Lesson 1
Humans - 46 chromosomes
Each Cell - 23 pairs
FERTILIZATION
⁃ life begins when two gametes join that result ls to a complete set of
chromosomes
⁃ Zygotes start as a single cell

GENETICS - is the study of how genes are passed on from parents to offspring
a GENE is a segment of DNA that codes for a protein
CHARACTER - is a heritable feauture that varies among individuals (e.g heights)
TRAIT - is the variant for a character (e.g tall and short)
Genes always come in pairs and they are found in the same locus
Gregor Johann Mendel “Father of Genetics”
⁃ conducted thousands of experiments on pea plants
POLLINATION
⁃ it is the process of transferring pollen from the male part of a flower
to the female part
TRUE BREEDING
⁃ these plants had produced only the same variety as the parent plant
HYBRIDIZATION
⁃ the cross-pollination of two true breeding plants that has contrasting
traits
LAW OF COMPLETE DOMINANCE - if an individual’s pair of genes consist of
different alleles, one allele is dominant over the other, which is recessive
LAW OF SEGREGATION - the pairs of alleles that control a character segregate
(separate) as gametes are formed
LAW OF İNDEPENDENT ASSORTMENT - two or more genes assort independently
DOMINANT
⁃ determines the trait that appears
RECESSIVE
⁃ the trait that is being masked or hidden by the dominant allele
GENOTYPE
⁃ genetic constitution of an organism in terms of genes and alleles (e.g
Tt)
PHENOTYPE
⁃ the appearance of an organism’s genotypes (e.g Tall)
HOMOZYGOUS - An organism with two alleles of the same type
HETEROZYGOUS - An organism with two different alleles
Incomplete Dominance - is when the two different alleles are combined
Codominance - is a type of inheritance where two different alleles are expressed
equally

The rh (Rhesus factor)
⁃ blood group system is a system that classifies blood types based on the
presence
Chromosomes occur in pairs called HOMOLOGOUS CHROMOSOMES
Paternal - from the father or male parent
Maternal - from the mother or famale parent
DIPLOID - is a cell that contains two sets of chromosomes
HIPLOID - is a cell that contains a single set chromosomes
SEX - refers to a set of biological attributes primarily associated with physical
and physiological features
XY = male
XX = female
Y- linked Trait
⁃ is only common in males since only males have Y chromosome
Hypertrichosis pinnae auris - is a Y linked trait where affected males have hair
growing from their external ears
Sex-Related Inheritance
⁃ where in the heterozygous genotype expresses the dominant trait
Sex Influenced Trait
⁃ controlled by autosomal genes
Sex Limited Trait
⁃ are also controlled hu autosomal genes
LESSON 3
The Disovery of DNA
Friedrich Miescher (1844–1895)
-isolated the material “nuclein” when studying pus cells from surgical bandages.
- Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
- Ribonucleic acid (RNA)
The subunits of nucleic acids are Called NUCLEOTIDES.
Monomers of DNA
-The sugar in DNA is a DEOXYRIBOSE.
PURINE
-heterocyclic aromatic organic compound.
(have double ring structures)
PYRIMIDINE
- heterocyclic aromatic organic compound similar to benzene and pyridine
(single ring structures)
Tautomers of Nitrogenous Bases
The cyclic bases are classified to purines and pyrimidines.
The DNA Helix
Rosalind Franklin (1920–1958)
-and her colleague Maurice Wilkins (1916–2004) performed x-ray crystallography
technique to analyze the structure of DNA.
-The two strands of DNA are said to be antiparallel.
DNA replication
-is the process by which a double-stranded DNA molecule is copied to produce two
identical DNA molecules.
Priming is an essential step before DNA polymerase continues with the elongation of
the DNA strand.
RNA : polymerase makes pimer
DNA : polymerase extends pimer
Topoisomerase
-relieves the tension of unwinding DNA strand
Initiator protein
-Attaches to the origin of replication and creates an initial separation between
the two DNA strands
DNA helicase
-Continuously unwinds the DNA at the replication fork
Single-strand DNA-binding proteins
-Bind to the single-stranded DNA to prevent them from reforming hydrogen bonds
DNA gyrase (or topoisomerase II)
-Moves ahead of the DNA helicase at the replication fork and relieves the tension
that
builds up as the DNA strands are being unwound
DNA primase
-Synthesize short ribonucleotide segments called RNA primers to provide a 3’-OH for
the DNA polymerase III
DNA polymerase III
-Synthesizes deoxynucleotide chains from the 3’-OH end of the RNA primers and
performs
DNA proofreading visits exonuclease activity
DNA polymerase I
-Catalyzes the removal of the RNA primers and replaces them with DNA nucleotides
DNA ligase
-Seals the nicks between the Okazaki fragments through phosphodiester bond
formation
RNA
is a nucleic acid present in all living cells that has structural similarities to
DNA.
DNA -as the repository of genetic information
RNA -as the transcript of genetic information
proteins -as the phenotypic determiners
Messenger RNA (mRNA)
Nucleus and cytoplasm
-Serves as the transcript for the amino acid sequence
Transfer RNA (tRNA)
Cytoplasm
-The adaptor that converts the triplet codons of mRNA into the protein polymers?
Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
Cytoplasm
-Structural and functional component of ribosomes
Transcription
-is the process that produces RNA from the information in DNA.
- is the synthesis of the polypeptide by using the information in mRNA.
mRNA is read in triplets of nucleotides called codons.
