HSS 406: COMPARATIVE STUDY OF WORLD REVOLUTIONS

The meaning and nature of Revolution:

The term Revolution is referred to a rare class of historic event marked by a major socio-
political, economic and ideological change. In its fullest sense, revolution means a vital
transformation of a society something that is far beyond an ordinary shaking off. It results in a
decisive transfer of power in both political and economic sphere of the polity. Therefore,
Revolution is far more than a violent protest or a riot. It is an acceptable means of change where
all the possible means of change are not forthcoming.

Author Benner of the University of Paris defined it as “changes attempted and realized by force
in the constitution of a society”. Therefore an irreversible element in any revolution is the resort
and acceptance of violence. True revolution is an acceptance of violence to cause the system to
change when all ends have failed and the idea of a revolution is central upon the perception of
societal failure. As another, author puts it, “violence is the means resorted to by man who had
previously exhausted all other means in defiance of the rights and justice which he thought he
possessed.

Rebellion is an act by social surgery. It is intended to cutout one or more members who are
offending against a joint commitment to maintain a particular social structure. Simple rebellion is
without ideology, it is motivated by a belief that the system has been betrayed by its elites, there
by violence is reposed on its violators so as to set them back on track.

- Revolution is a very quick means to a solution.

- Riot and revolt is geared towards adjusting a particular condition prevalent in the society
and not for an entire of rather total change.
- Revolution is for a total change.

But revolution takes place when the total revolting group thinks in terms of recasting the social
division of labour according to a pattern which is self-consciously un-presented in the social
system. Revolution intends to accomplish more than merely attacking certain persons/or
policies), it consciously advocates for a new social order, be it a society based on the rights of
man or the ideal of self of determination of the principle “ … each according to his ability and
each according to his needs.

Revolution might be total or encompass parts thereof according to its kind. (Top-bottom, bottom
top approaches) Total revolution such as the French and Chinese Revolution aimed at
supplanting the entire division of labour. Such revolutions alter the social system from one arch
type to another, for instance from capitalism to socialism, from feudalism to totalitarianism, from
Christianity to Islam; from paganism to Christianity etc.

Sometimes, some revolutions are used to reflect some fundamental and vital changes of course in
any aspect of life other than political, for instance the 19 th Century Islamic revolutions in West
Africa; the industrial revolution in England. At times Revolution might not be all violent, a good
example is the revolution that led to the Meji restoration in Japan.

 Revolutions can start from below. It is an approach where decisions to effect and the
process of the implementation of change commence from the grassroot-from a large
section of people working together causing decisions to arise from their joint
involvement. It is an incremental change approach that represents an emergent process
cultivated and upheld primarily by frontline revolutionary group. For instance the French
revolution started with the middle class dominated by the third estate representing the
intelligencia, skilled professionals, lawyers, businessmen etc who exploited the writings
of the philosophs on lassie fair, social contract, and separation of powers to wet the
appetite of the peasants on the need for change. Among them were the moderate
Girondins and the extreme Jacobins aiming to implement the process of change and
reform to the French society. They took to the streets on massive bloodshed, breakdown
of law and order to gain access to power and implement reforms. The positive impact of
this approach is that itv allows for more experimentation and better feeling of what is
needed in the grassroots. The negative impact is that implementation of programme of
reform and change is fraught with bloodshed. It creates avenue for counter revolution and
civil wars between the revolutionaries and out of favour revolutionaries in union with the
old regime. victory to the revolutionaries will result in internal purges within and outside
the revolutionary groups and highy level autocracy to ensure efficiency in the
implementation of programme of reform. An example is the French revolution of 1789,
 the Russian Revolution 1917, the Chinese communist Revolution 1949, the Islamic
revolution in West Africa.
 Revolution can also start from the top, that is the Top-Bottom Approach of revolution. it
is an approach where decisions to effect and the process of the implementation of change
is anticipated and carried out by a micro group over the group in authority. the process of
change is therefore disseminated under their authority to the lower carders in the
hierarchy who are to a great extent bound by their decisions. for instance the Free
Officers effectively carried out the process of change of government and articulated the
programmes and processes of change that touched every facet of the Egyptian economy
and polity. the positive impact of this approach is that it does not entail much skirmishes
and bloodshed that will metamorphose into conflagrations on the process of gaining
access to authority. Also programmes of change to the best interest of the society is easy
to implement with less application of force owing to the fact that opposition to the
process of change are always minimal if not less existent. On the negative side, if reforms
are perceived to be imposed from the top it might be difficult for the lower class to
accept. This type of revolution revolves around the leaders but the total impact is felt
among the people. An example of it is the Japanese Revolution.

On the whole, the term revolution is used in different ways all of which implies that changes has
been rapid and fundamental if not necessarily violent at any rate accompanied by a considerable
destruction of previously existing form of society.

The Main Characteristics of a Revolution

1. The political direction of the state is discredited in the eyes of the population as a whole
or certain key sections if it.
2. Changes of government takes place at a clearly defined point in time by the use of armed
forces or treat of its use.
3. There is usually a programme of change in either the political or social institutions of the
state or both induced by the political leadership.
4. A political meet give the leadership resulting from revolutionary transition the status of a
legitimate to government of the state.
Why a revolution is said to be an act of the intellectuals is because it is the intellectuals that
articulate the ills of the society and sell it to the lower class; they also articulate how best to
curb the excesses of the statuquo leaders of the society. The lower class whom the idea is begin
sold will in turn join forces with the intellectuals to make the revolution a success. The masses
will by so doing see the intelligenceia/middle class as the savior.

There is a type of revolution in which there is a sudden political shift in local sovereignty, such
was the case in French, Russian and Chinese revolutions. In some other revolutions, an abrupt
cultural change takes place; this was the case with the protestant reformation popularly known as
religious revolution. Yet in the third group of revolution, there is a change in the whole social
order in its fundamental institutions, classes and entire set of attitudes and habits, this was the
case in industrial revolution.

Causes of Revolution

A revolution is inseparable with the social context in which it occurs and so the factors that cause
a revolution are as manifold as element comprising the society itself. That is to say that a
revolution is central to the prevailing condition in the society. Therefore any analysis of a
revolution must start with the analysis of the society which it occurs. Economists seem to
conclude that the economic factors lie at the base of revolution movements. Social psychologists
explores the mental dimension of revolutionists involved in a revolution, Historians on the other
hand look for the causes in the complex decision of the relationships among the parties to the
revolution, political philosophers explore the adequacy of various factors in endangering the
consent of the government. But all these and several other aspects must be incorporated in the
causes of revolutionary movements.

To Marxists, revolutions are caused by economic inequalities in the society that brought about
oppression and deprivation to the less privileged by the privileged.

1) Marxists see revolutions as purely the clash of interest represented in organized classes.
To them, political revolution is a minor part of social revolution which leads to the
replacement of one class by another.
2) To the people, revolution occurs as a result of convergence of constitutional, religious,
economic and social forces and interests. At times a revolution brings close together and
 force into intense interaction all these elements whether economic, political, cultural
which ordinary struggle easily linkup with.
3) Selfish reasons – Generally, revolutionaries often act because of their position in the
society, personal properties, businesses and lives seem to be threatened by the people in
power. They sell their action as preemptive or one by self-defense and they justify it by
referring to the constitution, rights or privileges or limitation of power.
4) Provocation, characterized political opinion, popular leader and programs of reforms,
even when all these occur together do not make a revolution succeed unless the
conservative force are too weak to resist. Therefore weakness of the government in power
is usually a pre-condition for a revolution. For example Charles the first’s ministers
mismanaged the resource through wars and his government was bankrupt thereby
preparing the ground for English revolution. The same was applicable to the governments
of King Louis XVI of France and Casr Nicholas II of Russia. The governments of the trio
were weak because of bankruptcy occasioned by mismanagement of resources and the
government disgracefully collapsed. The King on their own part have tested power and
enjoyed the affluence that came with it, thus could not relinquish it (power) even in the
face of weakness and were disgraced out of office: consider also the Decemberist revolt
of 1825, though the Czarist regime of the period was corrupt and oppressive, it was
strong enough to counter the revolt.

And it is true that revolution had been known to meet with effective conservative resistance
hence it will overthrow the government, as the case with the 1848 revolution.

Revolutions demonstrate that conservative force are no longer able to resist the revolutionary
tide, revolutions prevails when state monopoly of power is effectively challenged and persist
until another monopoly of power is established by a new government – hence the position of the
armed forces of any state is crucial to any revolution. Usually success or failure of any revolution
hinges on the armed forces of the statusquo government. Hence Plato remarked, is it not a simple
fact that in any form of government that revolution always start from the out-break of dissention
from the ruling class.

Of all the factors affecting the military, the most important is defeat in war because it is this that
dissolves even well framed military formations. This was the case in France in 1871, Russia in
1904 (when the Russian army was detested by Japan in the Russo–Japanese war of 1904), Russia
also in 1917. Therefore there is always a close relationship between war and revolution. When
the army of the statusquo government is defected in a war, the revolutionary forces will
capitalized on that defeat as the mystery of the military of the statusquo government has been di-
mystified by another military. Thus revolutions succeed not so much because revolutionaries are
strong as because the vested interest (the conservative forces) are weak. In Hegelian terms “not
so much because antithesis is irresistible as because thesis is weak or has collapsed”.

5) The question is not often asked whether revolutions are products of generalized mystery
or condition which grew steady walls until the people finally reach the limit of tolerance
and revolt, or whether revolution are products of improved conditions and the growth of
national wealth. Opinions are very much divided in this regard. Writing on the French
revolution, Mischelet was of the view that revolution was at the base of generalized
misery. But Tocquevilla maintained that the French revolution was the outcome of the
steady improvement of the living conditions and the growth of the French national wealth
during the 18th centuries.
Both versions have some validity for revolutionary situation comes at a moment when
hopes and despir are strangely mixed. Rising prices and rising population impoverished
some people in France where misery constituted one of the principal driving forces of the
revolution. The same was in China before the communist revolution where people have
to go as far as selling their daughters to make ends meet, in Housaland too during the
Jihad of Ottman dan-fodio. However, poverty might lead to riot but will not bring general
upheavals. Upheavals always arise from the distortion of the balance between social
classes. Hence Lord Elton argues that in every society, the revolutionaries will come
from the class which is already acquiring power, because power is an opium, the first
taste infects with a desire for more.

Revolution comes from those who have newly tested power and found out that it is good; that
is the middle class and the intelligencia. The duo uses the misery of the politically
unconscious masses for their own deliberate power and privilege. They educate the peasant
and the masses on the problems surrounding them so as to draw their support. They invent
 such slogans as liberty, equality and fraternity (French revolution); All power to the masses
(soviets); natural rights etc.

It is important to understand that such middle class people and the intelligenceia are never part of
the worst people in the society, they can comfortably afford the basic needs of their families both
extended and nuclear, build comfortable houses, maintain more than two to three cars. They have
tested power in one way or the other and are compact with the view to possess the political
power they have once tested. They use the masses who in turn see them as messiah to carry out
the revolution.

Writing on the English revolution, C. Hill has this to say “the origin of revolution lay in the
expansion of a political conscious middle class which has enhanced the assertiveness of the
house of common armed with the increasing significant power of the purse. The motive force of
the revolution was the desire for the expanding middle class for a greater political power”.
Arguing in the same angle, JAG Brown is of the opinion that revolutions caused by misery
condition alone is far too simple a case, since if it were true, we should have social revolutions in
most part of the world if not the whole world, because there are misery condition in all parts of
the world where suppression and inhumanity by the privileged class thrives.

Misery does not automatically create discontent proportionally to a degree that can cause a
revolution. On the contrary, discontent is great when condition has improved for the originally
rejected members of the population (in that case they will be stirred to request for more) or when
they have worsened for the better of. (that is when the people that were enjoying a little affluence
letter lost it).

Paradoxically, the more attainable the goal, the greater dissatisfaction at having not attain them at
all or having fallen away from them. Hence Elton argued that the most oppressive movement for
an oppressive government is the period it begins to reform, because there are evils that are
tolerable so long as they appear inevitable. (for instance the problem in Iraq, oppression,
despotism, neglect of human right and dictatorial administration for years appeared tolerable
because they were inevitable; but the reforms that brought in a representative government and
allowed greater freedom for the people brought an unprecedented crisis that has claimed the lives
of numerous people both women and children).
- Once some minor reforms suggests the whole structure can be reformed a revolution is
made in the case of the Chinese and in Housaland. The Ottman Dan Fodio Jihad and
1949 communist revolution in China led by Mao Tse Tung lay largely in the poor living
condition where abuse and early death were the only prospects for the masses. An
average poor worker cannot develop a revolutionary consciousness but a trade union
consciousness of not trying to supplant the status quo but to better their material need. In
China, poverty led to the sale of daughters. Here, human actions arose more indignation
and were more useful in inciting peasant revolt. So in China and in housaland it was the
excess and oppressive conduct that seemed less bearable than the general scarcity of
resources. That is to say than more effective in arranging a revolution is provocation
rather than misery. The provocation that is more painful comes from the privileged few
over the less privileged. Such provocation that the university lecturer and the intelligencia
have seen or rather witnessed on the part of the illiterate politicians whose fraught of
wealth and intimidation is lot more unbearable.
6) Psychological – According to Aristotle, causes of revolution could be psychological as a
result the state of mind. For instance a desire for a quality where men think that quality is
their due right or a desire for superiority where they think they have the right to do it.
Every revolution is a revolution of the intellectuals, because it is the intellectuals that is
holding the mirror of the society and hold it in such a way that it will be reflecting the
masses. The mirror will invariably reflect their problem and so will stir them to a
revolution.

As Aristotle advanced, “Inferiors engage in revolution in other to be equals, and equals

engage in revolution in other to be superiors”. LLB Semen argues that one other causes of a
revolution is because of the doctrine that all men are equals and all men are brothers, this
doctrine denies that any group of humans begins will by so reference to.

7) Propaganda, Ideas and Intellectuals – To people like Lord Action who believes in the
primacy of ideas in historical development, revolution are caused by propaganda and
ideas. To them, ideas act like subtle acid which dissolves the pre-suppositions upon
which the old regime left and cause general dissatisfaction and desire for reform or
change. By drumming up social wrongs, political failures and by promoting a golden age
 in a contemporary future. This ideology, intellectuals and angels of war revolution create
a horizon of radical change.

Remember the populists in Russia went into the villages sensitizing the people on the ills of
the society, its solution (revolution) and the need and benefits of change. The intellectuals
who were not the worst in the society stirred the masses (the cannon - folder) to the
revolution.

They persuade the people that there is a great deal of wrong in the present system and that is
what is marking a greater effort to put a better one in place, this was also the case in
housaland where the preaching and writings of Ottman Dan Fodid aroused the spirit of
criticism and resistance to established power. It was also true in France with the writings of
the Philosophs; and in England with the writings of John Milton in England during the
English civil war. Likewise in Russia with the writings of Karl Marx and Lennin in during
the Russian revolution; Sun Yan Sin and Mao Tse Tung in China

- These people were the ideas as intellectuals whom their consistent writings and efforts
stimulated the mind the masses and stirred up a revolution.

LEADERSHIP AND IDEOLOGY

There can be no revolution without a complete guidance and justification otherwise known as
ideology. For example, Maxison, Leninism, Socialism, etc. since revolution involves violence or
peaceful over throw of an established order, it needs justification and this justification is to the
function of ideology and leadership. Reevolutionons, more than anything else can be carried out
by minorities, these people are usually intellectuals hence the saying that “every revolution is a
revolution of the intellectuals”. This is so because only intellectuals could gather up and condifty
obscure thought, hope and rancor that such times breed. Lenin and his men insisted on
centralization and discipline among revolutionary leaders and had contempt for the possibility
sponthencons rising form the majority.

The preference of a conspiratorial group or hardcore of professional revolutionaries is

because the average man is a narrow egoist thinking of his mental comfort therefore only a small
group of dedicated revolutionizes can rise above this un-appetizing reality of human nature.
 - The average man is only conscious of his comfort, he dose not know what is going on,
how much is coming into the government coffers, he is only interested in short term
comfort (to get food for the family, shelter, school fees etc, irrespective of the un-told
hardship and little remuneration he will pass through to getting them done). And not
interested in sacrificiting for a long term change in the society. It is only the intellectuals
that can stand the higher moral ground to effect a change. Utman dan fooion stood the
higher moral ground in rejecting a short them control, resisting the challenges that
accompanied it to stage a revolution that brought assort air unit president change in
housaland.

Lucien Blanco writing on the Chinese revolution noted, “as agonizing as the national and social
situation were, there would have been as revolution but for the existence of an organized
revolutionary movement armed with a doctrine, long term objective and a clear political strategy,
susceptible to common sence and adjustment in the time of crisis”. He went on to argue that
through the intelligence in China had their economic problem, it was not their difficult material
situation that make them revolutionaries but their strong videological commitment and a feeling
of malaise. Discontent and bankrupacy of the ruling society in China created an in exhaustible
supply of potential revolutionaries, yet it was the Chinese communist party led by revolutionaries
that gave their blind force purpose and direction, there is also a similar condition in hausaland
where Utman Danfodio gave direction and purpose to a great revolution.

Without diocontent, the moral and ursan poor beign added to the intellectual, the intellectual
should be leaders without the army because it is always the rural masses who constituted the
revolutionary crowd and the cannom fodder that does the final damage, or the destructive
force)

Course of Revolution

Revolution move from moderation to extremism, they usually begin from attempt to reform or
improve existing conditions, they try to bring about changes without violence, the leaders begin
with persuading the ruler to agree to give up much of their power and share it with the
revolutionary leaders. Hence most revolutions start with a more towards a constitutional
settlement as was the case in France 1789-1791, as also with the case of Kadef and social
revolutionaries in Russia and institutional reforms in China form 1898-1906.

Revolutions build gradually from moderation to extremism. In Hausaland, it started with

Uthmnan Danfodio preaching for religious reforms. Often moderate revolutionaries lose control
and more violent and determined men take over the reins of power, for example, the moderate
Menshevis gave way to the extreme Bolshevics in Russia, the moderate Gironden gave way to
the extreme Jackobins in France O live Cromedl took over after 1911 from the constitutionalist,
while the extreme communists took over from the commentating in China.

As each wave of revolutionaries push on towards a great a strongman energes, for instance, a
Cromell in England, a Lennin in Russia, a Dan friod in Hausaland, hence revolutions end up in
the rule of a strongman.

Uniqueness

Revolutions cannot be divorced with the prevailing condition in a society, hence not the
condition that caused a revolution in a particular society, gives rise to it in another.

Since revolutions are usually protests against special conditions in the society in which they
occurs, since they are responses to a particular crisis in a particular social system no two
revolutions are alike. Whatever may be the common tendencies and characteristics, every
historical event is unique or different from any other hence the need to study each revolution in
its own uniqueness.

January 1978 –Feb 1979

Causes Westernization – Discontent with Shah’s Rode- Exile of Ayatollah Khomeini –social
injustice – imperialism –religious motives.
Goal – To overthrow the Pahlavi dynasty methods – strikes Demonstrations Cibvil resistance
Rallies

Result over throw of Saha Establishment of National Republic of Iran headed by velayat-e-
faqch ayatholah Khnomeini becomes the supreme leader of Iran

Parites involved

The perial state of Iran with imperial Iranian Army Imperial guard Iranian Policies and Royalists
supporters against the revolutionary parties with its supporters as follows Islamic republican
Party- Hezbollah- Combatat cleric Association, tudeh Party student organization etc.

Leading Figures.

Mohammed Reza Pahlavi and his supporters vs Iman Ayathalla Khamein and Cobatppoters.

The Iranian (Islamic) revolution refers to events involving the overtro of the Pallavi dynasty
under Raymond its eventual replacement with amotional republic afterwards Islamic republic
under the grand Ayatholer Pcholloh Khomeim as the supreme leader. The revolution was
supplied by various leftist and Islamic organization who di not like the Isrechi-American
inleiance in the government. The Phaleri led government was highly authocratic and was
seriously driving Iran towads secularism and westernization. This stired various leftist and
Islamic organizations with Iranis student movement.

Demonstration against the Sha was intensified after the release or 35t political Prasanes in
October 1977. It developed into a campaign of civil resistance that included both religious
secular elements. It was intensified in 1978 Janaury, between August and December 1978,
strikes and demonstrations that para the government. The Shah, having known, he is under an
escrimciating pain from cancer treatment and so, colud not cope with the massive demonstrations
and civil unrest left on exile and left the trapping f power in the hands of an interin government.
The legency interim government invited Ayatolah economic back, to the countra he joined the
capital as an opposition based prime minister on Feburary 11, 1979 a reaction leftist and resical
group of the evolutionaries laid siege on the government and sacked it, this paved away for the
accendency of Aythocen Khamanies the supreme leader. On April 1, 1979 Iran was declieaved
an Islamic republic.
The revolution inspired massive Islamic movements across the western countries and America.
One fascinating thing about the revolution is that it lacked many of the constumary causes of a
revolution –peasant uprising owing the inhumanity of leader, defeat in war, back wardness and
under development of citizens financial crisis, disqiunted military.

In the period of the revolution, the nation was enjoying relative prosperity. The Revolution
produced unpresidented changes at great speed a withing a short period.

The revountion replaced a pro-western seminabsounted monarchy with an authoritarian

theocracy based on the guardianship of the Islamic. Jurists.

It was a recotively non violent revolution, and helped to redefine the meaning and practive of
moder, revolutions. In tence violence was brought to bear on the people when the Islamic
Republic has been established and people were authoritatively driven to couply with the new
order.

Causes

a) The consersative Shia’ Islamist revolutionaria, were against the westermisation and
secular isation of the Saha led the government.
b) Social injustice-saha’s regime become increasingly oppressive, corrupt, extravagant, at
brutal. So much was not made of the oil windfall of 1977-78. The government sutteres
from functional failures, that brought economic depression, shortages and inflation.
c) The Islamic to were not happy that their corrupt government were puppets of a werstern
power (United Staes moist expecially) nowhere culture is at variance with theirs.
d) Ayathola Khomeimi’s Islamic movement was drastically underestimated by Mohammed
Reza Saha Pahlavis government, the likened the revolution as a minor threat.

Historical Background

The Shi’a clergy is a very strong political tole in Iran. Their powers manifested when in 1891
they relied against the Pahlavy manrr over the tobacco sale and export. In the period, Iranic
tobacco industry exmployed over 200,000 over Kars.
No 35 not seen

No. 44

Cuban Revolution

Cuban revolution began in July 1953 and was concluded in the lot of Jan. 1959. It ousted the
administration of president Fulgenico Batista, a former Cuban army officer turned politician and
political October of cuba. The revolution replaced the capitalist government with a socialist
economy and government.

Results of the Revolutions

- It overthrew the government of Fulgencia Batusta

- It established a socialist Stated led by Fidel Castro.
- United States placed embango against cuba key leaders of the Revolutions.
- Fidel Castro che chevron Ranl Castro, Franck Pais Camilla Fiefuegos and
Revolutionaries against fulgencio British, Eulegio, Jose Quesada, Alber to delRio
Chaviano, Joaquin casilles etc.

Remote Causes

In the decades following its independend from Spain in 1902, cuba experienced a period of
significant instability enduring a number of revolts coups and periods of US military
intervention. Batista who become the US main affront in cuba wielded extensible influence over
successive Cuban presidents before his emergence as president in 1940 through 1944 when he
lost election to Ramon gran in the period of Gran’s presidency Batista re-located to Florida (in
USA) in 1952 he returned to cuba and successfully unsected the government through a coup and
re-established himself as the president of cuba. Although Batista was reflectively progressive
daming his first tenure, in the 1950s he was highly dictatorial to popular concerns.

While unemployment rate continued to increase and infrastructures in limited distribution,

Batista antagonized his country men by forming incrat: ve l… to organized crime. He also
allowed the capitalist forces of America multinational to dominate the Cuban economy. Having
gained political and military support from USA, he declamp political opponents a young layer
and fativist petitioned for the overthrow of Batista regime because of corruption and tryany
which in the period has deepened underdevelopment. Castro’s prayers were rejected by the
Cuban courts, he decided therefore that since the regime could not be replaced through legal
means, he has following beyond 1,000 people

Early Stage of the Revolution

On July 26, 1953, fidel Castro and 123 movement fighters planned and executed a multi-prong
octa on 3 military Barrack, in moncada Barracks in Santiago and other Barracks in Bayana the
attack was counted by decisively by the Batista government there than seventy of the fighters
were killed during and after the attack including Abel Santamaria, Castro’s 21C. Castro and Eris
brother were eventually captured trial and sentenced for 15 and 13 years imprisonment
respectively. In 1955 under a broad political pressure Batista released all political prisoners
including Castro and Ranl. They joined the remnants of the movement exiled in Mexico to
prepare for the overthrow of Batista’s government.

He met with Argentine Revolutionary Enersto “Che” Guevara one of the foremort 21 st
century revolutionaries who joined his cause. They re-named themselves “the 26 th of July
movement” on December 2, 1956 82 fighters landed or playa was coloradas from where. They
launched an un-coordinated attack that led to massacre of most of the revolutionaries. The ert
excaped ti tge thick jungle of sierra mastra mountains from where they re-grouped. Fidel and
Ranl Castro, Che Gyevara and Camilo Cienfueges formed the core of the revolutionaries that
later ended Batista’s regime.

On 13th March 1957 a separate group of student of revolutionaries executed and abortive
coup which led to the mascare of lamost abi of them. This drastically reduced Batista’s
popularity among. This country men. The US government recalled their Ambassador to cuba and
cut off diplonotil ties …. Imposed economic embargo on cuba. It is only thematia and US
businessmen that maintained their support for Batista. He used very brutal method to keep Cuban
cities under cibtrik the mountains and country sides were under the control of Castro.

Castro’s men were fever than 200 men but in several occasions defeated Batista’s men 12,000
strong. ….. the fighting intensified and dragged upto December 31 st 1958, Batista escaped to
Dominican Republic on the 1st of January 1959 the revolutionaries took over Havana and by 8 th
of Jany., they have taken full control of cuba.

Reforms

-Laws were reformed to give equal rights to black Cubans and greater rights for women
communitation were improved, likewise housing, education, health, sanitation and hygine. Un-
employment and corruption drastically reduced the nationalized lands and plantations including
the ones belonging to his family. Before the resolution, 75% cuba’s best arable land was owned
by foreigners and companies balancing mostly to Americans. The land reforms highly unorived
the standard of living of Cubans, The surposedly ordinary peasant gained access to means
ofproduction and contributed meaningfully to development.

Through the ministry for the recover of misa-propriated assests, Castro Nationalised private
properties, businesses, companies owned by Cubans which in the period was valied, beyond 25
billion dollars. In August 1960, he nationalized all foreign companies including the ones owned
by American.

He nationalized all the propertic, had by religious organization Roman Catholic most especially
Priest and Bishops were expelled and the country was declared atheist. Under his education
reforms private schools were chosed down. The citizens were gradually given access to
education. The government took over all the schools.

He formed committee for the Defence of the revolution basically to keep the state vigilant
against counter revolution. This group lived up to expectation. They suppressed counter
revolution led by Cuban excess and American businessmen of the Day of pigs in the people to
the government.

He transferred country from capitalist to socialist state.

He sort to expand his revolution to other countries in Caribbean, Europe, Latin America, Africa
etc for instance he was highly involved in communist A insurgent in Ghana, Nicaragua, Yemen,
Angola, Venezuelan among others.

Egyptian Revolution Causes

In 1882, British forces intervened in Egypt during the Anglo. Egyptian war in 1888 at the
convention of Constantinople, Britain ….. the right to protect the Suez Canal with military force,
giving British a base to demines Egyptian politics. Thought nominally still an Ohman vassal,
Egypt become a protectorate. After WWI, Britain placed a reliable member of Mmhammed Ali’s
dynorthy on the throne and declare Egypt a protectorate. During the World War II, Egypt was a
major Alied base for the North African companion. After the WWII, British policy continued to
focus on the Suez canal which was very vital for imperial trade.

During the war, Egyptian nationalists within this armed forces gained influence the Arab-
Israeli war of 1948 humiliated these nationalists who blamed British –backs king, King Farvik.
The less of the 1948 war with Israel led to the free officers accendction of corruption towards the
King and his court and the promotion of their feeling among the Egyptian people.

Free officers were formed by reform minded officers backed by United States and Soviet
Union. The group was use built armed General Asdel Nasser. They use General Muhammad
Naguib as their head to attract more officers to their fold.

The officers identified disregard for the constitution, Non-chaltance to the needs to the
people, insecurity of lives and properties Dashed reputation among the community of nations
corrupt personalities in the government interference in courts and the falsification of factors
mismanagement of the war with Palestine.

General Naguib on the strength of these demanded that King Fand should abdicate the
throne to crown Prince Ahmad Faud by Rnoon, 26 th July, 1952 and as well datary from country
at 6 O’clock the same day. The army therefore placed on the monarch, the burden of the outcome
of failure to abdicate to the throne.

Egyptian Revolution of 1952

The revolution is also known as the July 2300 revolution. It was carried out by the free officers
movement led by Muhammed Nguib and General Asdel Nasser. The revolution’s original
intention was to overthrow the government of King Faruq and absolute monocracy with a
capitalist Economy. Its economy was all about procurement of raw materials from Egypt to the
West and as well dominant control of the countries’ economy. It eventverly stepped further to
abolish the constitutional monaurally and the aristoralcig of Egypt and Sudan they ended the
British occupation the country and secured the independence of Sudan the adopted an anti-
imperialist consciousness that center metamorphosed of the Egyptian economy. (that is economic
freedom in Egypt)

The revolution was forced with threats from western power specially United Kingdom and
France who have both occupied and demined Egyptian since 1875. It classified the Arab support
for the palasteriary against the Jewish State in pedestal. It triggered widespreact agitation for
colonial freedom across the Arab world and Africa for instance the nationalist agitation by
Algerians against French rule, the Kikuyu rebellion in Kenya that eventually led to the
independence of Kenya, the corrections peoples party led by Dr. Kwane Nkmuah which
eventually led to the insepence of Ghana in 1957.

The Domestic achievements of the revolution are enormous. Aggressive Agrarian reforms which
led to the reclamation and enrichment of the kinds of acres of land for agricultural and industrial
porpoises Agriculture was lightly mechanized, food and allied production was lightly
systemized, extension workers were trained in different area of production and sent to the rural
areas and cooperative centers to assist farmers in practices of production. Agric leans were use
flexible for the cooperatively Agric ultra marketing companies were sell up to absorb, preserve
and sell both perishable and unperishable agricultural product urban – rural migration spastically
reduced as cash flow in the rural areas increased. Rural and urban industrialization was
intensified. The mode of industrialization advanced from extraction and process. It
manufacturing industries. Infrasticties were distribution in different parts of Egypt and urban
development intensified. Aswan high dam was re-constructed, to increase the capacity of both
power generation, drinking water and water for li-reasonal agricultural production. The massive
lake Nasser was also constitution in the Nubia area of upper Egypt. It is the largest water
reservoir in the world. It was constituted within 136o 927,000 acres-feet of laid. It boosted of
activity generation beyond Egypt’s industrial use, it also provided water for agricultural perforce
in Egypt’s reclaimed law areas of upper Egypt and as well water for Domestic perforce. The
economy of Egypt was highly diversified.
Lots of investment and reforms were made on education from primary to teciary level. People
were trained in different areas or need in the country and lots of jobs were crated in the country.

Become of the treat posed by counter revolution forces of the west which eventually led to the
such, carnal war of 1956 and the 6 days war of June 5 th to 12th 1967, the state was structure under
a one party structure, that is the Acab socialist union (Agu). This basically was to eliminate
internal opposition go as not to both internal and external forces.

Personnel are revolution was carried out by the free Ohcers movement mage up of young of
reform under army officers. General Naguip was added as a figure lead.

The history of modern Egypt is generally accepted to have started in 1882 when it become a
defects British economy. The situation persisted until 1922 when she was officially granted
independence. British troops however remained in the country and true structure did not occur
until the free officers revolution led by Col. Gamal Abdel Nasser in 1953.

The British stronghold in Egypt was strengthened with their succeeful counter attract launctued
against Ahmed Urabi and his comrades who