1

Contents
Chapter 1
The Basics of Life

Chapter 2
Biodiversity

Chapter 3
Ecosystem

Chapter 4
Evolution

Chapter 5
Effects of Urbanization and
Industrialization on the Environment

Chapter 6
Biotechnology
2

Chapter 1
 3

What is biology?
Biology is the study of life and living things (organisms). A person who studies biology is called a
biologist. All organisms on earth, including you and me are made up of small building blocks. The
building blocks of all living things are the cells.

How do scientists study biology?

Biology, like other sciences, should be studied systematically by carrying out scientific investigations.
The discovery of cells and the Cell Theory also involved the following steps:

1. Observation
In 1665, a scientist called Robert Hooke observed sections of
cork from a tree. He used the term cells to describe units in
plant tissue (thick cell walls could be observed). Of course he
saw only cell walls because cork cells are dead. In 1670, Antonie
van Leeuwenhoek observed cells in a drop of pond water using
a microscope. He was the first person to observe bacteria and Hooke's drawing of Cork Cells
protozoa.

2. Making a hypothesis
In 1838, Matthias Jakob Schleiden (1804-1881), a German
biologist, proposed that all plant tissues are composed of
cells and that an embryonic plant arose from a single cell. In
1839, Theodor Schwann (1810-1882), another German
biologist who is a friend of Schleiden, came up with the same
hypothesis as Schleiden about animal tissue being composed
of cells.

3. Carrying out experiments

The experiments done by Schleiden and Schwann involved
observing numerous plants’ and various animals’ samples
under the microscope. In 1838, Schwann and Schleiden were
enjoying after-dinner coffee and talking about their studies on
cells. It has been suggested that when Schwann heard
Schleiden describe plant cells with nuclei, he was struck by the
similarity of these plant cells to cells he had observed in Animals’ Cells Plants’ Cells
animal tissues. The two scientists went immediately to
Schwann’s lab to look at his slides.
4

4. Recording and analyzing the results

Schwann collected all the results from Schleiden and
published a book on animal and plant cells in 1839. He
summarized his observations into three conclusions
about cells:
I. The cell is the unit of structure, physiology, and
organization in living things.
II. The cell retains a dual existence as a distinct entity
and a building block in the construction of organisms.
III. Cells form by free-cell formation, similar to the
formation of crystals (spontaneous generation).
We know today that the first two are correct, but the
third is clearly wrong.
The correct interpretation of cell formation by division
was finally confirmed by another biologist Rudolph
Illustration of Virchow's cell theory
Virchow. In 1855, Virchow published Robert Remak's, a
German embryologist, work as his own stating that “All
cells only arise from pre-existing cells”.

5. Drawing a conclusion
They finally formulated the cell theory, which states:
I. All organisms are made up of one or more cells
II. Cells are the basic units of structure and function in all organisms
III. New cells are formed only by the division of pre-existing cells

Robert I will call my Schleiden finding

Hooke discovery a out that all plants
“Cell”
discovers are made of cells
“Cell”

Leeuwenhoek witnesses
the live cell under
microscope

Schwann
finding out that
The Cell Theory
all animals are
made of cells
1. All organisms are
made up of one or
more cells
2. Cells are the basic
units of structure
and function in all
organisms
Virchow finding out all 3. Cells come from
cells came from pre-existing cells
pre-existing cells
 5

According to the cell theory, all living things are made up of cells, the simplest, functioning part of an
organism. Although cells are small in size, they contain all the necessary information to keep an
organism alive. There are trillions of cells in the human body. Many cells are necessary to carry out the
specialized functions. There are also organisms that are made up of just one cell.

There are many types of cells. Every organism contains cells that are unique to that organism. A typical
animal cell consists of cytoplasm, a nucleus and a cell membrane surrounding the cell contents. Other
structures such as mitochondria exist within the cytoplasm. These structures are called organelles (Fig.
1.1).
Mitochondria Nucleus
- ‘powerhouses’ of the cell - Contains DNA which stores information Cytoplasm
- The place where respiration occurs to make proteins for cell growth, - A jelly-like substance
- Energy from organic compounds (mainly functioning, and reproduction - Consists of an aqueous solution
glucose) is used to generate adenosine - Controls all activities of the cell (90% water) of many
triphosphate (ATP) substances, e.g. dissolved
- Cells use ATP as a convenient source of nutrients, proteins and minerals
energy - Where chemical reactions take
place inside the cell

Vacuole
Cell membrane - A liquid-filled space
- Thin and flexible surrounded by a membrane
- Differentially permeable called tonoplast
- Controls the movement of materials into and - Smaller than the vacuole of
out of the cell plant cell

Fig. 1.1 Drawing of a typical animal cell

Like an animal cell, plant cells also have cytoplasm, a nucleus and a cell membrane. In addition, all
plant cells have a cell wall outside the cell membrane, and many possess a large central vacuole in the
cytoplasm. Green plant cells also contain chloroplasts for photosynthesis (Fig. 1.2).
Vacuole
- Stores water and other useful
substances, e.g. sugars,
protein and mineral salts.
- Helps in the support of plant

Chloroplast
- Contains the green pigment chlorophyll
- Carries out photosynthesis Cell wall
- Made of cellulose
- Fully permeable
- Protects, supports and gives shape to plant cells
Fig. 1.2 Drawing of a typical plant cell
6

One common feature that can be found in both animal and plant cell is the NUCLEUS. The nucleus of
the cell gives the cell direction. It directs all activity of the cell. You can think of the nucleus as the brain
of the cell for without it, the cell could not function. The nucleus of animal cells is bound by a
membrane and contains the genetic material DNA, which stores information used to syntheses
proteins for cell growth, repair, and reproduction.

What is DNA?
The DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) is a long chain molecule arranged in a double helix structure. DNA is
made up of units called nucleotides. There are four different types of nucleotides: adenine, thymine,
cytosine, and guanine. They are usually represented by their first letter: A- adenine, T- thymine, C -
cytosine and G – guanine. Holding the nucleotides together is a backbone made of phosphate and
deoxyribose. The nucleotides are sometimes referred to as "bases". DNA may be tightly packed to
form chromosomes. Different species of organisms each have a different number of chromosomes. Fig.
1.3 shows the structure of DNA with various nucleotides and how DNA is packed to form a
chromosome in the nucleus of a cell.

Nucleotides

Fig. 1.3 Structure of DNA and its relationship to a chromosome.

It is the DNA that stores genetic information, which controls inherited characteristics. Offspring get a
mixture of characteristics from their parents. Genetic information is not stored in all parts of a DNA
molecule but only in sections called genes. A few characteristics (such as the ABO blood group) are
controlled by one gene. Most characteristics are controlled by many genes. We say they inherit these
genes. The variation in these characteristics is inherited variation. Examples include human eye color,
dimpled chins (酒窩顎) and blood groups. The instructions for inherited characteristics are stored in
the genetic information found inside the nuclei of cells. In sexual reproduction, two gametes (one male
and one female) fuse during fertilization to produce a zygote. Since the zygote contains genetic
information from two parents, the offspring will have some characteristics of each parent.

Every gamete contains slightly different genetic information; no two gametes are identical. For
example, in people with dimpled chins, some of their gametes carry the instructions for a dimpled chin
and some of their gametes may not. Since all gametes are different, brothers and sisters do not look
exactly the same.
 7

The story for the discovery of genetic material and the DNA double helix structure
Around 1865, Gregor Mendel introduced the concept of individual inherited ‘particles’ (theses
‘particles’ were later called genes), through his study with pea plants. When scientists saw how
the chromosomes duplicated and moved during cell division, chromosomes were quickly accepted
as the means of transferring inherited information.

Analysis showed that chromosomes contain both DNA and proteins, but for many years there
were arguments between biologists about which carried the genetic information.

In 1928, Frederick Griffith conducted an experiment that showed the transformation of living cells
by a transforming principle, which was later discovered to be DNA.

Griffith used two strains of Pneumococcus (which infects mice), a S (smooth) and a R (rough) strain.
The S strain covers itself with a polysaccharide capsule that protects it from the host's immune
system, resulting in the death of the host, while the R strain doesn't have that protective capsule
and is defeated by the host's immune system.

In his experiment, bacteria from the S strain were killed by heat, and their remains were added to
R strain bacteria. It turned out that the formerly harmless R strain now was able to kill its host. It
had been transformed into the lethal S strain, obviously by a transforming principle that was
somehow part of the dead S strain bacteria. Fig. 1.4 summarizes Griffith’s experiment.

Fig. 1.4 The Griffith bacterium transformation experiment (Griffith, 1928; Avery 1944)

Today, we know that the DNA of the S strain bacteria had survived the heating process, and was
taken up by the R strain bacteria. The S strain DNA contains the genes that form the protective
polysaccharide capsule. Equipped with this gene, the former R strain bacteria were now protected
from the host's immune system and could kill it. The proteins were denatured in the heat-killed S
cells, so proteins could not be the material that carries the genetic information.
8

In 1952, Alfred Hershey and Marsha Chase conducted a series of experiments that identified DNA
to be the genetic material of phages and, ultimately, of all organisms.

A phage is a small virus that infects bacteria. It consists of a protein coat that encloses the genetic
material. When a phage infects a bacterium, it inserts its genetic material into the bacterium,
while its coat remains outside.

In the first experiment, T2 phages with radioactive 35S-labeled DNA infected a group of bacteria.
In a second experiment, T2 phages with radioactive 32P-labeled protein infected another group of
bacteria. In both experiments, bacteria were separated from the phage coats by blending followed
by centrifugation. In the first experiment, most radioactivity was found in the infected bacteria,
while in the second experiment most radioactivity was found in the phage coat. These
experiments demonstrated that DNA is the genetic material of phage and that protein does not
transmit genetic information. Fig. 1.5 summarizes Hershey and Chase experiment.

Fig. 1.5 The Hershey and Chase experiment with bacteriophages

Ever since the discovery of the DNA as the molecule carrying genetic information, scientists from
all over the world were eager to reveal more about the DNA molecule.

At lunchtime on 28 February 1953, two men burst into The Eagle pub in Cambridge and
announced: ‘We have discovered the secret of life.’ Their names were James Watson and Francis
Crick. They had just made a cardboard model of a substance called DNA.
 9

Watson and Crick used their own and other

scientists’ data to build their model. They showed
their first attempt to Rosalind Franklin, who told
them it was wrong.

Along with Maurice Wilkins, Rosalind Franklin had

been taking photos of DNA using X-rays. Fig. 1.7 is
one of her photos which Wilkins showed to
Watson at the start of 1953.

Although it looks like a blurry X, Watson knew that

only spiral molecules could form this pattern. With
this information, Watson and Crick finished their
Fig. 1.6 Watson and Crick made a model of
model. They published a paper about it in a DNA, showing that it consists of two joined
journal called Nature on 25 April 1953. Wilkins and spiral strands – a ‘double helix’. They used
Franklin published their work in the same edition. data from other scientists, including
Maurice Wilkins and Rosalind Franklin.
Afterwards, Franklin worked on other things but
Wilkins spent some years testing Watson and
Crick’s hypothesis, and making small corrections to
their model.

Fig. 1.7 Maurice Wilkins (left); Rosalind Franklin (Middle) and her X-ray photo (right).
10

Chapter 2
 11

What is biodiversity?
Do you know how many kinds of organisms live on the Earth today? Actually no one can give a definite
answer. About 1.7 million kinds of organisms have been identified and named. However, scientists
estimate that the number of unknown kinds may be as large as 100 million!

The existence of various life forms in the world is described as biodiversity (biological diversity).

Although Macau is a densely populated city, we can still find many different kinds of organisms in
the natural areas. For more information about the biodiversity in Macau, please visit the
following website: http://www.macaubiodiversity.org/
Insects:

Common Bluebottle Unicorn Beetle Leopard Looper Moth Speckled Black Cicada
青鳳蝶 獨角仙 長翅尺蛾 斑蟬
Graphium sarpedon Xylotrupes gideon Obeidia tigrata Gaena maculata

Birds:

Large-billed Crow Black Drongo Eurasian Eagle Owl Black Faceted Spoonbill
大嘴烏鴉 黑卷尾 鵰鴞 黑臉琵鷺
Corvus macrorhynchos Dicrurus macrocercus Bubo bubo Platalea minor
Flowering plants:

White Jade Orchid Tree Small-fruited Uvaria White Waterlily Lotus

白蘭 紫玉盤 白睡蓮 蓮
Michelia alba Uvaria macrophylla Nymphaea tetragona Nelumbo nucifera
12

Classifying organisms – arranging organisms into groups

There are probably thousands of books in your school library. Can you find a particular book easily if
books are not classified into groups and arranged by means of a numbering system? By arranging the
items into different groups according to their similarities, we can find things more easily and efficiently.
Categorizing things into groups is called classification.

Classification is important in studying biology. People can identify and study large numbers of different
organisms systematically if the organisms are classified.

Linnaeus’ classification system

In 1735, a Swedish naturalist called Carolus Linnaeus Phylum
developed a classification system that emphasized the
shared similarities of organisms. He classified
organisms into two main groups – plants and animals,
and he called these groups kingdoms. Then within a
kingdom, organisms sharing certain common features
were put into smaller groups called phyla (singular:
phylum). In each phylum, organisms with more
characteristics in common were grouped into classes
and so on. There are seven levels of classification in his
system: kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus
and species. Each successive level contains fewer types
of organisms with more characteristics in common
than the level above it (Fig. 2.1).
Fig 2.1 Linnaeus’ level of classifying organisms
Although members of a species share many common characteristics, organisms that look similar to
each other do not necessarily belong to the same species. The two bears shown below (The Asiatic
black bear and the American black bear) which look alike are good examples to illustrate this. They are
not considered as the same species because they cannot interbreed with each other.

The meaning of Species

These two kinds of dogs do not look

similar but they CAN interbreed with
each other to produce fertile offspring.
They belong to the SAME species.
Golden retriever Poodle

These two kinds of bears do

look similar but they CANNOT
interbreed with each other to
produce fertile offspring. They
belong to DIFFERENT species.
Asiatic black bear American black bear
 13

A species is a group of organisms that can interbreed with each other to produce fertile offspring.
Those offspring can in turn breed to produce more offspring. Some related species can breed, but their
offspring cannot. So the parents are considered to be different species.

The discovery of DNA and the development of modern molecular genetics have allowed scientists to
define species more precisely. For example, the DNA base sequence of the American black bear and
the Asiatic black bear are quite different from each other. This confirms that they belong to different
species. On the other hand, all dogs even with different sizes and appearance have similar DNA base
sequences. All dogs therefore belong to the same species.

Modern classification systems

In the 300 years since Linnaeus developed his classification and naming systems, the understanding of
organisms has improved. It became necessary to adjust the system of biological classification. Two
discoveries in particular had a large effect on the development of biological classification. One of these
is advances in technology that have enabled scientists to understand the DNA of organisms. The other
is the theory of evolution proposed by an English naturalist called Charles Darwin (1890-1882). In this
theory a concept was put forward that all species in the world have evolved from a common ancestor.

Evolution and classification

You can think of
evolution as the
process in which
new species
develop over a
very long
time-span from
previously existing
species. For
example, it is
believed that
animals like coyote,
wolverine and
house cat all
developed from a
Hou se cat
common ancestor
(Dorma) that lived
about 55 millions
years ago (Fig. 2.2).

Fig 2.2 Various modern animals are believed to have one common ancestor
14

The three-domain and six-kingdom system

Today, many scientists have agreed to use the three-domain system to classify organisms. This system
was proposed by an American biologist Carl Woese (1928 - ) in 1990. The three domains are Bacteria,
Archaea and Eukarya(Fig. 2.3).

Both Bacteria and Archea domains include prokaryotes which do not have a true nucleus. However,
they each differ in a number of important structural features. Domain Eukarya includes eukaryotes
which have a true nucleus. Eukarya can be further divided into four kingdoms: Protista, Fungi, Plantae
and Animalia. Domains Bacteria and Archaea are also regarded as kingdoms, Eubacteria and
Archaebacteria respectively. So this system is called the six-kingdom system (Fig 2.4).
 15

Fig 2.4 The six-kingdom system of classification

Woese classified organisms on the basis of their cell structure and genetic similarity rather than on
their appearances and behavior. Plants, animals, fungi and protists do not look alike, but they are put
in the same domain because all of them are eukaryotes. They have similar intra-cellular organization,
which bacteria and archaea do not have. The eukaryotes are more similar to each other in their
genetic make-up than they are to either the bacteria or archaea.
16

Woese also found that archaea are genetically more closely related to all of the eukaryotes than they
are to the bacteria. Therefore, the bacteria and archaea are put in different domains even though both
of them are prokaryotes.

Viruses
They are not classified into any of the three domains and six kingdoms of living organisms as they can
hardly be considered as living. Viruses are much smaller than prokaryotes and can be seen only under
an electron microscope. They are acellular in structure as they have no nucleus, cytoplasm, organelles,
cell wall or cell membrane. They only consist of nucleic acid, either DNA or RNA surrounded by a
protein coat. They can only reproduce in a living host cell. Once outside the living cell, they do not
have obvious characteristics of living things (Fig. 2.5).

Fig 2.5 The bacteriophage (left) which attacks bacteria and a typical virus (right) which attacks human
 17

Chapter 3

Ecosystem
18

What is ecosystem?
The plants and animals that are found in a particular location are referred to as an ecosystem. These
plants and animals depend on each other to survive. In a delicate balance, these lifeforms help to
sustain one another in regular patterns. Disruptions to an ecosystem can be disastrous to all organisms
within the ecosystem.

Humans are no different from all other organisms, we interact with the surrounding environment. Our
activities can also cause very significant impact on the environment. The survival of different species
depends on both non-living materials and other organisms around them, while these species also
affect their environment and so on.

Species, populations and communities

The basic level of organization is species. A species is a group of organisms that can interbreed with
each other to produce fertile offspring. The place where a species lives is called its habitat. A habitat
has the conditions that the organisms need to survive, such as the right amount of water, light or
oxygen and of course a suitable temperature. A group of individuals of the same species that live in the
same habitat is called a population of that species.

The next level of organization is the community. This is a group of interacting populations that live in
the same habitat. For example, in a grassland community, there are populations of different plants and
animals.

The next level of organization after a community is an ecosystem. An ecosystem is a community of

organisms having similar habitats, plus the non-living components of the environment (e.g. air, water,
soil and light) (Fig. 3.1). Some ecosystems are small (e.g. a pond) while some are big (e.g. a forest or an
ocean). The main types of ecosystems in Macau will be introduced later.

Fig. 3.1 Levels of organization in an ecosystem

 19

Energy flow within an ecosystem

All organisms require energy. Organisms differ in how they obtain energy.
Energy from the sun

Owl
Weasel
Rat Eaten by
Eaten by owl
Eaten by rat weasel

Green plants
change the solar
energy into
chemical energy

Fig. 3.2 Energy transfer in an ecosystem

The sun is the primary source of energy in most ecosystems. Green plants can use the energy from the
sun (solar energy) to produce organic food (sugars or starch) from simple inorganic molecules (carbon
dioxide and water) by photosynthesis. As green plants can make their own food, they are called
producers.

Organisms that cannot make their own food are called consumers. Consumers obtain energy by eating
other organisms.

Consumers can be divided into different categories.

Primary consumers are organisms which feed on producers.
Secondary consumers feed on primary consumers.
Tertiary consumers feed on secondary consumers.
An organism can play different roles in an ecosystem. For example, humans are primary consumers
when they eat vegetables. However, they become secondary or tertiary consumers when they eat
meat.
20

Food chains and food webs

Fig. 3.2 shows the feeding relationship between organisms in an ecosystem. It also shows the
sequence of transfer of energy (usually as food) from one organism to another. It is an example of a
food chain (Fig 3.3).

Owl
Weasel
Rat

Fig. 3.3 Food chain in forest

However, feeding relationships in an ecosystem are usually more complex than a single food chain
because most animals feed on more than one kind of organisms. The food chains of an ecosystem can
be linked up to form a food web (Fig. 3.4).

Snake Owl

Weasel

Rat
Frog
Cricket

Grasshopper Green plant

Fig. 3.4 Food web in forest

Look at 3.2 again. It shows a group of organisms that is not usually shown in a food chain or food web.
They are the decomposers which obtain their energy from dead and decaying materials. Decomposers
may be bacteria or fungi. They break down the organic wastes and dead bodies of plants and animals
to simple inorganic compounds. These compounds are left in the soil and then absorbed by green
plants. This allows the recycling of materials within an ecosystem.
 21

Energy flow between different tropic levels

What is a trophic level?
Each step in a food chain or food web is called a tropic level. Producers make up the first trophic level
in most ecosystems. Consumers make up the remaining levels (Table 3.1).

Organism in the food chain Type Tropic level

Owl Tertiary consumer Fourth

Weasel Secondary consumer Third

Rat Primary consumer Second

Producer First
Green plant

Table 3.1 The trophic levels of each type of organism in a food

chain
How is the energy transfer at each level?
The amount energy available to be transferred along the food chain at each step becomes less and
less.

Energy is lost in several ways when it flows from one tropic level to the next:
1. Uneaten food
At each trophic level, not all the organisms are eaten by the organisms at the higher level. Thus
energy stored in their bodies is not transferred to the organisms at the higher levels.
2. Respiration
During respiration, energy is used for metabolism by an organism. However, most energy is lost as
heat to the environment. Only a small portion can be used by the organism to maintain its body
activities.
3. Egestion and excretion
Energy stored in organic wastes leaves the body through egestion and excretion. However, when
the wastes are decomposed, additional energy is released to the ecosystem.
22

Fig. 3.5 The energy flow along a food chain

Only quite a small amount of energy (usually less than 10%) is transferred from one trophic level to the
next. The more levels in the food chain, the less energy is available to the top consumers. This is why
very few food chains have more than five trophic levels.
 23

Materials cycling within an ecosystem

Energy enters and leaves an ecosystem in one direction, hence a continuous input of energy is needed
to maintain an ecosystem. In contrast, materials such as nitrogen, carbon, oxygen and other elements
making up living organisms are not lost from the ecosystem when the organisms, respire, excrete or
die. They can be recycled in the ecosystem. The carbon cycle and nitrogen cycle are examples of
cycling of materials in our ecosystem.

Carbon cycle
Fig. 3.6 shows an example of how carbon may be recycled on Earth.

Fig. 3.6 The carbon cycle

1. Removal of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere

Producers such as plants play an important role in using carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. The
element carbon is then transferred along the food chain to consumers, when the consumers feed
on the plants.
24

2. Return of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere

How is the carbon returned to the atmosphere? The producers, consumers and decomposers will
all have roles as follows:
All organisms carry out respiration. In respiration, carbon dioxide is produced and released into
the atmosphere.
Decomposers break down the dead bodies and organic wastes of other organisms. In this
process, the carbon in the organic matter is respired by the decomposers to produce carbon
dioxide.
Some dead bodies buried under the Earth’s crust are changed into fossil fuels (coal, oil and
natural gas) over millions of years. When the fossil fuels are burned, carbon is oxidized to
carbon dioxide, which is then returned to the atmosphere.

Nitrogen cycle
All living organisms need nitrogen. It is a component of amino acids which make up protein in cells. It is
also necessary in DNA and RNA production. Although nitrogen is the most common gas (78%) in the
atmosphere, most organisms cannot use nitrogen directly from the air. Plants take in nitrates (NO3-)
from the soil, to produce body proteins. Then the plants act as food for animals and transfer nitrogen
along the food chain (Fig. 3.7).

Fig. 3.7 The nitrogen cycle

 25

1. Addition of nitrogen to the soil

Lightning
Where do nitrates in soil come from? One important source is lightning. The energy released in
lightning enables nitrogen gas and oxygen gas to combine to form nitrogen dioxide. Nitrogen
dioxide is washed into the soil by rain and reacted with water to form nitrates.

Lightning Water
Nitrogen Nitrogen dioxide Nitrates
(in air) (in air) (in soil)

Nitrogen fixing bacteria and decomposers

Atmospheric nitrogen can also be ‘fixed’ by bacteria. Nitrogen fixing bacteria live in the root
nodules of leguminous plants. They convert nitrogen gas from the air to ammonium
compounds. This is called fixation or ‘fixing’ nitrogen. Legumes use these compounds for
protein synthesis. Decomposers (fungi and bacteria) also provide a source of ammonium ions
(NH4+) in soil. They break down dead bodies and excretory products of organisms to ammonia
by a process called decomposition.

Nitrogen fixing bacteria

Nitrogen Ammonia
(in air) Nitrogen fixation (in soil)

Decomposers
Dead bodies/ excretory products Ammonia
Decomposition (in soil)

Nitrifying bacteria
In the presence of sufficient oxygen in soil, ammonia is oxidized by nitrifying bacteria to nitrites
(NO2-) and finally to nitrates (NO3-). The process is called nitrification.

Nitrifying bacteria Nitrifying bacteria

Ammonia Nitrites Nitrates
(in soil) Nitrification (in air) Nitrification (in soil)

The nitrate absorbed by plant is used to produce body proteins.

26

2. Removal of nitrogen from the soil

Denitrifying bacteria
Nitrates in soil are changed back into nitrogen gas in the atmosphere by denitrifying bacteria.
They can change the nitrate ions in soil to nitrogen gas under anaerobic conditions (for
example in water-logged soils) by a process called denitrification. The gas is released into the
atmosphere.

Nature conservation
Humans have been living on Earth for more than 200,000 years, which is only a short period when
compared to how long many other species have existed. Yet, increase in human population growth has
seriously disturbed natural ecosystems, especially over the past several decades with the rapid
increase in human activities. Scientists worry that the survival of humans will be threatened due to the
loss of natural habitats.

Impact of human activity

Destruction of natural habitat
The human population has grown very rapidly to over six billion in the last 200 years. To cope with
this growing human population, natural habitats are destroyed to provide more land for building
houses, industrial sites and roads.
Large scale of monoculture
Monoculture is the agricultural practice of growing the same crop on the same field over a number
of years. It often results in depletion of certain minerals in soil particularly required by the crop.
Without the addition of fertilizers, the soil may become infertile and soil erosion may occur. In
addition, since monoculture only involves a single crop, pests and diseases will spread fast once
they attack the crop. Farmers therefore rely heavily on pesticides. However, the use of excessive
fertilizers and pesticides may cause other environmental problems such as water pollution.
Monoculture also disturbs the ecological balance of the land, since original native species are
replaced by plants species chosen by humans.
Deforestation
Forests, especially rainforests, are valuable assets in nature. They provide habitats for a large
number of species, and rich biodiversity can be found in rainforests. The trees in forests are main
producers in complex food webs, and they take up carbon dioxide and release oxygen through
photosynthesis. However, humans are clearing large areas of forests to obtain timber, as well as to
provide land for farming or city construction. Such loss of large amount of trees leads to the loss of
a natural carbon dioxide ‘sink’ and enhances global warming, which is the increase in the average
temperature of the Earth’s surface due to the increased concentration of greenhouse gases, e.g.
carbon dioxide, in the atmosphere. In addition, deforestation leads to soil erosion, destruction of
natural habitats and the extinction of many species.
 27

Depletion of natural resources

With the rapid increase in human population, food, freshwater, energy and other natural resources
are being rapidly used up. Some of them such as fossil fuels and metal ores, are non-renewable
and cannot be regenerated by the Earth. Fossil fuels are important energy sources for humans and
are widely used in motor vehicles, factories and electricity generating plants. When they are
burned, pollutants such as carbon dioxide and nitrogen oxides are released into the atmosphere.
Carbon dioxide leads to global warming and nitrogen oxides will react with the water vapor in air
to form acid rain, which causes serious damage to organisms and the environment.
Overfishing
Fish are an important food source for humans. In the past, fishermen caught marine fish with
primitive fishing methods which did not cause much damage to the aquatic environment. Now
advanced fishing vessels have equipment (e.g. huge nets) which enables fishermen to catch large
amounts of fish. The rate of fish production has therefore become slower than the rate of harvest.
Consequently, fish stocks in the oceans are being over-exploited and some species of fish are on
the verge of extinction. These mechanized modern fishing methods also unintentionally kill other
marine species such as dolphins, whales and marine turtle. The aquatic biodiversity is significantly
threatened.

Fig. 3.8 Impact of human activities

28

Conservation measures
The Earth’s biosphere is shared by all organisms. Humans should not harm the existence of other
species for their own benefit. We could better protect our planet by:
Avoiding over-exploitation
Governments need to improve the management of natural resources, such as setting fishing
quotas, restrict fishing during certain seasons and setting net size limits to avoid catching small
fish.
Reducing pollution
Governments should encourage industries to reduce the use of fertilizers, pesticides and the
burning of fossil fuels. Communities and individuals should reduce, reuse, recycle and replace
resource use, such as avoid using plastic bags and use recycling bags for shopping.
Protecting and restoring natural habitats
Governments should establish country parks, marine parks and wetland parks to preserve wildlife
and environments that support species. Individuals should avoid destructive activities, such as
littering or picking plants, in these areas.
Protecting endangered species
Hunting and fishing endangered species are prohibited. Individuals should not buy illegal products
made from endangered species.
Developing sustainable energy source
Government should encourage the development of sustainable energy source, e.g. wind energy or
solar energy. Individuals should also buy and use products that use sustainable energy.

Fig. 3.9 Conservative measures

 29

Ecosystems in Macau
So far you have learned some basic concepts of ecology. Now you may wish to carry out field studies in
order to understand more about this subject. There are many natural ecosystems in Macau, including
freshwater streams, rocky shores, sandy shores and mangroves. Some of these ecosystems are
introduced in more detail below.

Rocky shores
Rocky shores are costal habitats composed of hard rocks. They are common in Macau because Macau
is comprised of the Macau Peninsula and the islands of Taipa and Coloane, which together provide a
relatively long coastline of 50.63 km. Hac-Sa (黑沙), Pac On (北安) and Long Chao Kok (龍爪角) are
examples of local rocky shores in Macau (Fig. 3.10).

Rocky shores are subjected to the powerful action of waves. Examples of living organisms that are
commonly found in rocky shores include various species of snails and mussels (Fig. 3.11).

Fig. 3.10 Rocky shore at

Pac On (upper left),
Long Chao Kok (upper
right) and Hac Sa
(bottom)

Snail

Mussel

Fig. 3.11 Common organisms found in rocky shores in Macau

30

Mangroves
Mangroves are intertidal wetland ecosystems. They receive inputs of seawater from tidal flushing and
freshwater from streams and rivers. Mangroves are characterized by high temperature, fluctuating
salinity, alternating aerobic and anaerobic conditions, and wet and dry conditions. Mangrove forests
are one of the most ecologically valuable ecosystems in the world, being home to a wide variety of
terrestrial and aquatic plants and animals. The remaining mangroves in Macao which are in the
coastlines of Taipa and Coloane are vulnerable to threats due to pressures from developments in the
area (Fig. 3.12).

Fig. 3.12 The mangrove community in Taipa and the construction site near the area
Mangroves are salt tolerant shrubs or small trees that are adapted to life in harsh coastal conditions.
They contain a complex salt filtration system and complex root system to cope with salt water
immersion and wave action. They are adapted to the low oxygen conditions of waterlogged mud.

Invertebrates including fiddler crabs, snail and other shell fish are commonly found in mangroves.
Sometimes mudskipper fish, adapted to be able to survive some time out of water, can also be found
hopping on the muddy surface.

Snail Fiddler crab Mudskipper

Fig. 3.13 Animals found in mangroves

 31

White Pollution in Macau

HIGH TIDE OF PLASTIC WASTE ONLY GETTING WORSE
Macau Daily Times – 8th July 2016
Environmental experts and volunteers told the Times this week that the problem of plastic waste pollution
in Macau’s surrounding waters is only getting worse, and that much of this waste will continue to wash up
on the territory’s shores in the years to come. There are added concerns that authorities have not been
able to tackle the root of the problem and, instead, are merely treating its symptoms.

This month, activists and concerned citizens across the globe are abstaining from using plastic as much as
possible. “Plastic Free July” aims to raise awareness of the prevalence of single-use disposable waste in
our lives and its negative impact on the environment.

The consumption of single--use plastics in Macau is more widespread than we might think, and much of it
– one way or another – ends up dumped in the South China Sea. Aside from the excessive plastic
packaging of supermarket food, milk-tea shops in the city readily supply customers with plastic cups,
straws, lids or sealing film, and sometimes an unnecessary plastic bag for carrying the take-away drinks.

Fig. 3.14 Discarded plastic bags and

bottles are a major source of white
pollution. A photo taken at Hac Sa Beach
with various garbage especially plastic
waste.

Shocking images were released by the Times in recent weeks depicting the sheer scale of garbage that
ends up on Macau’s shores, particularly at Hac Sa Beach and on the coastal side of NAPE.

A recent beach clean-up operation unearthed 3,136 plastic bottles, 2,592 polystyrene items, 1,360 plastic
utensils and 247 plastic bags – all in a single hour.

Over time, some plastics breakdown into micro-particles – if they are not directly consumed by marine life
– and find their way into the planet’s food chains, toxifying them along the way. Not only does this damage
the environment, but it also poses a number of health risks for marine life and people.

The government is taking only minor steps to address the problem. It implemented a “no-plastic bag day”
some years ago on the 18th and 28th of each month, though it is unclear whether the policy is still being
promoted.

In 2013, an Environmental Protection Bureau (DSPA) survey found that only 20 percent of respondents
knew about the policy. The same survey estimated that the annual consumption of plastic bags alone in
Macau amounted to 450 million units.
32

Chapter 4
 33

Origins of life – where did life come from?

Have you ever wondered how life began? People have been thinking about the origin of life for
hundreds of years. Different explanations have been proposed to answer this question.

Different explanations for the origins of life

Created by God
The first chapter of Genesis in the Christian Bible
describes how God created the world and all the
organisms. These passages are symbolical and
focus on the perfection of God’s creation rather
than a historical account.

Fig. 4.1 A 16th century painting depicts that God

creates the world

Appeared spontaneously from non-living things

Some ancient Greeks thought that non-living substances could suddenly turn into living organisms.
For example, they believed that the mud at the bottom of a pond could give rise to snails. Even in
the 17th century some English biologists believed that swallows (a type of bird) came out of the
mud in ponds every spring because they did not know about bird migrations.

Abiogenesis
Some scientists believed that life arise naturally from
non-living matter, such as simple organic compounds. It is
thought to have occurred on Earth between 3.8 and 4.1 billion
years ago. Abiogenesis is studied through a combination of
laboratory experiments and extrapolation from the
characteristics of modern organisms, and aims to determine
how pre-life chemical reactions gave rise to life on Earth.

Fig. 4.2 A hypothesis suggests that simple organ chemicals

might form simple cells in the presence of energy from heat,
light, or electricity from lightning strikes

There are many different explanations for the origin of life. What is your opinion about these
hypotheses? No one can actually have a definite answer about the origin of life. Nowadays, many
biologists believe that life on the Earth began as simple forms, and these simple forms changed
slowly and gradually and became the various complex organisms in existence today. This change in
organisms during millions of successive generations is called evolution.
34

Charles Darwin – the father of evolution

In the mid-nineteenth century, biologists were in conflict about
creationism or evolution. However, few of them could give
explanations of how evolution might occur. In 1859, one English
naturalist named Charles Darwin (1809-1882) (Fig. 4.3) developed
the theory of evolution by natural selection to explain the
mechanism of evolution.

In 1831, Charles Darwin set sail on a five-year voyage on a ship called

the Beagle. During the trip, Darwin studied animals and plants at
every stop the ship made. Darwin had studied the animals and plants
in England before he set sail on the Beagle. When he arrived in
South America, he noticed that most of the organisms in South Fig. 4.3 Charles Darwin
America were very different from those in England. He wondered
why the life forms in these two places were so different even though
the climates were similar.

Darwin’s ideas of evolution were greatly influenced by the organisms he found on the Galapagos
Islands. These 16 islands are located about 600 miles west of mainland South America. Darwin
found many different kinds of organisms on the islands, most of which were not found anywhere
else. Even more interesting to Darwin was that on each island there were many animals and plants
that were of similar type but with notably different features from those on the other islands. Why
were so many unique organisms found on each island?

During his stay in Galapagos the young Darwin

observed and measured everything he saw: plants,
animals, even rocks…

Fig. 4.4 Darwin’s trip to the Galapagos Islands. There are

13 species of finches (a type of bird) which show
variations in the size and the shape of their beaks. Each
beak type is suited to a different diet.
 35

Darwin’s theory of natural selection

After Darwin returned to England in 1836, he worked for more than 20 years to answer the
questions he had raised from his observations on the voyage. Darwin noticed that environments on
the Earth were constantly changing. If organisms in this changing world did not also change, they
could not survive.

Darwin claimed that species change over time and new species gradually evolve from previous ones.
Species evolve from common ancestors. In addition to claiming that life forms had evolved, Darwin
proposed the theory of natural selection and tried to explain the mechanism of evolution. The main
ideas of natural selection are summarized in Fig. 4.5.

Food, water, space, and other

resources are limited. Members of any
population must compete for these
limited resources. Darwin called this
the struggle for existence.

Survival of the fittest

Through successive generations, the characteristics of the population will change gradually.
Fig. 4.5 Main ideas of natural selection

Darwin developed the theory of evolution by natural selection over a period of many years. He was
ready to publish his ideas when he read a paper published by the other English naturalist, Alfred
Russell Wallace. Wallace had arrived at the same conclusions as Darwin although he had worked
with different evidence in South East Asia. A year later, in 1859, Darwin published his famous book,
The Origin of Species. It described the evidence that support his hypothesis about natural selection,
and showed how the evidence allowed him to develop the theory of evolution.

Darwin did not know about the genetic basis of inheritance. Today we know that natural selection
changes the genetic make-up of a population. When a habitat changes, individuals with the genes
that make them better adapted to the new conditions survive and reproduce more successfully.
36

Example of natural selection – peppered moths

The study of peppered moths in England is a good example of natural selection. Peppered moths
normally rest on tree trunk. They occur in two color forms: light and dark.

In the 1840s, most moths were light in color. The moths were well camouflaged from birds, their
predators, as the tree trunks were coved by light-colored lichens and mosses.

However, during the industrial revolution in the early nineteenth century, the pollutants released
from factories killed the lichens and mosses on the tree trunks and the surfaces were blackened.
The light moths became easily seen and eaten. Therefore, the dark moths were more adapted to
their surroundings. They were allowed to survive and reproduce, and pass on their genes. Soon
there were more dark moths than the light ones.

Light moths lay many eggs, which develop into A moth might be born with a variation that makes it
caterpillars and then adults. dark in color.

Before industrial revolution After industrial revolution

Color of the tree trunk before and after the industrial

revolution changed. The light one, which previously
had a camouflage advantage were then easily spotted
by predator

Predators are able to find light moths more easily than Eventually, moths with dark coloration make up a
the dark ones. The dark moths survive to reproduce, larger part of the moth population than the light moths
while many light moths do not.

Fig. 4.6 Evolution by natural selection had affected the peppered moth populations in England
 37

Variation and adaptation

Darwin’s theory of evolution by natural selection emphasizes the importance of variations among
individuals of a species. Some variations are more favorable than others. Any variation that makes
an organism better suited to its environment is called an adaptation. An adaptation may involve any
characteristic, internal or external, of an organism.

How are new species formed?

1. Geographical isolation
Natural selection can explain changes in the characteristics of species. It can also explain how one
species evolved from another (Fig. 4.7).

Fig. 4.7 Speciation of rabbits caused by geographical isolation

The rabbits in Fig. 4.7 are of the same species. They can cross the stream easily, but they are unable
to swim. Due to a flood, the stream becomes a very wide river. The rabbits become separated into
two populations. We call this geographical isolation. Being unable to swim, they are not unable to
cross the river. They continue to live apart for thousands of years. As the living conditions on each
side of the river are different, each population of rabbits began to evolve independently,
accumulating variations due to natural selection. Over time, the populations became so different
that they could no longer breed with each other, i.e. each population became a different species.
The formation of new species is called speciation. It might take hundreds, thousands, or even
millions of generations for a new species to evolve.

The type of barriers which may cause geographical isolation to occur depends on the type of
organism. For example, a mountain is a great barrier for a tortoise but not for an eagle. In addition
to mountains and oceans, rivers and deserts are other possible barriers causing geographical
isolation.
38

2. Reproductive isolation
As mentioned in Chapter 2, a species is a group of organisms that can interbreed with each other to
produce fertile offspring. This means that the formation of a new species results from the formation
of reproductive barriers that prevent two populations that could once interbreed from breeding any
more. The isolation caused by reproductive barriers is called reproductive isolation.

The following are some types of reproductive barriers:

Different species differ in the season when they breed, the places where they mate or their
behaviors leading to mating – known as courtship behavior.

Fig. 4.8 Different species have different courtship behavior, thus they cannot interbreed
Variation in the reproductive organs can lead to failure of interbreeding between two
individuals. Penises
Fig. 4.9 The shapes of penises of different
species of male damselfly (a type of small
insect) are different. This prevents
interbreeding
Mating of related species may produce offspring that do not survive or are sterile.

Fig. 4.10 The mule, which is the offspring of a

female horse and a male donkey can survive,
but it is sterile. It does not produce offspring
so it cannot become a new species
 39

Chapter 5
40

What are urbanization and industrialization?

In the past few decades, many rural areas in Coloane have been converted to urban land uses. This is
an example of urbanization. Urbanization occurs when rural areas develop into urban areas, or when
people move from rural areas to urban areas. Urbanization leads to an increase in the proportion of
the population living in urban areas. The greater the proportion of urban population of a place, the
higher is the level of urbanization.

Macau has an estimated population of around 652,500 living in an area of 30.5 km² (11.8 sq mi). It is
the most densely populated region in the world, with a population density of 20,497 persons per
square kilometer in 2013. The majority of people lived in urban areas. With a dense urban
environment, Macau has no farm land, pastures, forest, or woodland.

Fig. 5.2 Colane in the 1980s (left), Colane in 2013 (right)

Industrialization is closely linked with urbanization. With the liberalization of Macau's gaming
industry in 2001 that induced significant investment inflows, the average growth rate of the economy
between 2001 and 2006 was approximately 13.1% annually. This rapid development of the gaming
and tourism industries has reshaped the landscape of Macau (Fig. 5.3)

Fig. 5.2 The Cotai

area in 2004 (upper),
the Cotai area in 2006
(middle) and the Cotai
area in 2010 (lower)
 41

What are land clearance and reclamation?

With the increase in human population, more land is needed for building residences, commercial
buildings and factories. This will involve changes of land use from agricultural to urban (residential,
commercial or industrial). Land clearance and reclamation are the usual ways to obtain land. Land
clearance involves clearing of agricultural and natural areas (e.g. wetlands and forests) to obtain land
for building urban and industrial infrastructure. Reclamation is the process to create new land from
shallow sea. In Macau, many new buildings in NAPE and Cotai are built on reclaimed land in the Pearl
River Delta.

Macau Peninsula Macau Peninsula Macau Peninsula

Taipa Taipa Taipa

Coloane Coloane Coloane

Macau Peninsula Macau Peninsula Macau Peninsula

Taipa Taipa Taipa

Coloane Coloane Coloane

Fig. 5.3 Reclamation in Macau since

Fig. 5.4 Land reclamation of the NAPE area

42

What are the impacts of land clearance on the environment?

The effective way of obtaining extra land for development is through reclamation. Reclamation is
often achieved by dredging soft mud from the sea floor and filling the dredged site with a large
quantity of stable sand for land formation. These activities have the following impacts on the
environment.
Marine habitats such as coral reefs or mangroves are destroyed. Many marine organisms lose
their habitats and breeding grounds, and therefore cannot survive.
Reclamation involves depositing large quantities of sand into the sea. The water will become
turbid. This reduces light penetration and adversely affects photosynthesis in seaweeds,
phytoplankton etc. Eventually the entire food web will be affected. In addition, suspended solid
particles may clog the gills of fish, hence reducing their respiratory efficiency. The feeding of
filter feeders such as clams and oysters may also be affected.

Fig. 5.5 Land reclamation in Cotai is endangering the mangroves in the area
 43

Chapter 6
44

What is biotechnology?
Biotechnology refers to techniques which make use of living organisms and biological processes to
produce products or modify processes so as to improve quality of human life. It is commonly
applied in forensic science, medicine, industry and agriculture.

Biotechnology existed long before there was a special term for it. People have been using its
principles and some of its techniques to improve life for many centuries. For example, thousands of
years ago, people began to use microorganisms to make bread, alcoholic drinks, cheese, yogurt and
soy sauce. Traditional animal and plant breeding for better characteristics and higher productivity
also uses the principles and techniques of biotechnology (Fig. 6.2).

Nowadays biotechnology has diverse applications in our daily lives. At the start of the 21st century,
biotechnology took great leaps forward. Fig. 6.1 shows the applications of biotechnology in many
sectors of the modern world. Though there are some potential disadvantages and dangers, its
contributions may be even more significant in the near future.

FORENSIC SCIENCE

Fig. 6.1 (A) Many useful medical products such as insulin, vaccines, antibiotics and hormones are
produced using biotechnology. (B) Through the use of biotechnology, offenders who commit
murders or serious crimes can be identified with small amounts of blood, semen or hair which may
remain at crime scenes. (C) Biotechnology is used in the removal of oil spills and treatment of
wastes. (D) Crops can be genetically modified to produce higher yields within a shorter period of
time. Crops can also be genetically modified to become resistant to pests and diseases. (E)
Fluorescent animals are produced using biotechnology and are used in various scientific
researches.
 45

Fig 6.2 Usage of biotechnology in history

46

Animal and plant cloning

Cloning of organisms is the production of genetically identical individuals. Only one parent is needed.
Nowadays scientists are able to clone both plants and animals.

Animal cloning
One of the ways to do animal cloning is by using a differentiated nucleus. This method was used in
producing the first cloned sheep Dolly.

Scientists fused the nucleus of a specially treated sheep mammary gland cell into an enucleated (cell
with nucleus removed) egg cell. The fused cell was stimulated by an electric shock. It began to
divide, and was then implanted into the uterus of a surrogate mother, and developed into Dolly (Fig.
6.3). The sheep was born in 1997 and was the first successfully cloned mammal in the world. It was
cloned by Sir Ian Wilmut and his team.

The genetic make-up of Dolly was exactly identical to the mammary gland cell donor. Since this
method of cloning effectively swaps the nucleus of the donor’s cell to the cytoplasm of the egg cell,
all the cells in the clone should be identical to those of the mammary gland cell donor. It was later
found that Dolly aged much faster than expected, exhibiting many aging symptoms, e.g. poor health
and lower activity.

Initially people were optimistic about cloning as a way to reverse aging. Some people had even
anticipated that cloning was a means to prevent aging. The cloning of Dolly tells us that the road
ahead is not a smooth one and there are many things about biotechnology that scientists do not
know yet.

Fig. 6.3 Cloning of Dolly

 47

Fig. 6.4 The process of animal cloning

48

Plant Cloning
Plant cloning can be achieved by micropropagation and protoplast culture.

In micropropagation, part of the plant is isolated from the mother plant. The part isolated is called
an explant. The explant is sterilized in a sterilizing fluid. Then it is cultured in a medium which
contains nutrients and plant hormones. If a proper mixture of plant hormones is provided, the
explant will develop into plantlets in a few weeks. The plantlets, when large enough, can be
transferred to the soil for further development. Micropropagation is very similar to normal
vegetative propagation.

Sterilized explants are Plantlets are transferred to

A section of a plant is isolated cultured in a medium which Explants develop to form
sterilized soil and develop
from the mother plant contains nutrients and plant plantlets
hormones into new plants

Fig. 6.5 Steps involved in micropropagation

Another method to clone plants is by protoplasts culture. In protoplast culture, a new plant can be
developed from a single cell, which may or may not have been genetically engineered. At the
beginning, small pieces of plant tissue are obtained from the original plant. The plant tissue is then
treated with cellulase. Cellulase is an enzyme that catalyses the digestion of cellulose. With this
treatment, the cell walls of the plant cells are digested. The structure left behind is called protoplast,
a plant cell without a cell wall, surrounded only by the cell membrane. With the presence of a liquid
culture solution containing a proper mixture of hormones, the protoplast will develop into a new
plant.

Fig. 6.6 Protoplast culture of plants

 49

Applications of cloning in animals and plants

With the traditional methods of selective breeding, the characteristics of the offspring are not fully
guaranteed. However, by cloning an animal or a plant, we can perhaps retain all their desirable
features. Moreover, endangered species may be conserved.

Some scientists intend to clone human embryos to obtain human tissues for transplantation.
However, human cloning is a highly controversial issue.

Limitations of cloning
The success rate in cloning is low. The success rate for the birth of Dolly was one in several hundred
attempts. Many embryos, which are possible new lives, are sacrificed in the experiments. Moreover,
cloned animals usually do not live long. A cloned organism was developed from the nuclei of the
somatic cells of its parent. This may account for the early aging of Dolly.

As the new individual produced by cloning has only a single parent, there is a lack of genetic
variation. The new organism cannot develop adaptive features to cope with changes in the
environment.

In most countries, human cloning is illegal. In some countries, a license is required for doing
research on human embryos. Researchers are prohibited from introducing a cloned embryo into a
surrogate uterus. They also have to comply with many other strict regulations.

Fig. 6.7 Ethical concern about cloning

50

Gene therapy
What is gene therapy?
Many inherited diseases in humans are caused by defective genes. More than 4000 medical
disorders caused by defective genes have been identified. Gene therapy is a technique whereby the
defective gene is complemented or replaced by a working gene, so that the body can make the
correct enzyme or protein. Consequently the disease may be cured. Gene therapy can be done
either outside the living body (ex vivo) or inside the living body (in vivo).

Ex vivo gene therapy refers to the transfer of normal copies of genes into defective cells isolated
form the patient, followed by re-introduction of the genetically engineered cells to the patient.

Ex vivo gene therapy involves the following steps:

Fig. 6.8 Steps involved in Ex vivo gene therapy

In vivo gene transfer is an alternative when certain types of cells cannot be cultured outside the
body cannot be cultured outside the body or cannot be introduced back to the patient effectively.
The normal gene is directly transferred into the defective tissues of patients through vectors such as
adenoviruses or liposomes (spheres of phospholipid bilayer that are synthesized artificially).
 51

Somatic cell gene therapy and germ line gene therapy

Somatic cell (body cell) gene therapy involves the introduction of normal genes into specific cells,
tissues or organs with genetic defects. This method will cure the affected individual but the normal
gene will not be passed onto the offspring.

In germ line gene therapy, the normal gene would be passed onto the offspring. Germ line gene
therapy involves the introduction of normal genes into the germ cells (sperms or eggs). With germ
line gene therapy, genes could be corrected in the egg or the sperm that is being used to conceive.
Therefore, the patient’s children would not inherit certain genetic defects. Since every cell is
derived from the fertilized egg, every cell in the offspring would have the normal gene. The normal
gene could pass onto the next generations.

Some scientists believe that germ line gene therapy is highly effective for treatment of genetic
disorders. However, its application in humans is currently prohibited for some technical and ethical
reasons.

Somatic cell gene therapy Germ line gene therapy

Target Patient receiving the therapy will Offspring of the patient receiving
be cured the therapy will be cured.
Method Normal genes are introduced into Normal genes are inserted into
specific cells, tissues or organs germ cells.
with genetic defects.
Effect on offspring Normal genes cannot be passed Normal genes will be present in
onto the offspring. every cell of the offspring.
Table 6.1 A comparison between somatic cell gene therapy and germ line gene therapy

Gene therapy as a treatment of genetic diseases

Severe combined immunodeficiency disorder (SCID) is a single-gene defect. About one in 80,000
children is born with SCID. Patients with SCID fail to develop a functional immune system because
they lack an enzyme and this results in death of white blood cells. Therefore, even minor infections
could be fatal to the patients and most of them die before they reach early childhood.

The first successful gene therapy to treat SCID in a four-year-old girl occurred in 1990. The
procedure of gene therapy involved isolation of her white blood cells, followed by insertion of
normal copies of the human gene into these cells using retroviruses. The genetically modified white
blood cells were then re-introduced into her bloodstream. The girl later developed an improved
functional immune system. After gene therapy, this girl is apparently healthy, with a reasonably
functional immune system. However, she still needs repeated treatments regularly.
52

Possible benefits and hazards of gene therapy

Current gene therapy is experimental and has not proven to be very successful in clinical trials. Little
progress has been made since the first gene therapy clinical trial began in 1990. However, with the
advancement of the Human Genome Project, more and more genes associated with genetic
disorders can be identified. This may extend the range of applications of gene therapy, not only in
treating recessive, single-gene defects, but also have a potential in helping to cure other diseases
such as heart disease, AIDS, diabetes and cancers.

At present, there are some potential hazards and limitations to gene therapy:
1. Gene delivery
Gene therapy relies on the use of viral vectors as the delivery system. Hazards may arise if the
vectors become pathogenic. In addition, the normal genes may not be integrated into the
proper positions on the human chromosomes. There is a need to search for safer, more
effective and specific gene delivery systems for gene therapy.

2. Range of applications
So far, gene therapy is only applied on treating diseases caused by mutation of recessive alleles
or defects of a single gene. In these cases, there is a ‘loss of function’ which means the defective
genes cannot direct the synthesis of normal gene products. Introducing a normal gene will
restore the cell function.

However, some genetic diseases are caused by mutations of the dominant allele so that the
genes express defective gene products, resulting in a ‘gain of function’. Such diseases cannot be
treated by introducing copies of normal genes, but instead the defective genes need to be
corrected.

In addition, many diseases are caused by multiple gene defects, as well as interactions between
the genes and the environment. Scientists need to develop or modify other methods to treat
these more complicated genetic diseases.

3. High medical cost

The cost of gene therapy is high because the therapy needs to be performed by experienced
doctors in a hospital with advanced equipment and medicine. Only the very rich can afford the
medical cost.

4. Social and ethical concerns

Genetic modification of human characteristics and the right to modify genetic traits for future
generations involve complex social and ethical problems. These problems will be discussed later.
 53

Stem cell therapy

What are stem cells?
Stem cells have the potential to differentiate into specialized cell types of an organism (e.g. kidneys,
heart muscle, liver, cartilage, or retina). They are said to be pluripotent (i.e. having more than one
potential outcomes). In addition, stem cells can divide for an infinite period of time, whereas the
differentiated body cells undergo a limited number of cell divisions before death. Scientists can
maintain stem cells almost indefinitely in cell culture flasks with nutrient solutions in the laboratories.
There are two major types of stem cells, embryonic stem cells and adult stem cells.

Embryonic stem cells are stem cells derived from the inner cell mass of a mammalian embryo at a
very early stage of development. Human embryonic stem cells were first isolated in 1998. They are
harvested from eggs fertilized in test tubes and grown for a few days after fertilization. They are
usually obtained from left over fertilized eggs during in vitro fertilization (IVF). Embryonic stem cells
are useful for medical and research purposes because they can develop into almost every tissues in
the body.

Fig. 6.9 Differentiation of embryonic stem cells to specialized tissue cells

54

Adult stem cells are found in small quantities in many adult tissues, such as the bone marrow. They
can only differentiate into specific and similar types of cells. For instance, stem cells from the bone
marrow can only give rise to blood cells.

Fig. 6.8 Differentiation of adult

stem cells to form various types
of blood cells in bone marrow
Application of stem cells in medical treatment
1. Tissue repair and organ transplant
Stem cells may be used to regenerate and repair tissues and organs to treat diseases and
conditions such as Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease, diabetes, spinal cord injury, heart
disease, arthritis, cancers, and burns. Stem cells could also be grown to become organs which can
be used in transplantation.
2. Early cell research
Stem cells are also studied by scientists to gain a better understanding of the genetic basis of
differentiation at the early stages of development of organisms. This allow scientists to
understand why some cells develop abnormally and lead to medical problems, such as birth
defects and cancers, and thus preventive measures for these abnormalities can be developed.
3. Drug development
Stem cells can be used to create an unlimited amount of differentiated tissue, such as heart
muscle. It may be possible to initially test how drugs act on these tissues before testing the drugs
on animals or human subjects.

Fig. 6.9 Treating Parkinson’s disease with stem cell

 55

4. Stem cell therapy

Stem cell therapy is the use of either adult or embryonic stem cells stem cells to treat or prevent
a disease or condition. It involves the following steps:
I. Stem cells are grown in culture solutions in the laboratory.
II. The stem cells are treated to make them differentiate into specific types of cells, such as heart
muscle cells, blood cells or nerve cells. This treatment may involve changing the composition
of the culture solution in which the stem cells are grown or even carry out genetic engineering
on the cells.
III. The differentiated cells are then implanted into an individual. For example, if an individual has
spinal cord injury, the cells would be injected into his/her spinal cord to increase the chances
of nerve cell regeneration.

Controversy about stem cell research

In August 2001, U.S. President George W. Bush approved a limited amount of funding for stem
cell research despite opposition from scientists or religious groups who believe that a
fertilized egg represents a human being who has rights that need to be protected. Those who
oppose stem cell research do not want fetuses and fertilized eggs to be used for research
purposes. Recently, a team of scientists have developed a technique that could generate
mouse stem cells without destroying the mouse embryo. This technique was successfully
attempted on human tissue in January 2008.

Fig. 6.10 Two pictures showing how researchers removed a single cell from an embryo. The
procedure involves using a tiny pipette to penetrate the embryo and extract a stem cell. The
process does not destroy the embryo

Supporters of stem cell research argue that embryos are donated with the consent of infertile
couples who have had in vitro fertilization, and would otherwise be discarded. Therefore,
there is no potential whatsoever for those fertilized eggs to develop into human beings. At
present fertilized eggs are not created specifically for stem cell research.

Discuss the following questions with your classmates.

1. Why is so much money and effort spent in developing stem cell research?
2. What may be the reasons why people oppose stem cell research?
3. What are your reasons for supporting or opposing the use of fertilized eggs for stem cell
research?
56

Due to the advance in biotechnology, nowadays the causes of many diseases have been discovered
and the corresponding treatments have been developed. Biotechnology enables drugs to be more
easily made and available at lower prices. Scientists can now produce specific antibodies to particular
antigens. Recently medical doctors are able to treat diseases caused by defective genes through gene
therapy. Stem cell therapy brings hope to patients who have been waiting and longing, often in vain,
for donors to donate healthy organs. All of the above are contributions of biotechnology to medicine.
Owing to the dedications of scientists, many diseases can now be cured and people in the world can
enjoy longer lives.

The impact of biotechnology

With the rapid advances of biotechnology, controversial issues involving ethical, legal, social,
economical and environmental aspects arise. People are now concerned about bioethics, which deals
with ethical matters brought about by the advances in the areas of biological science and medicine.
Bioethics is also a collective study of the ethical and other issues generated by the introduction and
use of the products derived from genetic engineering.

Ethical issues
With the development of biotechnology, humans now have the ability to change the genetic make-up
of many organisms. Human beings are now able to interfere with natural processes or even affect
evolution.

Many questions have therefore arisen.

1. Genetic modification treatment can help cure disease. Yet, the cost of the treatment, at present
or in the near future, is very high. Should biotechnology become a privilege for the rich?
2. We are only one step away from being able to engineer the characteristics of newborn babies.
Should we start to design a `perfect and highly intelligent baby'? Should we improve IQ by genetic
engineering?
3. While the rich men can afford to create a 'healthy baby', what about the common people? Will
they be the only ones who have to suffer from congenital genetic disorders because they cannot
afford the treatment?
4. Do animals and plants have any right? When animals and plants are used in research, will the
studies and subsequent applications in some ways violate their rights?

The answers to the questions above are

controversial. Although biotechnology is very
useful and powerful, its applications bring
concerns to people who believe in natural
evolution and biodiversity. We begin to ask
questions about who has the right to use these
genetic engineering techniques. If only the rich
can receive the benefits, biotechnology would
not be a universal blessing to mankind.
 57

Legal issues
Different countries have different laws governing the practice of biotechnology. In 2000, Sri Lanka
banned all GM food. In general, the laws regarding animal cloning and plant cloning vary across the
world. People argue about whether it should be legal to clone a human. In the near future there may
be laws in every country governing human cloning. At present, there is a consensus that human
cloning ought to be prohibited.

In 2005, the British Government granted a license for human cloning to Sir Ian Wilmut, the scientist
who headed the team which cloned Dolly the sheep. However, he gave up the license in 2007
announcing that his ultimate aim of research is to seek better medical treatment, but not to clone
humans.

In Macau, we have laws to protect our privacy. Thus it would be illegal if a DNA fingerprinting test is
performed and the DNA information is disclosed without permission of the parties involved. There
are similar laws in nearly all countries to handle matters associated with information of genetic
sequences. Researchers have to follow these laws strictly when handling DNA information.

Social issues
Biotechnology has a great impact on the society. We may have some social concerns about
biotechnology.
1. Do we have the ownership of our genetic information? Can other people, e.g. the
biotechnologists, freely make use of such information?
2. Who has the right to gain access to the genetic information of others? This may create some
problems in employment and social security if personal identity at the DNA level becomes more
publicly accessible.
3. Knowing more about the human genome may lead to
discrimination. People who are carriers of recessive defective
genes but with an apparently healthy look may have their
recessive gene identities revealed. There may be social
discrimination against those who have such genetic defects.
4. Since GM food may have genes from other organisms, some
people may encounter a problem when they are choosing
their food. For example, some vegetables contain an animal
gene, a vegetarian may accidently consume these vegetables
and violate his/her view. GM food may contain genes from
Frankenfood
other organisms that some people should not eat for Derogatory term for genetically modified product.
Used by consumers who won’t eat food made by a
religious reason. “pharmer”. Namely a scientist who modifies plants or
animals by incorporating altered DNA into their cells
58

Economic issues
The economy of a country, especially if its income depends much on agricultural products, is
becoming more related to the development of biotechnology. Traditional breeding methods rely on
selection of desired traits through natural crosses. These processes are time-consuming, taking many
years for desirable offspring to appear, and the success rates are low. Genetic engineering methods
are more precise, faster and thus more economical. However, the development of biotechnology is in
the hands of biotechnology companies who aim to make profits. National incomes may come under
the control of these biotechnology companies.

Besides, the transition of traditional agriculture to modern technology requires the investment of
large amount of money. In the long run, the rich countries, e.g. USA, Canada, will become even
wealthier while the under-developed countries, e.g. small countries in Africa, will become even
poorer because their agricultural products are less competitive compared with those GM crops that
survive better and have higher nutritional values.

Environmental issues
Biotechnology can be beneficial or harmful to the environment. Genetically modified crops are good
examples. Since GM crops are insect-resistant, the use of pesticide can be reduced. Therefore, there
will be less chemical contamination in the food chains.

On the other hand, GM crops pose potential threat to the natural ecosystem. In recent years, the
world's food plant varieties have reduced by more than three-quarters because farmers are
concentrating on planting a few highly profitable strains. Thus biodiversity is adversely affected.

Furthermore, individual plants that carry the modified genes may be much better adapted to the
environment and thus would drive out the wild strains of the same species. At the same time, they
may suppress the growth of many other species in the same habitat. Other useful and precious plants
may not grow at all or exhibit poor growth. Beneficial insects may also be killed. It would create a
threat to biodiversity and the potential hazards to the environment may be tremendous and beyond
estimation.
 59

Areas of current concern in biotechnology

Animal and plant cloning
Compared with selective breeding, animal cloning and plant cloning have the advantage that a large
number of the desired species are obtained within a short time. Moreover, endangered species may
be conserved.

On the other hand, their disadvantages are also obvious. It also constitutes a hazard to biodiversity
because only the organisms with desired traits are allowed to propagate freely and extensively. This
results in a lack of genetic variations that are required for evolution. There are also the arguments
that from the angle of evolution, no feature should be labelled as absolutely good or bad. People
argued that every living organism has the right to live and reproduce, scientists should not be given
the right to decide in favor or against the multiplication and propagation of any living organism.

Human Genome Project

The Human Genome Project (HGP) is an international project that aims to identify all the genes in
human DNA and to determine the nucleotide sequence of human DNA. By identifying the nucleotide
sequence of human genes, we can gain an understanding of the basis of human life and improve our
knowledge on genetic disorders. This project began in 1988, under the leadership of Professor James
Watson.

HGP has advanced at a good pace and we now know the exact locations of particular genes and can
decode the genetic make-up.

A person may be able to know his/her own genetic defects and those of his/her offspring even
though the offspring is only at the foetal stage.

There are many ethical, legal and social issues arise from this project. Questions such as the right of
knowledge of one's genetic make-up may be raised. The confidentiality and security of personal
genetic data are also areas of concern.

Fig. 6.11 Computer screen

displaying the DNA sequence
of human genome as a series
of colored bands
60

Gene therapy
Biotechnology brings hope to many patients who have genetic diseases. These diseases are caused by
defective genes. In gene therapy, dominant alleles of these genes are inserted into somatic cells or
gametes to correct the genetic disorder.

However, such kind of clinical operation at the molecular level would be so expensive that the
common people could not afford. Thus the genetic engineering technique can be of service to only
the very rich people. There are also social and ethical concerns. The right to conduct genetic
engineering to one's own body and to his/her children is highly controversial.

Stem cell transplant

Stem cell transplant seems to have a tremendous
potential with a lot of different applications.
Many diseases, e.g. spine injury, may be cured if
scientists are able to use stem cells to regenerate
the damaged tissue. However, much of this
technology is only at the experimental stages.
There is yet a long way before it can find clinical
application.

Stem cell transplant is similar to gene therapy in that the operation is very expensive and is not
affordable to most people. In addition, there are some criticisms on the use of animal and human
embryonic stem cells. Although an embryo is a mass of cells, it could develop into an individual.
Research in which embryos are used as experimental materials deprives the embryos of the right of
survival.

A breakthrough related to this issue started in 2007 with Shinya Yamanaka, a Japanese Professor
from Kyoto University. He discovered a way to produce stem cells from human skin cells. Sir Ian
Wilmut, the biologist who created Dolly the Sheep, also opted for this method. Professor Shinya
Yamanaka, Sir Ian Wilmut and Professor Keith Cambell were awarded the Shaw Prize in 2008 for their
achievement.

Biotechnology is certainly one of the newest frontiers in science. Though biotechnology may have
brought us many benefits, we still have a long way to thoroughly understand the potential risks and
hazards. There are many controversial issues and perfect solutions are yet to be found. Government
officials, scientists and people from different sectors need to participate in the discussion so that
possible solutions to the controversies can be established. It is urgent for the governments to make
and execute laws connected with biotechnology. All sectors should then comply strictly with these
laws. Safety in research, processing and manufacturing should be the most important concern.