PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTING

A psychological (or an educational) test is a standardized procedure to measure

q uantitatively or q ualitatively one or more than one aspect of a trait b y means of a
sample of verb al or nonverb al b ehaviour. The purpose of a psychological test is
tw ofold. F irst,it attempts to compare the same individual on tw o or more than tw o
aspects of a trait;and second,tw o or more than tw o persons may b e compared on the
same trait. Such a measurement may b e either q uantitative or q ualitative. In the w ords
of B ean (1 9 5 3 ,1 1 ),a test is “an organized succession of stimuli designed to measure
q uantitatively or to evaluate q ualitatively some mental process,trait or characteristic”.
Likew ise Anastasi and Urb ina (1 9 9 7 ) have defi ned a psychological test as “essentially
an ob jective and standardized measure of sample of b ehaviour”. Similarly,Cullari (1 9 9 8 )
has said,“A test is a standardized procedure for sampling b ehaviour and describ ing it
w ith scores or categories”. K aplan and Saccuzzo (2 0 0 1 ) have opined,“A psychological
test or educational test is a set of items designed to measure characteristics of human
b eings that pertain to b ehaviour”. These defi nitions reveal some important
characteristics of a psychological and educational test.

Some psychological tests are norm-referenced tests w hich means that results from
them are interpreted w ith reference to the average performance of the standardization
sample w hereas some psychological tests are criterion-referenced,w hich are,in fact,
used to determine w here an examinee stands w ith reference to a tightly defi ned
criterion or educational ob jective. On such tests,the comparison is done w ith an
ob jective standard rather than w ith the performance of other examinees. For example,
results of the criterion-referenced arithmetic test might state that a student does the
simple arithmetic w orks like addition,sub traction,multiplication,division of three digits
w ith 8 0 % accuracy w hereas the goal of the school system is 9 0 % . Thus,here,the
performance of other students is irrelevant and w hat is relevant is w hether the student
meets the accepted criterion.

PSYCHOMETRY

Psychometrics is the fi eld that deals w ith the measuring of intelligence,attitudes,and

personality traits. The meaning of the term psychometric comes from the root w ords
psycho (mental) and metric (measurement) and is considered the b ranch of b iology that
measures know ledge,personality,attitude,intelligence,b ehavior,and other,otherw ise
ab stract,mental faculties. A psychometrist is the name of a person w ho administers
psychometric tests. The development of psychometrics has allow ed q uantitative
measurement in the social sciences,education,and psychology. This allow s for the
assignment of numb ers and statistics to ab stract concepts,such as for psychological
assessment. Using this strategy researchers can use a psychometric approach to
identify,measure,and interpret a person’s capacities and attrib utes. Psychometric
measurement often uses tests and q uestionnaires in an attempt to measure
intelligence,personality,attitudes,and b eliefs. B ecause of this,psychometricians w ho
create the tests must ensure that they provide q uantitative data that is valid and
reliab le. Psychometric tests are just one w ay of measuring an individual b ased on
personality,interest,aptitude and ab ility. They can help screen candidates to fi nd
strengths and w eaknesses,determine personality types and motivation,and eliminate
those w ho w ould b e unsuitab le in a particular job or setting.

W hen developing a test it is important that they contain the follow ing psychometric
properties: ob jective,unb iased,non-discriminatory,controlled,and consistent. Ab ove all,
they must b e valid (measurements are close to the target range) and reliab le
(measurements are close to each other and consistent). Famous psychometric tests
include SATs and AP Exams w hich measure skills and know ledge,the Rorschach inkb lot
test for personality and b ehaviors,Myers-B riggs for decision-making analysis,and the
Predictive index to determine personality b ased on descriptors.

Classifi cation of Test

Psychologists and educators have taken pains over classifying tests from the point of
view of different criteria. A b rief introduction to this classifi cation may b e presented as
follow s:

1 . On the b asis of the criterion of administrative conditions

Tests have b een classifi ed into tw o types on the b asis of administrative

conditions – individual tests and group tests. Individual tests are those tests that are
administered to one person at a time. K ohs B lock D esign Test is an example of an
individual test. Individual test are often used b y school psychologists and counsellors to
motivate children and to ob serve how they respond.

Group tests are tests w hich can b e used among more than one person or in a
group at a time. B ell Adjustment Inventory is an example of the group test. B esides
assessing adjustment,group tests are adeq uate for measuring cognitive skills to survey
the achievements,strengths and w eaknesses pf the students in the classroom,etc.

2 . On the b asis of the criterion of scoring

B ased upon this criterion,tests are classifi ed into tw o types – ob jective test and
sub jective test. Ob jective tests are those w hose items are scored b y competent
examiners or ob servers in such a w ay that no scope for sub jective judgements or
opinion exists and thus,the scoring remains unamb iguous. Tests having multiple-
choice,true-false and matching items are usually called ob jective tests. In such items,
the prob lem as w ell as its answ er is given along w ith the distractor. The prob lem is
know n as the stem of the item. A distractor answ er is one w hich is similar to the correct
answ er b ut is not actually the correct one. Such tests are also know n as new -type tests
or limited-answ er tests.

Sub jective tests are tests w hose items are scored b y the competent examiners
or ob servers in a w ay in w hich there exists some scope for sub jective judgement and
opinion. As a conseq uence,some elements of vagueness and amb iguity remains in
there scoring. These are also called essay tests. Such tests are intended to assess an
examinees ab ility to organize a comprehensive answ er,recall and select important
information,and present the same logically and effectively. Since in these tests the
examinee is free to w rite and organize the answ er ,they are also know n as free-answ er
tests.

3 . On the b asis of the criterion of time limit in producing the response

On the b asis of this criterion ,the tests are classifi ed into pow er tests and speed
tests. A pow er test is one w hich has a generous time limit so that most examines are
ab le to attempt every item. Usually such tests have items w hich are generally arranged
in increasing order of diffi culties. Most of the intelligence tests and aptitude tests
b elong to the category of pow er tests.

Speed tests are those that have severe time limits b ut the items are
comparatively easy and the diffi culties involved there in are more or less of the same
degree. Here very few examiners are supposed to make errors. S peed tests,generally,
reveal how rapidly,i.e.,w ith w hat speed the examinees can respond w ithin a given time
limit. Most of the clerical aptitude tests b elong to this very category.

4 . On the b asis of the criterion of the nature or contents of items

 A test may b e classifi ed on the b asis of the nature of the items or the contents
used therein. Important types of the tests b ased on this criterion are:

A. V erb al Tests

B . Nonverb al Tests

C. Performance Tests

D . Non-language Tests

A. V erb al test is one w hose items emphasize reading,w riting and oral expression as
the primary mode of communication. Herein,instructions are printed or w ritten. These
are read b y the examinees and,accordingly,items are answ ered. J alota Group General
Intelligence Test and Mehta Group Test of Intelligence are some common examples.
V erb al tests are also called paper-pencil test b ecause the examinee has to w rite on a
piece of paper w hile answ ering the test items.

B . Nonverb al tests are those that emphasize b ut don’t altogether eliminate the role of
language b y using symb olic materials like pictures,fi gures,etc. Such tests use the
language in instruction b ut in items,they don’t use language. Test items present the
prob lem w ith the help of fi gures and symb ols. Nonverb al tests are commonly used w ith
young children as an attempt to assess the nonverb al aspects of intelligence such as
spatial perception. Raven Progressive Matrices is a good example of nonverb al test.

C. Performance tests are those that req uire the examinees to perform a task rather
than answ er some q uestion. Such tests prohib it the use of language in items.
Occasionally,oral language is used to give instruction,or,the instruction may also b e
given through gesture and pantomime. D ifferent kinds of performance tests are
availab le. W hatever may b e the types of performance test,the common feature of all
performance tests is their emphasis is on the examinees ab ility to perform a task rather
than answ er some q uestions.

D . Non-language tests are those w hich don’t depend upon any form of w ritten,spoken
or reading communication. Such tests remain completely independent of the ab ility to
use the language in any w ay. Instructions are usually given through gestures or
pantomime and the examinees respond b y pointing at or manipulating ob jects such as
pictures,b locks,puzzles,etc. Such tests are usually administered to those persons or
children w ho can’t communicate in any form of ordinary language.
5 . On the b asis of the criterion of purpose or ob jective

B ased upon this criterion,test are usually classifi ed as intelligence tests,aptitude

tests,personality tests,neuropsychological tests and achievement tests. Intelligence
tests intend to assess intelligence of the examinees. Aptitude tests assess the
potentials or aptitudes of the person. Personality tests assess traits,adjustments,
interests,values,etc.,of the persons. Neuropsychological tests are the tests,w hich are
used in the assessment of persons w ith know n or suspected b rain dysfunctioning.
Achievement tests assess w hat the persons have acq uired in the given area as a
function of some training or learning.

6 . On the b asis of the criterion of standardization

B ased upon these criterion,tests are classifi ed into standardization tests and
teacher-made tests. Standardization tests are those w hich have b een sub jected to the
procedure of standardization. How ever,the meaning of the term ‘standardization’is
controversial and includes at least the follow ing conditions:

I. The fi rst condition for standardization is that there must b e a standard manner of
giving instructions so that uniformity can b e maintained in the evaluation of all
those w ho take the test.
II. The second condition for standardization is that there must b e uniformity of
scoring and an index of fairness of correct answ er through the procedure of item
analysis should b e availab le.
III. The third condition is that reliab ility and validity of the test must b e estab lished
and the individuals for w hom the test is intended should b e explicitly mentioned.
IV . The fourth condition,a controversial one,is that a standardized test should have
norms.

Teacher-made tests are those that are constructed b y teachers for use largely w ithin
their classrooms. The effectiveness of such tests depends upon the skill of the teacher
and his know ledge of test construction. Rules for administration and scoring are
determined b y the teacher.

General Steps of Test Construction

B efore the real w ork of test construction b egins,certain b road decisions are taken b y
the investigator. These preliminary decisions have far-reaching conseq uences. It is at
this preliminary stage that the test constructor outlines the major ob jectives of the test
in general terms,and specifi es the populations for w hom the test is intended. Having
decided the ab ove preliminary things,he must go ahead w ith the follow ing steps.

1. Planning of the test

2. W riting items of the test
3. Preliminary administration (or the experimental try-out) of the test
4. Reliab ility of the fi nal test
5. V alidity of the fi nal test
6. Norms of the fi nal test
7. Preparation of manual and reproduction of the test

1 . Planning of the test - The fi rst step in the construction of a test is careful planning. At
this stage the test constructor specifi es the b road and specifi c ob jectives of the test in
clear terms. He decides upon the nature of the content or items to b e included,the type
of instructions to b e included,the method of sampling,a detailed arrangement for the
preliminary administration and the fi nal administration,etc.

2 . W riting items of the test – The second step in test construction is the preparation of
the items of the test. According to B ean (1 9 5 3 ,1 5 ) an item is defi ned as “a single
q uestion or task that is not often b roken dow n into any smaller units.” How ever ,there
are some essential prereq uisites,w hich must b e met if the item w riter w ants to w rite
good and appropriate items. These req uirements are enumerated as follow s:

1 . The item w riter must have a thorough know ledge and complete mastery of the
sub ject matter.
2 . The item w riter must b e fully aw are of those persons for w hom the test is meant.
3 . The item w riter must b e familiar w ith different types of items along w ith their
advantages and disadvantages.
4 . The item w riter must have a large vocab ulary.
5 . After w riting dow n the items,they must b e sub mitted to a group of sub ject
experts for their criticisms and suggestions,follow ing w hich the items must then
b e duly modifi ed.

3 . Preliminary Administration (or the experimental try-out) of the test - The purpose of
experimental try-out or preliminary administration of the test is manifold. According to
Conrad (1 9 5 1 ) the main purpose of this process is given b elow :

1 . F inding out the major w eaknesses,omissions,amb iguities and inadeq uacies of

the items.
2 . D etermining the diffi culty values of each item w hich,in turn,helps in selecting
items for their even and proper distrib ution in the fi nal form.
3 . D etermining the validity of each individual item.
4 . D etermining a reasonab le time limit of the test.
5 . D etermining the appropriate length of the test.
6 . D etermining the intercorrelations of items so that overlapping can b e avoided.
7 . Identifying any w eakness and vagueness in directions or instructions of the test
as w ell as in the fore-exercises or sample q uestions of the test.

4 . Reliab ility of the fi nal test - Reliab ility is the self-correlation of the test and it indicates
the consistency of the scores in the tests. There are three common w ays of calculating
reliab ility coeffi cient,namely test-retest method,split-half method,and the eq uivalent-
form method.

5 . V alidity of the fi nal test- V alidity refers to w hat the test measures and how w ell it
measures. If a test measures a trait that it intends to measure w ell,w e say that the test
is a valid one.

6 . Norms of the fi nal test - F inally the test constructor also prepares norms of the test.
Norms are defi ned as the average performance or score of a large sample
representatives of a specifi ed population. Norms are prepared to meaningfully interpret
the scores ob tained on the test for,as w e know ,the ob tained scores on the test
themselves convey no meaning regarding the ab ility or trait b eing measured. B ut w hen
these are compared w ith the norms,a meaningful interference can b e immediately b e
draw n.

7 . Preparation of Manual and Reproduction of the test - The last step in test
construction is the preparation of a manual of the test. In the manual the test
constructor reports the psychometric properties of the test,norms and references. This
gives a clear indication regarding the procedures of the test administration,the scoring
methods and time limits,if any,of the test. The test constructor,after seeing the
importance and req uirement of the test,fi nally orders for printing of the test and the
manual.
 Uses and limitations of psychological test and testing

Psychological tests are used for many purposes and few are given b elow :

1 . In classifi cation: psychological test are used in making classifi cation of person,
that is,assigning persons to one category. Important categories are placement,
screening,certifi cation and selection.
2 . In diagnosis and planning for treatment: diagnosis means determining the nature
of a person’s ab normal b ehavior and classifying the b ehavior pattern w ithin the
accepted system. After a proper diagnosis is completed,a treatment plan is
accordingly done so that the maximum help can b e rendered.
3 . In self-know ledge: psychological test provides self-know ledge to the test takers
to the extent that such know ledge tends to change their career path. The test
gives a feedb ack regarding the level of the ab ility or trait b eing measured.
4 . In evaluation of programs: psychological test are used in evaluation of various
types of educational and social programs. The impact of different programs
conducted for the b etterment of academic achievement is assessed b y various
types of achievement and intelligence tests.
5 . In theoretical and applied b ranches of b ehavioral research: psychological test are
freq uently used in b oth theoretical and applied researches. Psychologist
investigate theoretical matters that have no immediate or ob vious practical
application using psychological tests. Take the follow ing example for applied
fi eld. Suppose neuropsychologists w ish to test the hypothesis that low level of
lead ab sorption produces b ehavioral defi cits. This hypothesis is tested b y
administrating psychological test to lead-b urdened and normal children.

D espite its various uses,psychological tests are not w ithout limitations. Follow ing are
some of the limitations:

1 . Privacy b reach: psychological tests may b e invasion of privacy if they are used
w ithout the permission of the examinees to ob tain personal and sensitive
information.
2 . Lab elling: on the b asis of the performance of psychological test,the examinees
are given certain categories and the authority b ehaves accordingly disregarding
evidence of any further change. This has serious implications for the examinees.
3 . Creates anxiety: generally,it has b een reported that w hen the assessment is to
b e done through psychological tests,the examinees feel anxious and this anxiety
 affects their performance.
4 . Measure only limited aspects of b ehavior: psychological tests cannot measure
the most important human traits. They force the examinees to take decisions
b ased on superfi cial and relatively unimportant criteria.
5 . B right and creative minds are undermined: psychological tests are insensitive to
atypical and creative responses. Such responses are not given credit, thus
discriminating against the talented examinees.

Thus,psychological tests have some limitations.

Ethical issues in psychological testing

The major ethical or moral issues relating to psychological testing can b e describ ed
under the follow ing fi ve headings:

1 . Issues of human rights: psychological testing is b eing infl uenced b y recognition

of various types of human rights. Among these rights is the right to not to b e
tested. An individual cannot b e forced to take a testing. Another right include the
right to know the test scores,their interpretations as w ell as the b asis of any
decisions that affect their lives. Now adays other human rights such as the right
to know w ho w ill have access to the data of psychological test and the right to
confi dentiality of test results are b eing popularly discussed. Test interpreters
have an ethical ob ligation to provide protection to these human rights and the
test takers are responsib le for demanding their rights.
2 . Issue of lab elling: on the b asis of psychological test, a person is given a certain
lab el. This lab elling has many harmful effects. It can stigmatize a person for life
and it also affects one’s access to help. It can make the person passive and w ill
leave no incentive to alter the negative conditions surrounding his life. It w ill
low er the tolerance for stress and make treatment diffi cult. In view of these
potential negative effects and dangers of lab elling,a person should have the
right to not b e lab elled.
3 . Issues of invasion of privacy: the person’s privacy is invaded w hen most
information is used inappropriately or w rongly. Psychologists are ethically and
legally b ound to maintain confi dentiality and they don’t reveal any more
information ab out a person than is necessary to accomplish the purpose for
w hich the testing w as started. The ethical code of APA (1 9 9 2 ) has included
confi dentiality and it directs psychologists to share or communicate personal
 information of an individual only w ith their consent.
4 . Issues of divided loyalties: divided loyalties is a major dilemma for psychologist
w ho use the test in various fi elds such as industry,schools,clinics,government,
military and so on. A psychologist has to face a confl ict,w hich arises w hen the
individual’s w elfare is put at odds on the one hand and that of the institution that
employs the psychologist on the other.
5 . Responsib ility of test constructors and test users: ethical issues put some
responsib ilities on test developers and test users. The test constructor is
responsib le for providing all the necessary information. There are some
responsib ilities w hich lie w ith the test users too. APA (1 9 7 4 ) makes users of the
test responsib le for know ing the reason of the test,as w ell as the conseq uences
of using the test. It makes the test users to maximize the test’s effectiveness and
to minimize unfairness,if any. A test user cannot claim ignorance and is
responsib le for fi nding out the relevant and pertinent information using any test.

These ethical issues put psychologists on vigil so that they must guard b oth the interest
of the test as w ell as the w elfare of the test taker.