Studying in English

Your success in your studies will depend upon your ability to understand, speak, read, and write

English.

MOTIVATION. Your success in your studies will also depend upon your motivation. Motivation

can come from two sources: from inside of you or from outside of you. In the first case, motivation

comes from your hopes and expectations, from your desire to do something or to be someone. there

is another source of motivation: from outside. In education, the most obvious kind of outside

motivation is grades. For many students, course grades are an immediate, short-range motivation

for study.

CONCENTRATION. To concentrate means to focus your attention clearly and completely on a

purpose. This is very easy to do when you are interested in what you are doing; it is difficult to, do

when you are not especially interested.

How can you develop interest?

First, think of how and why the subject is important to your general education.

Second, think of how the subject is related to other subjects or to other times, places, problems, and

purposes.

Third, interest depends upon understanding.

DISTRACTIONS. Even though you are Interested in a subject, you may find that your concentration is

interrupted by various distractions. A distraction is something, such as a sudden noise, or someone,

such as an unexpected visitor, that takes your attention away from what you are doing. You have

no control over some distractions, but you can control others.

In order to study' efficiently, you need to have a place that is always, and only, used for studying.

Ideally, this should be your own desk in your own private room.
The kind of study schedule you plan will depend upon your class schedule, your school and social

actfvitie, and the tune that you eat and sleep.

Here are some important points to keep in mind:

1. Be realistic. Schedule for leisure time those times that you usually use for leisure.

2. For courses which depend largely on recitation (such as languages’), plan a study period just

before class.

3. For courses that depend largely on lectures, plan a study period immediately after the class

4. Many courses use both a lecture and recitation method of instruction. You will have to plan or

revise your schedule accordingly.

5. Distribute your study hours rather mass them all together

6. Do not expect to learn material during the last few days before an examination by cramming.

7. Plan to spend at least two hours on outside preparation for each hour in class

8. Most important of all: "Trade time, don't steal it."

using an English Dictionary

The only authority an English dictionary has is its completeness, its accuracy in reporting the facts,

and its recency of publication. A good dictionary will indicate alternate British or

American pronunciations, spellings, or meanings.

Desk dictionary

Several large dictionaries, called unabridged, contain all the words of the language.

Dictionaries to Avoid

Avoid a dictionary that is more than ten or at most fifteen years old.

Small paper-covered dictionaries

Avoid a native-language-to-English dictionary

What a Dictionary Will Tell You

1. Spelling: the accepted spelling of every word, the spelling of irregular verb forms and plurals.

2. Pronunciation and stress

3. syllable division. This helps in spelling and pronouncing words and indicates where the word

should be divided at the end of a line.

4. Derivation. A dictionary includes the history of each word, indicating its origin and development

through different languages before it became an English word.

5. Meaning. Almost every word has more than a single meaning.

6. Part of speech A dictionary indicates, however, whether the word is commonly used as a noun,

pronoun, verb (transitive and intransitive), adjective, adverb, conjunction, or preposition.

7. Usage. Your dictionary will tell you whether a word is chiefly British or American, or whether the

word is formal, colloquial, dialectal, archaic, poetic, or slang. This information is often important in

writing.

8. Synonyms and antonyms

9. General information. Information about persons and places is listed, either within the alphabetical

arrangement of the words or in special sections at the back.

Some dictionaries also include rules for spelling, punctuation, and capitalization, a vocabulary of

rhymes, a list of common first names in English, and even a list of colleges and universities in the

United States.

The word on the left is the same as the first word on the page. The word on the right is the same as

the last word on the page. These two words are called guide words. They guide you to the word

you are looking for.

Buk J: To add a suffix to a one-syllable word with a single vowel followed by a single consonant,

double the final consonant.

run + -ing = running

sad + -est = saddest

fat + -er = fatter

cut + -able = cuttable

Rule 2: To add a suffix to a word of more than one syllable, double the final consonant of the last

syllable if it ends in a single vowel followed by a single consonant and if the stress remains on the

last syllable.

begin + -ing = beginning

occur + -ence = occurrence

prefer + -ed = preferred

3: Drop the final e before a suffix beginning with a vowel.

( stress remains)

take + -ing = taking

write + -ing = writing

Rule 4: In syllables with a long e sound ( as in me') , • comes before e except after c.

believe chief grief piece receive ceiling

Rule 5, For word that end with y preceded by a consonant, change the y to i before adding a

suffix (except those beginning with I).

happy + -est = happiest

beauty + -ful = beautiful

Rule. 6: For words that end with y preceded by a vowel, keep the y before adding a suffix.

Gay+ -est= gayest

boy + -ish = boyish

SYLLABLE DIVISION. Your dictionary indicates separate syllables, usually by a heavy black dot in

the first entry. For example: En·glish dic· tion ·ar·y

Notice this division carefully so that you will know where it is possible to divide words in your

writing. Words in English can be divided only at pronounceable syllable divisions.

the most important Information regarding a word is its meaning.

When you are looking for a definition

1. Look at the spelling and pronunciation of the word, especially the stress.

2. Look at the words above and below the word. theyare often closely related;

The history of a word. Technically called etymology,

It will not only be interesting but it will also help you to remember the word and its meaning better.

RESTRICTIVE OR USAGE LABELS

specific dialects - archaic or obsolete - formal or informal -slang or colloquial

MISCELLANEOUS KINDS OF INFORMATION

In addition to what you have already learned, your dictionary includes a variety of other

information.

Learning the Vocabulary of English

The size of one's native language vocabulary reflects his education, reading, and range of

interests. There is a very clear relationship between, vocabulary size and professional success.

As a measure of his Interest and experience in English, the relative size of a student's vocabulary is

meaningful--even if it cannot be measured accurately

Word Formation
The stem of a word is its basic form, the fundamental element which is common to all the other forms

of the word. A prefix is a form which is fixed to the beginning of a stem; a suffix is a form which is

fixed to the end of a stem. For example:

stem = measure

suffix = measurable

prefix = immeasurable

A prefix usually changes the meaning of a word, while a suffix usually changes its part of speech.

For example, the suffix –able changes verbs into adjectives (breakable, enjoyable). The prefix im-

changes the meaning to the opposite: measurable means "capable of being measured";

immeasurable means not capable of being measured."

Present and Past Participles as Adjectives

One familiar way to change a verb into an adjective is to use the present participle ( the -ing

ending) or the past participle ( the-ed ending).

Guessing Meanings from Context

There are three possible ways to learn the meaning of an unfamiliar word. One way is to interrupt

your reading immediately and look up the word in a dictionary.

Using what you know of word stems and word formation you

can make an intelligent guess nt the meaning of a new word. Frequently this will be sufficient if you

are reading fiction and do not have to understand a precise or technical meaning.

Recording the Meaning of Words

1. Write the new word on any convenient scrap of paper.

2. The best method is to use file cards. This is also the most difficult method because it requires

continuous neatness and order.

3. Another method is to use a notebook.

 Writing an Outline

Outlining is a useful skill to learn because it can be used in both your reading and your writing.

an outline is an organized list of related items or ideas. It is a method of grouping together things

that are similar in some selected way, then presenting them in a simplified manner that dearly

illustrates the relationship within each group and among all of the groups.

An outline is useful in both reading and writing.

you can see that an outline has two purposes:

1. in writing to organize and present your ideas effectively, and

2. in reading, to analyze the organization and relationship of ideas.

How an Outline Is Written?

depending on its purpose and its subject: 1. a topic outline, or 2. a sentence outline.

THE TOPIC OUTLINE. They are a listing of topics, arranged according to some useful and logical

organization. It is usual to begin each topic with a capital letter. Because they are topics rather

than sentences; it is not necessary to use a period at the end of each topic. Each topic of the same

rank should be expressed in the same grammatical form.

THE SENTENCE OUTLINE. The form of a sentence outline is the same as that of a topic outline. The

same system of indenting, numbering, and lettering is used. The only difference is that each idea ls

expressed and punctuated as a complete sentence. A sentence outline is usually more detailed, and

it indicates more clearly the structure and organization.

SUMMARY

First, notice that an outline usually starts with the largest or most important idea and then

progresses down to smaller or less important idea. Second. notice how each heading Is indented.

Headings of equal rank are indented an equal distance from the margin. Third, notice If a heading

rum from one line to the next, It Is indented so that it starts directly below the first word of the
preceding line. The purpose of indention ii to make each heading stand out clearly, so that you can

see it quickly and see how it related to what is before and after it. Fourth, notice that no

punctuation is needed at the end of the topics in a topic outline. Punctuation in a sentence outline

follows regular sentence practice. Finally, notice that periods are used after numbers and letters.

For fifth and lower ranks, parentheses are used instead of a period.

EXPOSITORY WRITING

The kind of writing you will be mainly concerned with in your studies.it is the kind of writing in which

you expose facts or ideas by presenting explaining or interpreting them in some clearly, effectively

organized way.

MAIN IDEAS AND SUPPORTING DETAILS. Good expository writing in English, unlike in some other

languages, is usually organized in a series of main ideas and supporting details

Improving Your Reading

Reading is probably the most important skill you will need for success in your studies.

Reading speed is determined in part by how many words your eyes can see at a single glance.

This ability to see words on either side of the point at which your eyes focus is called peripheral

vision.

regression, the number of times your eyes have to go back to a word or phrase that they did

not see accurately the first time.

A final cause of slow rending is vocalizing, that Is, forming the sounds of each word, even though

they may not be spoken aloud

The good reader adjusts his speed to the material he is reading and the kind of comprehension he

desires. Adjust your speed to the difficulty of the reading material and the degree of

comprehension required.

Recognizing Paragraph Patterns While Reading

A paragraph is usually about a single topic, part of a larger subject perhaps, but still a self-

contained topic by itself. one idea will be more important than the others. This is the main idea. It is

sometimes called the central or controlling idea. This main idea is usually stated in the topic

sentence. This is often, but not necessarily, the first sentence of the paragraph. Where the topic

sentence is placed depends upon the kind of pattern the writer chooses to develop his paragraph.

1. PARAGRAPHS OF ANALYSIS. In this kind of paragraph pattern, a topic is analyzed. The topic is

broken down into causes, effects, reasons, methods, purposes, or other categories that support the

main idea. This main idea may be presented as a general statement at the beginning to the

paragraph. This kind of deductive organization moves from the general to the particular. Or the

main idea may be presented as a general conclusion at the end of the paragraph. This kind of

inductive organization moves from the particular to the general.

2. PARAGRAPHS OF DESCRIPTION. A second type of paragraph pattern is one in which something

is described. This may be a physical description, as of a person or place, or it may be a description

of a process, a step-by -step explanation of how something is done.

3. PARAGRAPHS OF COMPARISON AND CONTRAST. A third type of paragraph pattern is one in

which several things are compared or contrasted. Paragraphs of this kind usually state the main

idea-the things being demonstrated as similar or different in the first sentence. Then the idea is

developed in subsequent sentences. often with examples.

4. PARAGRAPHS OF ANALOGY. A fourth type of paragraph pattern is one which is organized

around an analogy for the purpose of clarifying a particular point. There may be no topic

sentence, but the main idea is clearly implied by the use of analogy.

5. PARAGRAPHS OF DEFINITION. In this fifth type of paragraph pattern, the. purpose is to define,

explain, or clarify the meaning of something. Because of the nature of definition, it may involve

analysis, comparison or contrast, description, or perhaps even an analogy.

 References and Connectives

REFERENCES. References are words which substitute for other words. They refer back to ideas that

have already been expressed. They also refer forward to Ideas yet to be stated. Pronouns are the

most familiar reference words. CONNECI'IVES. Your reading will be more efficient and meaningful

if you are aware of the conjunctions that link ideas into some kind of relationship. These words or

phrases connect ideas together to indicate result, contrast, or addition. Connectives are useful clues

that will help you read more rapidly;

Connective, That Signal a Result: therefore, thus, hence, consequently, as a consequence, accordingly,

because

Connective, That Signal a contrast: but, still, however, nevertheless, although, though, even though

Connectives that signal an Addition: and. and also, and too.

as well as , besides being , moreover, furthermore

Connectives That Signal a Series• or Time Sequence: One, first, Two, second, Three, third, then, next,

afterward, finally, at last, lastly

The number may be either cardinal numbers (one, two, three) or ordinal numbers (first, second,

third).

Of course and for example are used to relate ideas together, to Indicate the writer's attitude.

Skimming

There are two purpose• of skimming: 1. locate a specific word, fact, or idea quickly: and 2. to get

a rapid, general impression of the materials It Is useful to look only at the first and last sentences of

each paragraph.

Textbook Reading

SURVEYING THE TEXTBOOK.

1. Title page: it may be worthwhile to know his name, who he is, and where he comes from. This is

essential, of course, if you must prepare footnotes or a bibliography.

2. Preface or Foreword: In the preface (sometimes called the foreword or introduction). the author

explains the purpose, organization, method of presentation, and whatever particular features of

the book he wishes to call to your attention.

3. Table of Content, Skim through the table of contents to get an overall view of the material in the

book. This

section of the text is the fastest, easiest way to survey the territory over which you will travel.

4. Text: The chapters of most textbooks include a variety of study guides. Section headings, in

boldface type, announce the general subject of the material that follows.

5. Glossary: it is at the end of each chapter or at the end of the book. Glossary defines or explains

some of the technical terms in the book, and often provides examples and page references.

6. Bibliography: An alphabetical list of relevant books and articles is frequently included either at

the end of each chapter or at the end of the book. the bibliography will list them by author, title,

publisher, and date.

7.Index: One of the most important sections of any textbook is the index at the end. alphabetical

listing of all the major persons, places, ideas, facts, or topics that the book contains, with page

references.

Reading the Assignment

Reading is actually a kind of dialog between the reader and the author. A useful technique for

reading a textbook assignment has been called SQ3R. 11 This code-standing for Survey, Question,

Read, Recite, and Review-describes the five successive steps that should be followed while reading

study type material.

1.survey: look at the pictures, graphs, charts, or diagrams; see if there are questions or a summary

at the end.

2. question: This helps you to read with a purpose, looking for specific answers and anticipating

essential points of information.

3. Read:

4. recite: At the end of each section, summarize the material by reciting to yourself the important

points.

5.Review: Finally, when you have finished the assignment, immediately review the material so that it

will form a unified whole.

Aids to Reading and Interpretation

In almost all textbooks you will find the usual front matter (such as the preface and table of

contents) and back matter. (such as the bibliography and index). footnotes, photographs, tables,

charts, maps-, diagrams, and graphs.

1.footnotes: Whenever an author reprints an exact quotation, or when he summarizes or refers to a

fact or opinion that is original with someone else, he must acknowledge his source, He does this by

inserting a small, raised number (called a superscript) at the end of his reference in the text.

Two abbreviations are common in footnotes. Ibid. is a Latin term that means "in the same place." It is

italicized (because it is a foreign term); it refers to the immediately preceding footnote reference.

Op. cit. is a Latin term that means "in the work cited ... It is placed after an author’s name, referring

to a previously footnoted reference by that author.

2. TABLES. Tables display various kinds of information in clear, compact columns.

3. LINE GRAPHS. A graph illustrates a relationship between at least two things, one of which is

measured on a vertical axis, and the other (or others) on a horizontal axis.
4. BAR GRAPHS. A bar graph is similar to a line graph except that bars (extending from either the

vertical or the horizontal axis) are used instead of dots and lines.

5. CIRCLE GRAPHS. In this kind of graph, a circle represents the total of some specific information.

A pie-shaped piece of the circle represents a proportion of the total

Making Good Notes

There are two main values of making notes.

First, note-making requires active participation in the learning process.

A second value of making notes is their use when the time comes to review the material and relate

it all together.

There is difference between note-taking and note-making. To take notes suggests a passive

procedure of recording words verbatim, like a secretary taking dictation. To make notes demands

your full attention. You must be alert to the pattern of thought, its direction and development, and

you must distinguish between what is important and what is not.

The Form Notes

The form in which you make notes depends upon the subject of the course and whether they are

from a book or a lecture. The most common and versatile form is probably an outline, indicating

logical divisions and developments of important points. Although the outline form is recommended.

Notebooks

the most practical method is the use of a large loose-leaf notebook. This permits you to keep all the

notes for each course together, separated by a divider or tab, to insert new notes and to

rearrange their order if necessary.

Common symbols, such as the following, can be used:

e.g. for example re concerning ca about C with & and

= is equal to ≠ is not equal to > greater than, or became < less than, or came from
Use abbreviations for common words in the course: ag for agriculture, govt for government, sci for
science, $ for money, 18c for eighteenth century

For practice in note-making, outlining written material is the best way to begin. If you can identify
topic sentences, you can identify a main idea that should be written in your notes.

In making notes of lecture several problems you may face,

1. lecture is disorganized.
2. Lecture is mumbles or speak too fast.
3. Lecturer has an unfamiliar accent.
4. Lecture uses unfamiliar Idiom,

using a Library
There are three kinds of material that any good library includes: 1. books 2. reference material,
and 3. periodicals.
A library also provides places for study: large quiet rooms with good lighting, and small individual
booths (called carrels) usually reserved for graduate students who are doing research.

The card catalog

The card catalog is a complete index of all the books in the library. Each book is listed in the
catalog by its title. In addition, it is also listed by its author and its subject. Therefore, there are
usually at least three cards for each book: a title card, an author card, and a subject card. The call
number is printed in the upper left-hand comer of card. This number is part of a system which
outlines all human knowledge. There are two systems in general use: The Dewey decimal system
and the Library of Congress system.
The author's name is always written directory style: the last name is first, followed by a comma, then
the first and middle names.
Reference Works
Encyclopedia contains short articles on specific subjects, written by authorities, and compiled into a
series of many volumes. written by authorities, and compiled into a series of many volumes. At the
end of most of them, initials of the author are printed. the Encyclopedia Britannica and the
encyclopedia America are the best known. most encyclopedias issue a yearbook which summarizes
important new information during the previous year.

YEARBOOD: Several reference book are published annually

DICTIONARIES:

ATLASES: An atlas is a collection of maps. These maps may show many kinds of information besides
geographical features, national boundaries, and the location of cities.

BIBLIOGRAPHIES: Bibliographies are alphabetical lists of books and articles dealing with specific
subjects or general areas of study;
Periodicals
Every library has a section or a special room for periodicals. These are journals, magazines,
bulletins, and pamphlets that are published periodically: weekly, monthly, or quarterly.

Preparing to Pass Examination

An examination reflects how well you have understood the material of a particular course.
The results of an examination are used for several purposes:

1.You should use an exam as an incentive to study regularly and as a reason to review.
2. You should use the results of an exam as a measure of how much you understand and where you
need extra effort.
3. Your teacher uses the results of an exam to help him determine your final grade.

How to Prepare to Examination

1. PHYSICAL PBEPABATION.
to get a good night' sleep
to review briefly the material

2.EMOTIONAL PREPARATION
Don't waste energy by worrying, disputing small details with friends
Be relax

3. REVIEW PREPARATION
begin to plan your time for review.
you should need only to look through your notes or the underlined parts of your textbook.

know the kind of exam your teacher plan to give

review all of the material the night

before the exam. Then, go to bed, relaxed and confident

While taking the exam, keep these Important points in mind:

1. Be sure that you follow directions.

2. Be sure that you answer the question.

3. Work steadily but not with nervous haste or pressure

4. Write legibly. draw diagrams clearly. and write letters and numbers accurately

5. When you finish. don't sit back. look about the room to see if others have noticed how fast you
have completed the exam.

6. he sure you have written your name on the exam

Types of Examinations

An examination falls into one of two main categories: the objective exam and the subjective exam.

Objective EXAMINATIONS

In an objective exam you are limited to selecting the right answer from a group of possible
answers.

This exam is considered to be objective in two ways: 1. Each student has an

equal chance; he must merely choose the correct answer from the same list of alternatives, therefore
he has no opportunity to express a different attitude or personal opinion. 2. The judgment and
personality of the teacher cannot influence the correction in any way. Indeed, many objective tests
are scored by machines. It can be graded more quickly. An objective exam requires you only to
recognize rather than to reproduce what you have learned. Objective exams are usually true-false,
multiple choice, matching, or sentence completion questions.

Standard Exam: A standard exam is an objective type that is used widely and often repeatedly.
On exams of this type, you are not expected to answer all of the question or get a perfect score.
Your result is reported as a standard score, based on the results of thousands of students. Read the
statements carefully. Look for important key words such as all, none, never, always, sometime, least,
best, Words of this kind are qualifiers on which the correctness of a statement depends.

SUBJECTIVE (OR ESSAY-TYPE) EXAMINATIONS.

This type of exam is considered to be subjective because you are able to express your own
opinions freely and interpret information in my way you wish. In the same way, your teacher is able
to evaluate the quality of your opinions and interpretations, as well as the organization and logic
of your presentation. An essay exam allows you to select, organize, and present information in
whatever way you choose.

Compare and contrast: To compare means to show in what ways several things are similar. To
contrast means to show in what ways they are different.
Criticize: To criticize means to express your own judgment, keeping in mind the basis you are using
for critical evaluation.

Discuss: To discuss means to write a relatively full and detailed answer insofar as your knowledge
and time permit

Enumerate: To enumerate means to write your points, one by one, in a list or in outline form

State: To state means to answer briefly and to the point. Details, examples, and illustrations are
usually omitted.
Relate: To relate means to show relationships by emphasizing the connections and associations of
various ideas; how one thing causes or is caused by another; how things are like or unlike others.

Illustrate. To illustrate usually means to clarify an idea by presenting a diagram, figure, or specific
example.

Explain. To explain means to clarify, interpret, or otherwise make clear the material. Give reasons
for differences of opinions or results, and analyze facts, causes, or trends.

Summarize: To summarize means to present in condensed form the principal facts, ideas, or
explanations. Details, examples, and illustrations should be omitted.

Ten-minute Quiz: A common type of essay exam ls the ten minute quiz. It may be announced or
unannounced. Some teachers give them more often than others.

‫الهم صلی علی محمد و آل سیدنا محمد‬

1403/09/17

Mohammad Ramazani