Hindu Literature: Origins, Authors and Characteristics

Hindu literature is one of the oldest. The first record is estimated to have
occurred more than 4,000 years ago in what is now India and some regions of
Pakistan. It is also known as Sanskrit literature because most of the pieces are
written in Sanskrit, an ancient language consisting of several types of scripts.

In general terms, Hindu literature talks about wisdom, religion, worship and
social norms, topics that were discussed throughout the writings. It is
noteworthy that the oldest writings found are compiled in a book called Vedas
(from the term “truth”), and these became the basis of the Hindu religion.

An essential feature of this literature is the linguistic, mythical and religious

richness through which it broadly collects the history of a region from its
genesis, taking into account various types of language as well as the
manifestation of other cultures and practices that nourished it even more.

The first manifestations of Hindu literature were closely related to religion. Then,
as the genre developed, the works began to cover other themes, even in
contrast to the doctrinal material characteristic of the first expressions of this
literature.

Origins and history

The first manifestations of Hindu literature are known from the emergence of the
Vedas, a series of ancient writings (they emerged between 1600 and 700 BC.
C.), which were preserved because they were the foundations of what would
later become Hinduism.

The Vedas contain a series of rituals, precepts, myths and chants that were
initially transmitted orally. Later, these would be written down to be used in
rituals led by the ancient priests.

The post-Vedic period was then characterized by the presence of new doctrines
that served to contradict some of the postulates put forward in the Vedas.

It should be noted that it was at this time that the two most important works of
Hindu literature were composed: The Ramayana and the Mahabharata.

The Ramayana is a relatively short text that focuses on compiling the

philosophical and theological teachings of Prince Rama, who suffers a series of
misfortunes in an attempt to save his wife who is in the hands of the demon
Ravana.

On the other hand, the Mahabharata is considered the second longest work of
universal literature, since it contains more than 200 thousand verses.
This work includes a mixture of narratives, myths and advice written in different
styles and by different authors. Today it can be considered a kind of Bible for
Hindus.

After this stage, the Brahmanic period was consolidated, which served as a kind
of transition between the Veda and the Hindu religion. At this historical moment,
there is also talk of the division of society into castes and the principles of
interaction between them.

In this current, the Laws of Manu stand out, a book in which the main rules of
conduct, the functioning of karma and punishments are outlined.

The four main stages of Hindu literature

There were four main stages in the formation and development of Hindu
literature, from its beginnings to the present. The characteristics of each of
these stages are detailed below.

1- Adikal Literature

The main expression of this literature was poetry, focusing in turn on religiosity
and heroic stories.

2- Bhakti Kal Literature

It developed between the 14th and 17th centuries. At this stage the process of
highlighting the importance of God consciousness begins, although records of
epic poems have also been found.

Thanks to the Islamic presence at that time, it is possible to find the influence of
religion in various artistic expressions.

3- Ritual Literature

Period developed between 1600 and 1850 AD. C. Ritikal literature emphasizes
the power of love and other emotions throughout the poems composed during
the period.

4- Adhunikaal Literature

It developed from the mid-19th century to the present day. It is further divided
into four phases: Renaissance, Dwivedi Yug, Chhayavada Yug and the
contemporary period.

Different literary styles and genres are explored, such as drama, comedy,
criticism, novels, short stories and non-fiction.

Main Features
Despite the convergence of various styles, languages and religious
manifestations, it is possible to point out some general characteristics of Hindu
literature:

– The vast majority of texts speak of gods and the benefits that men obtain
when they are granted a favor from them. They also describe the punishments
they must assume for inappropriate behavior. This reflects the importance of
religious content.

– The elements that interact with man, whether inanimate or not, have their own
personality and qualities.

– Stories seek to leave some kind of valuable lesson for the reader.

– There is an intention to explain the origins of the world, so it is common to find

stories that talk about it.

– There are a number of fantastic events in which beings with supernatural and
extraordinary qualities intervene.

– The protagonists of these stories have special and very unique features: they
are gods or divine reincarnations, they have great beauty, courage and
admirable moral conduct.

– There is emphasis on the fact that the balance of the Universe depends on
the respect given to all living beings that coexist. Any action taken against any
of them will have repercussions in the next life.

Characteristics of Egyptian literature

Compilation

Initially, its main function was to compile customs and rituals to pass them on in
the most reliable way, generation after generation.

Various themes around culture and coexistence

All the literature revolved around the myths, customs, laws and behaviors to
follow in order to be considered an exemplary citizen. Based on this, the texts
were prepared.

Inclination towards teaching

All of these texts were intended to convey knowledge, so the language used is
simple to achieve a better understanding of the content by the listeners.

Extensive use of mythology and exaggerations

It is very common in this type of text to emphasize matters concerning the

Egyptian gods, their cosmogony and their impact on the lives of mortals.

Added to this are factors such as curses or great misfortunes for those who try
to violate divine designs. Knowledge was also used for mass control purposes.

Manifestation of ingenuity

If anything characterized Egyptian writers in antiquity, it was their ability to

recreate magical situations to give reason to existence itself. In addition to this,
the use of simple literary figures to explain their ideas made knowledge easily
accessible to the groups.

Funerary rituals in Egyptian literature

These funeral texts are linked to the importance that the Egyptians attached to
the afterlife. This had a magical character and the oldest of the best known texts
are the so-called pyramid texts, a set of hymns, legends, magic formulas
intended to ensure the resurrection of the dead king.

From the New Kingdom onwards, the great common ritual was the so-called
Book of the Dead, which was placed next to the mummy, fulfilling the necessary
requirements: under the arms, between the legs or over the heart, considered
organs of action and thought.

Relationship between the Bible and Hebrew literature

The main manifestations of ancient Hebrew literature are found in The Bible, a
word that comes from Greek and means 'the books'. It is a collection of texts
that, depending on the case, are canonical or sacred to the Jewish and
Christian religions. From a strictly cultural perspective, it should be noted that
the Bible contains a rich literary tradition from cultures such as Mesopotamia
and Egypt, in addition to its unquestionable literary value and its influence on
civilization, art and, in particular, on the literature of the Western world. Suffice it
to say that it has been translated, in whole or in part, into more than two
thousand languages.

It is divided into two parts, which make up the Christian Bible: the Old
Testament and the New Testament.

The Old Testament consists of forty-five books written mostly in Hebrew -

there is a small part written in Aramaic - during the 11th-1st centuries BC,
although it is difficult to determine the dates due to the oral origin of many
materials. They recount the revealed history of the Hebrew people, their beliefs
and traditions.

The New Testament is made up of twenty-seven books written in Greek (1st

century AD) and focuses on the birth, life, death and resurrection of Jesus of
Nazareth.

Poetic composition of the book of lamentations

These compositions are made up of four elegies and a community prayer, the
lamentations attributed to the prophet Jeremiah, were composed by an
eyewitness of the conquest and destruction of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar in
587 BC.

Contributions of the Renaissance to Humanity

His main contributions were:

The printing press: revolutionized the dissemination of knowledge, thus

transmitting new ideas. The German Juan de Gutenberg was the genius behind
this invention, he spread the printing of the first book, the Bible.

The Compass: Chinese invention applied to ocean navigation allowing

awareness of the cardinal points.

Galileo's Telescope: Galileo Galilei perfected the telescope, allowing

observation with a magnification of 30 times.

Weapons: Arquebus and bombards, with firearms artillery was born and
cavalry declined. Weapons boosted a new industry that stimulated and
facilitated great overseas conquests.
Aerial screw and glider: the Italian genius inventor of this and other inventions
was Leonardo Da Vinci, who invented the glider, that is, a kind of engineless
airplane that flew supported by air currents.

Painting: the highest artistic expression of the Renaissance. He began

painting portraits of noble figures, highlighting their individual characteristics.
Perspective and draftsmanship were used in the drawings.

Features of the Renaissance

Secularization of society

The Middle Ages had been marked by ecclesiastical power, which not only
controlled politics but also cultural production. With the Renaissance, civil
sectors began to compete with the Church, and gained political, economic,
cultural and artistic influence.

Anthropocentrism

Anthropocentrism was a doctrine of thought that placed man at the center of

life. This doctrine was the ideological discourse of the Renaissance, and was a
response to the theocentrism of the medieval period.

Rationalism

Humanism and anthropocentrism assumed, as a vital attitude, the practice of

rationalist thinking. For Renaissance men, reason would be a tool for
knowledge that would allow them to reveal the world that medieval
obscurantism kept hidden.

Development of scientific thought

Thus, the Renaissance people were convinced that everything can be explained
through science. As a result, science flourished and scientists such as Nicolaus
Copernicus, Galileo Galilei, Alonso de Santa Cruz, Miguel Servet and Leonardo
Da Vinci himself stood out.

Great inventions

This renewed interest in science was also strengthened by some inventions

such as the movable type printing press, which facilitated the circulation of
books, including the Bible, which until then had been reproduced manually by
copyist monks.

Other great inventions of this period marked the history of humanity: the
compass, Galileo's telescope and gunpowder weapons.

Individualism
The Renaissance allowed the emergence of an individualistic conception, as an
idea of self-conception, self-assessment, self-qualification and self-distinction of
man. If the human being becomes the center of reference of life, if his freedom
and pleasure gain dignity, then the appreciation of the particular individual takes
place, without having to be subjected to the cause of the collective.

Development of a mercantilist economy. Protocapitalist production scheme

The Renaissance economy gives a great boost to the primary sector. The textile
and mining industries will have great importance, along with the trade sector,
which some researchers describe as a protocapitalist model. This was in
contrast to the previous historical period, where wealth was related to land
ownership.

Great development of arts and literature

During this period, the arts made a great display both in techniques and genres
as well as in the themes to be addressed. It was the golden age of art, which,
impacted by the scientific spirit, was perceived as a form of knowledge.

All kinds of new genres and new techniques appeared. In literature, the birth of
the essay as a literary genre took place. The theatre was finally able to open
itself beyond the religious order and address the concerns of secular life.

In the visual arts, oil painting appeared, which allowed painting to be freed from
murals. The portrait genre, distinctive of Renaissance individualism, also took
place. Likewise, new painting techniques appeared, such as linear perspective
and, with it, a great development of foreshortening, chiaroscuro, sfumato, etc.

Medieval literature

Medieval literature includes works written in Europe during the Middle Ages.
Historians generally place this period between the fall of the Roman Empire and
the beginning of the Renaissance. During this period, in medieval Eastern
Europe, the Byzantines continued to produce Greek literature, including poetry,
prose, and drama.
 Characteristics of the Baroque

Baroque is an artistic style that dominated architecture, painting, literature and

music in Europe during the 17th century.

For this reason, the entire culture that corresponds to that period, including
customs, values and social relations, are also called baroque.

Baroque emerged at the end of the Renaissance, and was manifested through
the use of details of great ostentation and extravagance among the groups that
benefited from the riches of colonization.

The main characteristics that marked the Baroque period were:

 Art that exhibits a taste for the elegant, the extravagant and the excessive
ornamentation.
 Valuation of detail. excess of ornamentation
 Search for spirituality, sensations and internal passions.
 Dualism and contradiction.
 Contrast between light and shadow.
 Sense of movement.
 Darkness, complexity and sensuality.
 In literature, cultism and conceptism.

Greek tragedies

Greek tragedy is in some sense the heir of the epic. The tragic text is rigorously
structured by the alternation of spoken parts, in which the actors dialogue
among themselves or with the chorus, and parts sung only by the chorus.

First cultured poet of Spanish literature

Gonzalo de Berceo

First known poet in the Spanish language. His signature appears in some
documents from 1220, and by 1237 he was already a priest.

Birth

Gonzalo de Berceo was born, in all probability, towards the end of the 12th
century, in the town called Berceo, adjacent to the abbey of San Millán de la
Cogolla.

Priesthood
He was a cleric and lived in the monastery of San Millán de la Cogolla
(Logroño), where he was ordained a priest, and in that of Santo Domingo de
Silos (Burgos). In the monastery of San Millán de la Cogolla he officiated as a
secular cleric, and came to occupy the positions of deacon (around
1120https://www.ecured.cu/1120) and priest (around
1237https://www.ecured.cu/1237).

Man of letters

He is the first representative of the so-called "mester de clerecía", a medieval

school of men of letters (a qualification that at that time coincided with that of
priest) whose main contribution was the dissemination of Latin culture. Berceo
inaugurated the path of erudite poetry, in contrast to that developed by popular
epic poetry and that of the minstrels.

His Works

His Works

The theme of all of them is about the Virgin, the mass and the lives of some
saints. Most of his themes are exclusively religious. His works, written in
cuaderna vía (a stanza of four monorhymed alexandrine verses) as was
customary in the "mester", are strictly religious and are usually classified into
three groups: lives of saints, Marian works and works with a broader religious
theme, of a doctrinal nature.

The group of Marian works has three fundamental titles: Praises of Our Lady,
Miracles of Our Lady and Mourning of the Virgin. The religious poems of a
doctrinal nature are The Martyrdom of Saint Lawrence, The Sacrifice of the
Mass and The Signs that will Appear before the Judgment.

Most notable works

Among his works, the Miracles of Our Lady stand out, full of folkloric notes and
comic details. Inspired by a collection of miracles in Latin, it is composed of an
allegorical introduction and twenty-five poems that recount miracles attributed to
the Virgin, described as a close character who protects the faithful. Berceo, in
his desire to reach out to the people, became the spokesman for an emotional
and eventful religiosity with which his listeners could easily identify, thus moving
away from the theological aridity typical of Latin treatises.

First masterpiece of Spanish literature

The Song of My Cid, published in the 12th century. It is an anonymous epic

poem that recounts heroic deeds freely inspired by the last years of the life of
the https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/CaballeroCastilian knight Rodrigo Díaz de Vivar
el Campeador. The preserved version was composed, according to most
current critics, around the year 1200.

Transitional work between two eras

La Celestina is the name given to the Tragicomedy of Calisto and Melibea,

attributed to Fernando de Rojas. Its composition dates back to the last years of
the 15th century, during the reign of the Catholic Monarchs, although its
extraordinary editorial success began in the 16th century and continued, with
ups and downs, until its ban in 1792. This work separates the Middle Ages from
the Renaissance.