755, 12 Shudud, 727–730, 737, 740–744,
758–759, 763–768, 771 767–768
Salinas, Francisco, 401–403, 448, 452 Chinese
Sarngadeva, 548, 562, 566–567, 572, 576 1-lu interval
Saunders, Lawrence, viii two different kinds, 497–499
Sauveur, Joseph, 390, 422–428, 436, 438 of two tiao (mode tuning) cycles, 496–499
Scales, 86. See also Arabian musical terms; 5-tone (pentatonic) scale
Arabian ratios; Arabian tetrachords; on ch’in
Equal temperaments; Greek ratios; Greek 12 tiao (mode tunings)
tetrachords; Indian musical terms; Indian ascending cycle of six; descending
tetrachords; Just intonation; Meantone cycle of six, 496–499
temperaments; Persian musical terms; Persian interval sequences of, 497, 500
920 Index

Scales (Continued) Bhatkhande, 10 most popular Thats, 581,

open strings 596
post-Ming, new scale, 490–493 letter-dot notation, after cipher-dot
pre-Ming, old scale, 490–493 notation of the Cheve System, 508,
String III as chiao, dual identity of, 535n.6, 598–599
492 Narayana and Ahobala, 12-tone vina
tuning sequence of, 492 tuning, 591
stopped strings (hui fractions), pre-Ming, Roy, 32 Thats, of eight-by-four matrix
old scale, 492–496 system, 581, 595–596
cipher notation of, Cheve System, 490, 493, sitar tuning and fret locations, 598
496, 508 South India
original, 487–488, 490–493 14 most popular mela ragas, 581
12-TET, discovery of, Chu Tsai-yu, 502–504
Govinda
12-tone scale
72 musical heptatonic scales, first formal
formula of, Ssu-ma Ch’ien, 486
implementation of, 565
generation of, 486–487
lu, definition, 487 Kanakangi-Ratnangi system, 580–581
spirals of “fifths,” That closely approximate Ramamatya
equal temperaments, 500–502 12-tone practical scale, suddha mela vina
Greek tuning, 573
Archytas, three means for the construction of 14-tone theoretical scale, 567
tetrachords, 86–87 Venkatamakhi
of Aristoxenus, 309–311 12-tone scale, 577
Catalog of Scales, seven theorists, 330–332 72 Melakartas, of twelve-by-six matrix
Dorian and Lydian modes, 292, 301, 333 system, 579, 581
of Euclid, 304 Indonesian. See also Gamelan
Greater Perfect System (GPS), 289–292, Bali
301–304, 333 gamelan Semar Pegulingan, 525–530
Lesser Perfect System (LPS), 289–291 patutan, definition, 523, 537n.43
of Philolaus, 300–301, 304 pelog
of Ptolemy, 328–329 7-tone scale (saih pitu), 523–530
of Pythagoras, 289, 293 5-tone scale (saih lima), derived,
seven harmoniai (modes), 290, 292 524–530
ecclesiastical names of, 290, 292 pemero (two auxiliary tones),
of Terpander, 289, 291–293 penyorog and pemanis, 525
three genera, Archytas and Aristoxenus, cipher notation of, 523
289–292 intervals of, 523
Indian patutan Selisir, 525–530
ancient six-tone, Pliatan Village, 530–534
Bharata cipher notation of, 532
Madhyamagrama (Ma-grama), 540–541, penyorog, 525, 531–534
546 Patutan Tembung, Selisir, Baro, Lebeng,
and svarasadharana, 549–551 525–529
Sadjagrama (Sa-grama), 540–541, 546 and Sunaren, 527–529
Suddha Jatis, 554 slendro, 5-tone scale
Arsabhi and Naisadi vs. Ptolemy’s cipher notation of, 522–523
Tense Diatonic, 553 intervals of, 523
Vikrta Jatis, 555 saih gender wayang; shadow puppet
Gandhari vs. original Chinese theater only, 522–523
pentatonic scale, 556 solmization, slendro and pelog, 525
gramaragas and laksana Java
of Kudimiyamalai inscription, 563 patet, definition, 512–513
of Matanga, 563 pelog, 7-tone scale
of Narada, 563 5-, 7-, and 11-limit ratio analyses of, 511
of Sarngadeva, 563 cipher notation of, 510–511
North India definition, 510
12-tone scale, modern svaras of, 592 intervals of, 510–512, 517–521
 Index 921

Patet Lima, Nem, and Barang, 517–521 of Mersenne’s

gong tones and cadences, 517, harmonic-diatonic system, 403–405
519–521, 537n.29 lute, 356–359
slendro, 5-tone scale “old” and “new ” trumpet marines,
5-, 7-, and 11-limit ratio analyses of, 510 410–415
cipher and cipher-dot notation of, Cheve of Meyer, 449
System, 508–511, 535n.6 minor scale, Ptolemy’s Soft Diatonic, 334, 832
definition, 509 of Partch, 454–457
intervals of, 509–517 Pythagorean ‘Apotome Scale’ and ‘Limma
Patet Nem, Sanga, and Manyura, Scale’, 336
513–514, 516 of Ramis, 366–377
gong tones and cadences, 513–516 of Spechtshart, first twelve-tone 3-limit scale,
solmization, slendro and pelog, 525 334–335
tumbuk (common tone) between slendro spirals of twelve “fifths,” ascending and
and pelog, 519–522 descending, for the construction of,
Persian 335–336
12 Modern Dastgaha, Farhat, 690–696 of Stevin, 358–362, 375–376
9 intervals of, 686–688 of Werckmeister, 349–353
Schisma. See Arabian ratios; Greek ratios, interval;
basic 17-tone scale of, 770–771
Just intonation, Ramis; Tunbur
dastgah, definition, 690
Schlesinger, Kathleen, 227
on Ibn Sina’s ud, 692–696
Seeff, Norman, 857
17-tone scale Senario. See Just intonation, Zarlino
modern cent averages of two tar and three Shankar, Ravi, 597, 600
setar tunings, 687–689 Sharma, P.L., 561
tunbur of Khurasan, 696–697, 701–704 Shear force. See Bars, rods, and tubes, restoring
Turkish forces
24-tone modern scale Shirlaw, Matthew, 428, 434, 448, 452
6 modern musical symbols of, 735–736 Signell, Karl L., 736, 738–739, 741–745
53-TET, theoretical model, 736–737 Simple Flutes, 833
comma-limma equivalents of, 736–736 Acrylic Flute
vs. Al-Farabi’s original tunbur tuning, Flute 1
733–736 construction of, 246
vs. Safi Al-Din’s First Ud Tuning, 735 dimensions, 241
basic 18-tone scale, 770–771 tuning of, 239–241, 833
Signell Flute 3, tuning of, 833
6 ‘Variant’ Maqamat, 744–745 Amaranth Flute, Flute 2
5 of 6 on Safi Al-Din’s First Ud, 744–745 dimensions, 243
13 Basic Maqamat, 740–743 tuning of, 245–246
10 of 13 on Safi Al-Din’s First Ud, Plate 11, 855
740–743 Simple harmonic motion (SHM)
Western definition, 50, 182
of particle motion
7-tone modes, ecclesiastical names of, 290, 292
in air, 182–184
12-tone scale
in cord/string, 50–51
five examples of, 376–377
in solid, liquid, gas, 186–187
origins of, Chinese and Arabian sources, of spring-mass system, 183–186
334 Sindoesawarno, Ki, 512
transformation from 3-limit to 5-limit scale, Sitar. See Indian musical terms, North India
418–419 Smith, Page, Dedication Page, 839
of Anonymous, in Pro clavichordiis faciendis, Snyder, Jane McIntosh, 618
first twelve-tone 5-limit scale, 473n.175 Sound waves. See Waves, sound
of Aron, 342–347, 353, 364 Soundboards
of Halberstadt organ, Praetorius, 336 instrument
of Huygens, 362–365 Bass Canon, 800, 805
of Kepler, 336 ch’in, top piece, 489
major scale, Zarlino’s advocacy of Ptolemy’s Chrysalis, 788–789
Tense Diatonic, 319, 333, 832 Harmonic/Melodic Canon, 790–793
922 Index

Soundboards (Continued) Spechtshart, Hugo, 334

harp-vina, 543 Speed of sound. See also Wave speed, longitudinal
harpsichord, 123, 125–126, 129, 132–133 in air, 23, 126–127, 131–132
Just Keys, 808–809 at 68°F, 189
kithara and lyre, 617–618 at 86°F, 189
Little Canon, 834–836 per degree rise of, 189
piano, 123, 125–126, 129, 132–133 as constant, 188, 208
qanun, ancient, 628–631 inside played flute, 229
sitar, 597 in rosewood, 21
trumpet marine, 408 in spruce vs. steel, 886n.8
ud, top plate, 619–620, 626 temperature effect on, gas, 188–189
vina, 586 Spring constant
violin, top plate, 626 acoustical, of cavity resonator, two different
piano. See also Pianos, soundboard kinds, 212–219, 221
bending wave, 122, 128 definition, 183–185
speed, 119, 131 mechanical, 183–185, 216, 218, 221–222
and bending wavelength, inverse Spring-mass system
proportionality, 131–132 acoustical, of cavity resonator
and critical frequency, 132, 134 definition, two different kinds, 212–213,
and dispersion, 130–132 217–219, 221
effect on acoustic radiation, 123–124, elastic and inertial components, 212–213,
131–133 217–219, 221
experiment, 131 excess pressure of, 226n.50
of plate, 131–132 frequency of, 215–217
dispersion restoring force of, 226n.50
definition, 131 mechanical
effect on radiation, 130, 132 definition, 183–185
energy transfer (coupling) elastic and inertial components, 183–185
soundboard-to-air, 127–128 frequency of, 185, 223n.9
string-to-soundboard, 119, 121, 127–128 two springs in series and one mass, 218–219
impedance, mechanical wave, 120–121, 124 restoring force of, 226n.50
data, Wogram, 122–124, 129–130, 132–133 Ssu-ma Ch’ien, 93, 334, 486
experiment, thick soundboard Stapulensis, Jacobus Faber (Jacques Le Febvre),
and thick piano string, 133–134 396
Stevin, Simon, 354, 358–362, 375–376, 502–503,
and thin canon string, 142
542, 569, 749
fluctuations, 122
Stifel, Michael, 276n.6, 378, 386–390, 392, 396–397,
of plate, 123
401, 403, 427, 429, 432–433, 435
radiation, of air at soundboard, 124, String Winder. See also Wound strings
129–130 construction of, basic components, 805–807
ratio dimensions, 807
air-to-soundboard, 129–130, 134 Plates 4 and 5, 848–849
soundboard-to-string, 125–126, 134–135, Strings. See Flexible strings; Inharmonic strings;
142 Plain strings; Wound strings
reactance and resistance, 122–123 Subharmonic series. See Flutes; Just Intonation,
resonance and resonant frequency, 122–124, Rameau
132–133 Sumarsam, 512
radiation, 119 Superposition. See Flexible strings
bending wave speed effect on, 131–132 Surjodiningrat, Wasisto, 509–511, 516, 521–522
critical frequency effect on, 132–133
data, Wogram, 124, 129–130 T
stringing effect on, 125, 130 Temperaments. See Equal temperaments;
thickness effect on, 130, 134 Meantone temperaments; Well-temperaments
wood Temperature
European spruce (Picea abies), 886n.8 conversion factors, 189, 881
Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis), 885 effect on
T’ung wood (Paulownia imperialis), 489 density vs. pressure, 188
 Index 923

frequency, 189 schisma and comma variants of, 696–707

speed of sound in gas/air, 188–189, 225n.26 of Turkey, modern tuning and musical symbols
per degree rise of, in air, 189 of, 733–736
inside played flute, 229 Turkish musical terms
Tensile strength, 32 6 hierarchical functions of tones: karar, tiz durak,
and break strength calculation, 35 yeden, guclu, asma karar, giris, 738
definition, 35 Turkish scales. See Scales, Turkish
of spring steel, 35 Turkish tetrachords, modern
of string materials, 882 of Rast, 727, 746–747, 749
gut strings, thick vs. thin, 883n.1
modal origins on Safi Al-Din First Ud,
high-carbon spring steel music wire, 884
726–728, 730–733, 744–748
temper classifications; copper, brass, bronze, and
Signell
steel, 883
6 basic tetrachords/pentachords, 738–739
Tension. See Plain strings
Tenzer, Michael, 533 6 ‘variant’ (non-“basic”) tetrachords/
Terpander, 289, 291–293 pentachords, 738–739
Tetrachords. See Arabian tetrachords; Greek Tyagaraja, 578, 583–584, 604n.73, 606n.97
tetrachords; Indian tetrachords; Persian
tetrachords; Turkish tetrachords U
Theon of Smyrna, 284, 286, 318, 380 Ud. See also Lutes
Tonality Diamond. See Diamond Marimba; Just bridge
intonation, Meyer; Just intonation, Partch dama, 628
Tone notation, ix faras, 626–628
Toth, Andrew F., 524 hamila, 626–628, 631–632
Touma, Habib H., 760 hamila of canon functions as dastan of ud;
Trumpet marines vice versa, 628, 632, 670–672
description, 408 musht, 626–628
flageolet tones of, 408–409 construction and tuning of, earliest, 620–622,
Mersenne 775n.27
harmonics of, 406 fret (Pers. dastan), 628, 630–632
illustration of two, 411 Al-Farabi, frets of ud function as bridges of
as monochord, 410 canon, 632
length ratios of “old” and “new” trumpet binsir (ring finger), 615, 617.
marines, 410–415 khinsir (little finger), 615, 620–622.
Roberts, flageolet tones of, 421–422 middle finger of Zalzal
Sauveur, rejection of, 422 Al-Farabi’s ud  s, 634–640, 643–645, 650–653
Trumpets Ibn Sina’s ud, 667–673, 681–683
harmonics of, first fourteen, 412 Safi Al-Din’s First and Second Ud Tunings,
Mersenne, 404–405, 414–416 709–712, 714–716
harmonics of, 406, 413 mujannab (neighbor; also anterior or
“leaps” of natural trumpet vs. harmonics assistant), 615, 620, 634.
of monochord, five identical ratios, Persian (ancient) middle finger
406–407 Ibn Sina’s ud, 667–672
with prime numbers greater than 5, not Safi Al-Din’s First Ud Tuning, 709–713
acknowledged, 408, 412, 415 Persian middle finger
Roberts, harmonics of, infinite series, 421 Al-Farabi’s ud  s, 634–639, 642–645
Sauveur, harmonics of, first thirty-two, 424 Safi Al-Din’s Second Ud Tuning, 714–717
Tubes sabbaba (index finger), 615, 617.
instrument. See Bars, rods, and tubes wusta (middle finger), 615, 617.
resonator. See Resonators, tube zaid (surplus), 709.
Tunbur. See also Lutes of Persia, ud al-farisi, precursor of classic
bridge and string holder (hitch pin), two Arabian al-ud, 619, 775n.27
separate components, 626–628, 696 Pythagorean diatonic scale, playable on all
of Khurasan, Al-Farabi ancient ud  s, 755
frets of, fixed and moveable, 701–704 string
strings and frets of, 696 Bamm, String I, 612.
924 Index

Ud (Continued) W
Hadd, String V Wallis, John, 420–421, 426
Al-Farabi’s ud, 641. Wave speed
Ibn Sina’s ud, 669. bending
Safi Al-Din ud  s, 708. in bar, 149–150, 159–160
Mathlath, String II, 612. and bending wavelength, inversely
Mathna, String III, 612. proportionality, 149
mutlaq (free; open string), 615, 617. and dispersion, 147–149
tuning of, 612–613, 621–622, 633–634, effect on inharmonic mode frequencies,
641–642, 644–647, 667–668, 681–683, 148–151
702, 708–709 experiment, 149
Zir tuning effect on, 160
1st string, only on Ikhwan al-Safa’s ud, 621
in soundboard (infinite plate), 131–132
String IV, 633.
and bending wavelength, inverse
‘Zir 2’, String V, only on Al-Kindi’s ud, 612.
proportionality, 131
V and critical frequency, 131–132, 134
Vaziri, A.N., 640, 691, 772 and dispersion, 131–132
Velocity driving pressure of, 128
definition, 4 effect on acoustic radiation, 124, 131–133
dimensional analysis, 4, 20, 22 experiment, 131
equations, 5, 7 phase velocity of, 119
particle, 2–3 stiffness effect on, 131–132
of bar, 156–158 longitudinal
of complex impedance in fluid (liquid or gas), 3–4, 21, 188
mechanical (wave), 120–121 in gases, 892
specific acoustic (wave), 127 in liquids, 890
of cord, 2–3, 50–51 and mica mass unit; to simplify all
of plane wave, 186–187 calculations of, 21
of solid and fluid, 119–120 in solid, 3–4, 21, 188, 888
of sound wave, in air, 183–184 transverse
phase in solid, 3–4
of solid and fluid, 119–120 in string
of string, 131 flexible, 3–4, 60–61, 102–104
volume, complex acoustic (wave) impedance, 197 as constant, 60–61, 103–104
Venkatamakhi, 565–566, 574–584, 586, 594–596 stiff, 99, 104–107
Muddu, 577 and dispersion, 104
Vina as variable, 105–107
ancient Wave train. See Flexible strings
alapini vina, 543, 568–569 Wavelength. See also Dispersion
Bharata, 540 bending
vina (harp-vina), 543–544 of bar, 149–150
tuning experiment on, 541, 544 experiment, 149
kinnari vina, 569, 586 of soundboard, experiment, 131
zither-vina, development of, 568–569 definition, 54, 60
North India dimensional analysis, 54–55
bin, modern stick-zither, 543 of flute tube, half-wavelength
Narayana and Ahobala, 587 approximate, 229, 231.
12-tone vina tuning, 591 exact, substitution tube, 229–232
tuning instructions, 587, 590 and frequency
vicitra vina, 585, 599 as function of, 80
South India inverse proportionality, 61–62
Ramamatya, 565 of longitudinal traveling wave, in air, 183–184
suddha mela vina, 569 of string
12-tone tuning, 570, 573 flexible, 60–62, 71
tuning instructions, 569–570 as constant, 61–62
vina, modern lute, 543, 586 of transverse standing wave, 51–53, 58
 Index 925

stiff, 99, 101–102 pressure, in tube resonator

of transverse standing wave, 102 closed, 203, 205–208
as variable, 101–102, 116n.6 infinite, 200–203
of transverse traveling wave, wave train, 50–51, open, 203–204, 206, 230
54–57 transverse
of tube resonator in bar (clamped-free), 175
closed-closed, theoretical and actual, 230 in bar (free-free), 153
closed (quarter-wavelength) definition, 48, 51–53
actual, 210 in soundboard, 122
measured vs. effective, 207–209 in string
theoretical, 207 discovery of, Sauveur, 424–426
open (half-wavelength) and flageolet tones, 408–409
actual, 209 flexible, 51–55, 58–59, 182–183
measured vs. effective, 229–230 mathematical model of, D’Alembert, 423
theoretical, 206 stiff, 101–102
Waves traveling
bending frequency of, 55
in bar, 147–151 longitudinal
in soundboard, 119, 122, 124, 131. in air, 182–184
definition, 44 definition, 183
pulse in fluid, 119
longitudinal, in tube resonator in solid, liquid, or gas, 186–188
at closed end, compression and rarefaction, in tube resonator, 189–191, 196–197
192–193 closed, 203–207
at open end, compression and rarefaction, infinite, 200–203
194–195 open, 203–206
transverse, in string period of, 54–56
crest and trough, 44–45 transverse
collision of, 46–49 definition, 50–51, 182–183
incident and reflected, 45–46 in solid, 119
sound in string, 2, 44–53, 58, 80
beating phenomenon, 135–137 Weight. See also Weight density
as longitudinal traveling wave, 21, 130, definition, 6
182–184, 186–188 equations, 6, 8, 16, 18
speed of of mica, 14
in air, 23, 128, 131, 188, 203 of object, standard weight, 11–12
and critical frequency, 131–133 of rosewood test bar, 173
in solid, liquid, gas, 119, 188 of slug, 11
temperature effect on, in gases, 188–189 as string tension, experiment
standing flexible, 18–19, 336–337
displacement, in tube resonator stiff, 108
closed, 203, 205, 207–208 as “weight ratio”
closed-closed, 230, 248n.10 Nicomachus, description of, 82–86, 93, 294
infinite, 200–203 Ptolemy, rejection of, 319
open, 203–204 Weight density
frequency of, 55, 58–59 of bar making materials, 885
longitudinal definition, 16
definition, pressure/displacement, 200 English Engineering System, inconsistent
in flute, 231, 234, 245 system, 16
in tube resonator of gases, 892
close, 196, 205, 208 of liquids, 890
closed-closed, 230 of rosewood test bar, 173
infinite, 200–203 of solids, 888
open, 204, 230 of string making materials, 882
period of, 54–56 Weight per unit volume. See Weight density
926 Index

Well-temperaments of custom string, three different materials,

based on irrational length ratios; geometric 39–40
divisions of canon strings, 336–337 of piano string, two different materials, 40–41
Euclid’s method, mean proportional, 297–298 tuning process, piano, 113
interpretation of wrap wire, modified density
Chuquet, 339–341 of bronze, 37
Zarlino, 338–339 of copper, 40
Werckmeister’s No. III Well-Temperament, Wright, Owen, 622–625
349–350, 352
!|$ ditonic comma Y
Young
calculation of, 350
Robert W., 99
cumulative reduction of four non-
Thomas, 181n.38(B)
consecutive “fifths,” 350–351
Young’s modulus of elasticity
Bach’s Well-Tempered Clavier tuning, Barnes,
of bar making materials, 885
349 definition, 21
ditonic comma (comma of Pythagoras), elastic property, 4
definition, 335, 349–350 of hardwood plywood, 221–222
harmonic analysis of, twenty-four usable keys, heat effect on, 164, 177
351–353 of solids, 888
“key color” of, unequal temperament with of spruce, 123, 885
four different “semitones,” 352 grain direction factor, 123
tuning of steel, Thomas Young, 181n.38(B)
lattice, 350–351 of string making materials, 882
sequence, 471n.140 vibration test for, 180n.38(A)
vs. Aron’s !|$-Comma Meantone rosewood bar, 172–173
Temperament, 352–353 water effect on, 172
Werckmeister, Andreas, 350–353
Western scales. See Scales, Western Z
Whitman, Walt, v, 788, 794–799, 802–804, 840 Zalzal, Mansur, 636, 716, 755
Widdess, Richard, 558–559, 560–562 Al-Farabi’s ‘Mode of Zalzal’, 645
Wienpahl, Robert W., 397 Zarlino, Gioseffo, 93, 319, 333, 338–340, 342–343,
Wilson, Erv, 455–457, 887n.12 349, 377–379, 381–382, 384–387, 389–401, 403,
Winnington-Ingram, R.P., 308 407–408, 428–429, 431–432, 434–436, 440–441,
Wogram, Klaus, 122–124, 129, 132 446, 452, 553, 832
Wound strings Ziryab, 614
Bass Canon, 39–40, 800, 805
break strength of, 40
coefficient of inharmonicity, 114–115
experiment, 61–62
inharmonicity, difficulties analyzing, 113
length, 36
making with String Winder, 805–807
mass per unit length, 36–37
composite, 36–38
of custom string, three different materials,
39–40
of piano string, two different materials,
40–41
of cylinder
hollow, 38
solid, 38
of stiffness parameter, 113–114
mode frequency, 27–28
stiffness parameter, 34, 113–114
tension, 36, 41