Alvarado Ramirez Melissa

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Statically determinate and indeterminate structures

Structures and classifications

Structures are a group of members, such as beams, columns, slabs, foundations,
beams and trusses, that function as a unit to fulfill a purpose, that the structure or
building resists the stresses to which it is subjected, these structures are classified
as statically determinate or statically indeterminate.
Statically determinate structures are structures that can be analyzed using static
equations alone. Statically indeterminate structures, on the other hand, cannot be
analyzed using static equations alone; they require other material properties, such
as deformations, in order to be analyzed.
When performing structural analysis, they calculate the reaction forces due to
external forces applied to the structure as well as internal forces such as bending
moment, shear force, and normal force. Structural analysis is necessary for
structural design so that the structural engineer can choose the appropriate sizes
and materials so that the structure can economically and effectively resist the
effects of possible external loads applied to it.
Beams
As far as beams are concerned, if the reaction forces can be calculated using
equilibrium equations alone, they are statically determinate. On the other hand, if
the reaction force cannot be determined using equilibrium equations alone, other
methods must be used and the structure is said to be statically indeterminate.
If the number of unknowns exceeds the number of equations, the structure is
statically indeterminate. Otherwise, it is statically determinate.

In the figure above, we have three equations for all cases:

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However, the number of unknowns is different; there are three unknowns for
beams number 1 and 2, which makes them statically determinate because the
number of unknowns is equal to the number of equations. On the other hand, in
beams 3 and 4, there are more unknowns than equations. Therefore, these
structures are statically indeterminate.
In three-dimensional structures, however, there will be six equations, making it
possible to have up to six unknowns for the beam to be statically determinate. The
degree of indeterminacy is equal to the number of unknowns minus the number of
equations. However, when there are fewer reactions than equations, this makes
the beam unstable.
Armor
In trusses, on the other hand, the truss may be internally statically determinate or
indeterminate. This means that the internal forces in the members may be
calculated using statics only or may not be calculated using statics only and may
be externally determinate or indeterminate.
In other words, there may sometimes be cases where a truss is externally
determinate (i.e. we can calculate the reaction forces using only statics) and
internally indeterminate (i.e. the internal normal forces cannot be calculated using
only statics).
In the case of external reactions, trusses are classified in the same way as beams
are classified. On the other hand, to determine whether the truss is statically
determinate or not, the following rule is used: If M + R = 2 * J , the truss is statically
internally determinate. However, if M + R > 2 * J , the truss is statically internally
indeterminate.
Where:
M is the total number of members in the truss.
R is the total number of reaction forces on the truss.
J is the total number of joints in the truss.
For trusses, the degree of indeterminacy is equal to: M + R = (2 * J )
Lesson Summary
Let's review. Structures, or a group of members such as beams, columns, slabs,
foundations, girders, and trusses that function as a unit to fulfill a purpose, can be
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either statically determinate or statically indeterminate. This means that it may be

possible to analyze such structures using static equilibrium alone (i.e., statically
determinate) or it may require deformation of other structural or material properties
to analyze the structure (i.e., statically indeterminate).
A truss may be internally statically determinate and externally statically
determinate, internally statically indeterminate and externally statically
indeterminate, or it may be internally statically indeterminate and externally
statically determinate. Generally speaking, internally determinate means that the
internal forces in the members can be calculated using statics alone, and internally
indeterminate means that the internal forces in the members cannot be calculated
using statics alone.
This is determined by the following rule: If M + R = (2 * J ), the truss is statically
internally determinate. However, if M + R > 2 * J , the truss is statically internally
indeterminate.
This is where:
M is the total number of members in the truss
R is the total number of reaction forces in the truss
J is the total number of joints in the truss

A structure is statically determined and its internal forces can be known through the
static equilibrium equations, that is, it can be analyzed under the principles of
statics. This happens when the number of response conditions of the structure is
equal to the equations that have to be posed to solve them, so that it is possible to
find its behavior under this method.
Indeterminate structures: In contrast, indeterminate structures are those in which
the number of unknowns is greater than the equilibrium equations, so to solve
them they must be used simultaneously with other structural analysis methods,
such as the deformation compatibility equations and the force and displacement
equations.

Literature

Determinate and indeterminate structures - Structural stability. (2021). E-Construir.com.

https://e-construir.com/estructuras/determinadas.html
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Little cross. (2021, October 3). Statically determinate and indeterminate structures: trusses

and beams | Studying. Studying. https://estudyando.com/estructuras-estaticamente-

determinadas-e-indeterminadas-cerchas-y-vigas/

Classification of structures
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The structures can be classified into two large groups:

Natural. They are those we find in nature: the skeleton of a vertebrate, the trunk of
a tree, the shell of a turtle, a bird's nest, etc.
Artificial. These are designed and built by man; in them we find a set of simple
elements arranged in such a way that they are capable of supporting themselves
and other objects placed on them. Structures must be stable (they must not fall or
tip over easily) and must be rigid, that is, they must withstand certain loads or
stresses for which they have been designed without breaking or becoming
excessively deformed.
Within the artificial structures we can differentiate:
1. Massive structures. -The first structures were formed by accumulating material,
leaving hardly any gaps, placing blocks of stone or clay on top of each other or
digging into the rock. For windows or openings, stone or wooden lintels were used.
Lintels consist of a horizontal beam placed on two vertical supports, usually with
the purpose of leaving a gap beneath them. It is also called a beam or loader.
2. Vaulted structures: The discovery of the arch and the vault made it possible to
cover larger spaces and increase the gaps in the structure. A vault is the result of
placing several arches one after the other (barrel vault) or intersecting them and
filling the spaces in between (rib vault).
3. Laminar or shell structures: Shell structures are made up of resistant sheets
that surround the object, forming a box or shell that protects and holds the parts
that compose it in position. Examples of shell structures are the bodies and
fuselages of cars and aircraft, and most packaging such as plastic bottles or
tetrabricks.
4. Frame or truss structures: Structures formed by elongated elements such as
profiles, bars, tubes, pillars, beams, joists, crossbars or columns joined together to
form a kind of skeleton or framework. Depending on the arrangement of their
elements, these structures can be further classified as:
a. Framed structures: These are the structures used in the construction of
buildings and homes. It is made up of concrete or steel bars rigidly joined together
to form a grid. Each part of the structure has a specific mission. Beneath the floor
we walk on is a concrete slab that transmits our weight and that of all the objects
on the floor to the beams, horizontal elements shaped like a rectangular prism and
subjected to bending stress.
The beams that go inside the slab are called viguetas, small beams. The beams
rest on the pillars and transmit the weight to them. The pillars are vertical and are
responsible for carrying the weight to the foundation. They are subject to
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compression forces, that is, crushed between the beams and the foundation.
Circular pillars are called columns and if they are attached to the wall, pilasters.
The total weight does not go directly to the ground because it would sink, to
prevent the pillars from being driven into the ground, they are supported by the
foundation, an intermediate element that may consist of footings, foundation slabs
and piles, depending on the nature and characteristics of the terrain.
Slabs and piles are used in very soft ground and are made from different materials,
the most commonly used being steel and reinforced concrete due to their high
strength. Wood is often used as a decorative element in structures.
Profiles are used in many structures, especially metallic ones. They are elements
that have different sections, depending on the stresses they must withstand.
Profiles are used to create lighter structures that support large weights with less
material; open profiles adapt very well to compression forces.
b. Triangulated structures: They are characterized by the arrangement of bars
forming triangles. They are very resistant and light at the same time.
c. Hanging structures: they support the weight of the construction by means of
cables or bars that are attached to very strong supports. These cables are called
stay cables and when their length can be adjusted, they are called tensioners. The
braces only support tensile forces, but they have the advantage of being able to
adapt their shape to the loads they receive at any given time.

Literature

Classification of structures. (2013). Blogspot.com.

https://tecnologiapirineos.blogspot.com/2012/11/clasificacion-de-las-estructuras.html

‌CONSTRUCTION CLASSIFICATION | Blog | Benol. (2022, February 14). Benol.

https://www.benol.com.mx/clasificacion-de-construcciones/
‌

Type of requests
 Live loads: The live load is the one produced by the use of the structure. It is
also known as imposed load or probabilistic load, since its calculation is
made on projections and not on real data. It must take into account people
(or other living beings), furniture, vehicle traffic, various equipment,
temporary structures, etc. When carrying out the structural analysis and
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design of structures, it is necessary to take into account a series of

structural loads. Live load is one of them.
The live load calculation also includes the weight of the partitions and the
loads generated by construction and maintenance work (workers,
machinery, etc.).
 Dead loads: Dead load refers to the weight (which generates a vertical load)
of all the elements of the structure itself. These elements may be structural
or non-structural, but they are a permanent part of the construction; that is,
unlike the live load, they are not due to the occupation and use of the
structure.
Some elements of the dead load can be: coverings, stairs, roofs, floors, etc.
 Accidental loads: An accidental load is one that occurs eventually in the life
of a structure, is not constant and can reach large magnitudes. This is not
due to the normal operation of the property and occurs only for short periods
of time.
Equilibrium in a structure occurs because the loads it supports are transmitted
through it to the supports. In the support areas, it responds with reactions equal
and opposite to the loads.
Equilibrium: In the following
diagram, a load P acts on a
portal and is balanced by two
reactions Ra and Rb.
To direct the load towards the
supports, internal forces are
produced in the structure,
which we call stresses. Thus, if
the bars are able to transmit the
load P to the supports A and B
without breaking, the structure is resistant. If it is able to withstand them without
deforming excessively, then it is stable.
Each structure, therefore, is a closed set of forces. The external forces are the
loads and reactions, and the internal forces are the stresses. The total result of the
sums between them must be zero for the system to be in equilibrium.
If the system is not in equilibrium the structure moves as a rigid solid, breaks, or
both. In this article we will not discuss deformations, which are a complementary
aspect. Balance is essential to avoid compromising stability, but deformations must
be limited. Among other reasons, to achieve a geometrically stable construction
and to prevent the finishes from breaking.
Requests on a structure
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The stresses are the result of external forces on the elements of the structure. The
classification responds to the orientation of the position of each component of the
result with respect to the structural piece:
The component parallel to the axis of the bar is the normal.
The components perpendicular to the bar are the shear forces.
The off-center components with respect to the axis of the bar produce the bending
and twisting moments.
The bending forces are those that come from the displacement of the normal with
respect to the axis of the bar.
Torsional moments arise from the displacement of the shear forces relative to the
axis of the bar.
The above diagram analyzes
the stresses in any two
sections. We choose points C
and D of the structure.
In the section by C, the normal
N responds to the stress in the
axis and the moment M is due
to the displacement of the axis
of the resultant with respect to
the bar.
In section D, in addition to the previous requests, there is a third component. This
is perpendicular to the axis of the bar, since the axis of the reaction is not parallel
to that of the bar. This stress is the shear of the D-section.
Torsional moments are not reflected in the above diagram. To do this, the position
of the load would have to be represented in relation to the width of the piece.
Effects on the structure of the requests.
Each type of stress can cause a different deformation on the structural part. All
deformations, together with the stresses, at the limit cause the part to break.
Furthermore, deformations, if they are too large, modify the way the structure
functions. This may cause the equilibrium conditions to change.
Below we list the deformations associated with each of the types of stresses in a
structure:
Normal: shortening or lengthening.
2. Shear: angular distortions of the piece.
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3. Bending moment: the curvature of the structural part.

4. Torsional moment: the piece twists around its axis.

Classifying the stresses on a structure and studying their effects on it helps us to

identify the pathologies that may affect it, and therefore to devise a strategy for its
rehabilitation.

Literature

Types of requests in a structure – e-STRUC. (2017, October 4). E-Struc.com. https://e-

struc.com/2017/10/03/tipos-solicitaciones-una-estructura/

Live load: what it is, difference with dead load, calculation of live load - Ferrovial. (2023,

January 10). Ferrovial. https://www.ferrovial.com/es/stem/carga-viva/#:~:text=La

%20carga%20muerta%20se%20resegura,y%20uso%20de%20la%20estructura.
‌
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Table of Materials: Volumetric Weights

MASONRY
From the 2017 NTC of masonry in Mexico:

Table 2.1.1 Minimum net volumetric weight of pieces, in dry state.

Type of piece Values in kN/m³ (kg/m³)

Solid partition made of

13 (1300)
handmade clay

Hollow partition made of

17 (1700)
extruded or pressed clay

Concrete block 17 (1700)

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Solid concrete partition

15 (1500)
(partition wall)

General Table of Volumetric Weights.

Below we provide a table of approximate weights, which you can use in case you do not
have the data for your corresponding standard.

Materials Volumetric weights

1.- NATURAL STONES Maximum ton/m³ Minimum ton/m³

Clays 2.50 1.75

2.45 1.75
Dry-saturated sandstones (chilucas and
2.50 2.0
quarries)
Basalts (p. fathom, slab, etc.) 2.60 2.35
2.65 2.45
drysaturated
Granite 3.2 2.4

Marble, limestone 2.6 2.55

Rhyolite 2.55 2.05

Blackboards 2.85 2.35

Tepetates 1.95 1.3

Tezontles 1.55 1.15

Limestone 2.85 2.45

2.- SOILS Maximum ton/m³ Minimum ton/m³

Uniform grain size sand 2.10 1.85

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Well graded sand 2.30 1.95

Typical clay from the Valley of

1.50 1.2
Mexico

Caliche 2.10 1.7

3.- ARTIFICIAL STONES AND MORTARS Maximum ton/m³ Minimum ton/m³

Adobe
1.60 1.50
Set Mortar
1.60 1.50
Portland cement set
2.95 ---
Plain concrete with normal weight aggregates
2.20 2.00
Reinforced concrete 2.40 2.20

Lime and sand mortar 1.50 1.40

Cement and sand mortar 2.10 1.90

Plasterboarding 1.50 1.10

Solid handmade partition 1.50 1.30

Solid pressed partition 2.20 1.60

Hollow lightweight concrete block 1.30 0.90

Intermediate hollow concrete block 1.70 1.30

Heavy hollow concrete block 2.20 2.00

Glass block for walls

1.25 0.65
Binoculars for skylights
2.00 1.50
Flat glass 3.10 2.80

4.- WOOD Maximum ton/m³ Minimum ton/m³

Dry poplar
0.59 0.39
Saturated Mahogany 1.00 0.70

Dry white cedar 0.38 0.32

0.55 0.40
Dry-saturated red cedar 0.70 0.50
Oyamel 0.65 0.55

Saturated oak 1.00 0.80

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Saturated Pine 1.00 0.80

Dry Ash 0.95 0.57

Dried Ocote 0.80 ---

Dried royal palm 0.70 0.60

Dry white oak 0.80 ---

Dry red or black oak 0.70 ---

Dry oak (other species) 0.95 0.85

5.- COATINGS Maximum Kg/m² Minimum Kg/m²

Tile 15 10

Pasta mosaic 35 25

Granite 40x40 65 55

Asphalt or vinyl tile 10 5

6.- METALS Maximum Ton/m³ Minimum Ton/m³

Aluminum 2.75 2.55

Steel, Iron 7.85 7.85

Rolled cast copper 9.00 8.80

Brass, rolled cast 8.70 8.40

Lead 11.35 ---

Zinc, cast rolled 7.20 6.90

7.- ORGANIC PRODUCTS Maximum ton/m³ Minimum ton/m³

Asphalt 1.50 1.10

Anthracite coal 0.92 0.75

Butamine coal 0.86 0.72

Peat coal, dry 0.65 0.55

Pine charcoal 0.44 0.28

Crude oil 0.90 ---

Refined petroleum 0.82 0.79

Petroleum gasoline 0.75 0.73

Petroleum Gasoline 0.69 0.66

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Table provided by JASSIT NEFTALI ALVARADO RODRIGUEZ

I.- TABLE OF WEIGHTS OF CASED SLABS

Weight of flat slabs, lightened with 40x40 cm concrete coffers and average volumetric weight of 0.6
Ton/M3 in gross volume.

H (cm) D (cm) N (cm) W kg/m2 H (cm) D (cm) N (cm) W Kg/m2

20 15 10 307 35 30 10 494

20 15 11 314 35 30 11 508

20 15 12 320 35 30 12 520

20 15 13 326 35 30 13 532

20 15 14 332 35 30 14 544

35 30 15 554

25 20 10 367 35 30 16 565

25 20 11 379 35 30 17 574

25 20 12 387 35 30 18 583

25 20 13 395 35 30 19 592

25 20 14 402 35 30 20 600

25 20 15 410 35 30 21 608

25 20 16 416 35 30 22 615

30 25 10 432 40 35 10 557

30 25 11 443 40 35 11 572
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30 25 12 453 40 35 12 587

30 25 13 464 40 35 13 601

30 25 14 473 40 35 14 614

30 25 15 482 40 35 15 627

30 25 16 490 40 35 16 639

30 25 17 498 40 35 17 650

30 25 18 505 40 35 18 660

30 25 19 513 40 35 19 670

30 25 20 520 40 35 20 680

40 35 21 689

40 35 22 698

40 35 23 706

40 35 24 714

40 35 25 721

II.- TABLE OF WEIGHTS OF CASED SLABS

Weight of flat slabs, lightened with 40x40 cm expanded polystyrene blocks.

H (cm) D (cm) N (cm) W Kg/m2 H (cm) D (cm) N (cm) W Kg/m2

17 12 10 224 33 30 12 396
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17 12 12 238 33 30 14 425

17 12 14 251 33 30 16 451

33 30 18 474

21 16 10 259 33 30 20 495

21 16 12 278 33 30 22 514

21 16 14 294

21 16 16 309 39 30 12 456

39 30 14 490

26 21 10 303 39 30 16 522

26 21 12 327 39 30 18 550

26 21 14 349 39 30 20 575

26 21 16 368 39 30 22 598

26 21 18 385 39 35 24 619

26 21 20 401

46 35 12 525

30 25 12 367 46 35 14 567

30 25 14 392 46 35 16 604

30 25 16 415 46 35 18 638

30 25 18 436 46 35 20 669

30 25 20 455 46 35 22 696

30 25 22 471 46 35 24 722

Literature

ConstruAprende. (2021, July 19). Construction material weights. Construaprende.com.

https://www.construaprende.com/docs/tablas/pesos-materiales
 Alvarado Ramirez Melissa
Fernanda
 Alvarado Ramirez Melissa
Fernanda

Bachelor of Architecture

Concrete structures I

Statically determinate and indeterminate structures

Alvarado Ramirez Melissa Fernanda

San Juan del Rio, Queretaro, 2023

‌
 Alvarado Ramirez Melissa
Fernanda

Bachelor of Architecture

Concrete structures I

Classification of structures

Alvarado Ramirez Melissa Fernanda

San Juan del Rio, Queretaro, 2023

 Alvarado Ramirez Melissa
Fernanda

Bachelor of Architecture

Concrete structures I

Type of requests

Alvarado Ramirez Melissa Fernanda

San Juan del Rio, Queretaro, 2023

 Alvarado Ramirez Melissa
Fernanda

Bachelor of Architecture

Concrete structures I

Volumetric weights

Alvarado Ramirez Melissa Fernanda

San Juan del Rio, Queretaro, 2023