CIM 211: GENERAL METHODS OF TEACHING

Objectives / Learning outcomes

 The nature of teaching and learning√
 planning for instruction,
 communication interaction in the classroom
 Show relationship between teaching, learning, schooling, education & training√
 Explain application of systems approach to classroom teaching & learning√
 Differentiate between objectives of different levels, aims & goals of education√
 Discuss characteristics of expository & heuristic strategies of teaching√
 Explain characteristics of different teaching methods√
 how to motivate learners and sustain attention;
 providing for individual differences;
 evaluation of learning effectiveness

What is teaching?

1. Preplanned behaviors informed by learning principles and child development theory

which directs and guides instruction to ensure desired students outcomes. Learn more in:
Teaching and Technology: Issues, Caution and Concerns

2. The job or profession of a teacher. Something that is taught: the ideas and beliefs that are
taught by a person, religion, etc. Learn more in: Virtual Laboratories Development Using
3D Environments

3. Discharging accessible resources for effective learning and performance-based

assessment. Learn more in: Cooperative Learning Strategies for Effective Teaching and
Learning Science Courses in Large Classes

4. The activities involved in facilitating or educating to impart knowledge or skills to

learners. Learn more in: ICT Impact Assessment in Education

5. There are two fundamentally different ways of understanding teaching. The first sees
teaching as an instructor-centered activity in which knowledge is transmitted from
someone who has acquired that knowledge to novice learners: teaching as knowledge
transmission. The second sees teaching as a learner-centered activity in which the
instructor ensures that learning is made possible for novice learners and supports, guides,
and encourages them in their active and independent creation of new knowledge:
teaching as assisted knowledge creation

6. Teaching is an instruction or delivering a particular skill or subject or something that

someone tells you to do. For Teaching in this case may refer to showing or explaining to
a student how to do something.
 7. Teaching is an activity aimed at bringing about meaningful learning through a method
that is morally and pedagogically acceptable. It involves a teacher, a learner, content in
form of knowledge facts information and skill to be imparted a deliberate intention on the
part of the learners to learn, and finally a method that respects the learners’ cognitive
integrity and freedom of choice.

8. to impart knowledge or skill; give instruction, inform, enlighten, discipline, drill, school,
indoctrinate; coach to help to learn.

9. Teaching is considered as deliberate actions undertaken with the intention of facilitating

learning.

10. The occupation, work or profession of a teacher to impart knowledge to the learner. To
teach means to do the work of teaching practically

11. It involves the interaction of three elements: the teacher, student and the object of
knowledge.

What is education? What is teaching?

Is there difference between them?

Education is one of the factors that are important for human development. It increase human
mental and physical capacity that increase productivity which all leads to human civilization, Or
it can be defined as the process of receiving or giving systematic instruction especially at school
or university.
Teaching is shaping one's thought and action through giving instructions and/or performing
practices that led to a new behavour and capacity. Teaching can be conducted in several method
based on the nature of the subject and student.

There is difference between education and teaching:

Education is a general term that is given to a collection of subjects (art, science, philosophy ....)
while teaching is a practical process that involves humans as an dominant actors.
Education is a process while teaching is an occupation.
Generally good teacher and good educator have similar characters.
A good teacher has the following characteristics.
- has sound knowledge about the subject he/she is teaching
-has ability to explain ideas clearly and easily.
-is participative that he/she initiates students to involve.
 -is supportive in all times.
- is role model for his/ her students.
A good educator is the one who has all characteristics that a good teacher has. Because he /she:
 is expected to represent the teacher , the student and the school or university.
 Good educator - able to represent him/ herself , the teacher, the school or any institution.
 is self initiative to accomplish educational goals. -
 is leader in education process. -
 has enough knowledge about teaching process.
Difference Between Education and Schooling
‘She’s well educated.’
‘His schooling was completed traditionally.’
Education and schooling appear to be the same thing; however, on pondering the idiosyncrasies
of both disciplines, they take on different meanings and outcomes. Is the process of ‘educating’
someone dissimilar to that of ‘schooling’ another, or is the process exactly the same? This article
examines the differences and the similarities between the aspects of education and schooling.
Definitions
Webster’s defines education as ‘knowledge and development resulting from an instructive
process’, or more specifically, the act or progression of acquiring or imparting knowledge. Most
people think a good education is the result of completing a specific number of years in a formal
instructive discipline, such as higher educations acquired in colleges and universities in a specific
field of study.
Webster’s dictionary defines schooling as ‘the process of being taught, such as in a school’.
‘Schooling’ is often thought to occur in the lower grades, where children are taught the basics
which enable them to continue learning at the higher educational institutions. ‘Schooling’ is also
thought to be accomplished in a particular vocational skill or trade, such as a ‘mechanics’ or
‘beauty’ school.
The difference between the definitions is subjective.

History
As communities grew, knowledge expanded, inventions came more frequently and a greater need
for the next generations to have a more formal educational process developed. The educational
process began with the basic skills of reading, writing, and arithmetic; eventually adding
additional instruction, such as history, geography, music, sciences, philosophies, religion, social
studies, and arts. Advanced mathematics, sciences, and many other disciplines, became part of
the educational process.
No one actually knows when formal schooling began. Could it have been with the cavemen
training their children with the survival skills to continue their lives, and pass their skills on to
countless generations of descendents? Prior to written languages, learning processes existed
solely as oral traditions; societies were developed based on communicating this knowledge, or
‘schooling’ the next generation. One of the earliest examples of schooling found, was in Egypt,
around 3000BC.
Methodologies
There are many methods of getting a higher education, and many theories for the most expedient
and superlative manner to accomplish the goals. There are many varieties of approaches to
identify the student’s abilities and aptitudes, and appropriate methodologies that focus on how
personalities affect learning abilities. All learners fall into a specific category of oral learners,
visual learners, or kinesthetic learners, and different approaches are more effective based on their
needs.
There are many varieties of ‘schooling’ that have been popular and unpopular over the last
several centuries. Grouping students together in common locations has existed and continued
since the ancient Greek times. Another method of schooling is called ‘self-paced’, and this is
when the students learn at their own pace, and are not forced to follow a daily curriculum. Since
students learn differently, there is not one all-encompassing solution for education or schooling.
Summary:
1. Webster’s defines education as ‘knowledge and development resulting from an instructive
process’, but Webster’s dictionary defines schooling as ‘the process of being taught, such as
in a school’.
2. Education improved as the communities developed, but no one knows when schooling
actually began.

What is the difference between Teaching and Learning?

Definitions
Teaching can be defined as the act of giving lessons on a subject to a class or pupils.

What is Learning?
Learning can be defined as knowledge gained through study. This does not necessarily denote
the acquisition of information, but can also be skills, behaviors, values as well. Human beings
engage in the process of learning from birth till death. Hence, it cannot be confined to school
education, but captures the experiences in life as well. Psychologists believe that learning can be
a conscious as well as an unconscious effort. For example, a child who listens to the teacher in a
classroom setting is engaged in a conscious effort to learn something new. However, certain
practices that we have may be unconsciously learned.
Now, let us move on to the usage of the word learning. Observe the two sentences given below.
Learning is a must for the growing child.
Robert is a man of learning.
In both the sentences, you can see that the word learning is used in the sense of ‘knowledge.’ It is
interesting to note that the word learning is primarily used as a noun. In both the sentences given
above, the word learning is used only as a noun. It can also be used as the present and past
continuous tense forms of the verb ‘learn’ as in the sentences,
He is learning the art of painting.
Angela was learning music then.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN TEACHING & LEARING

• Learning is used in the sense of acquiring knowledge.
• Performer:
• Teaching is performed by the teacher.
• Learning is performed by the student.
• Period:
• Teaching does not take place throughout a person’s life.
• Learning is a process that takes place throughout the lifespan of an individual.
• Effort:
• In most occasions, teaching is a conscious effort.
• Learning can be both a conscious and an unconscious effort.
• Motivation:
• For learning, motivation can come from within the individual or from external factors, such
as teaching by another individual.

The Difference Between Teaching & Training

Training often focuses on physical and mental preparation for a very specific task or skill.
Teaching and training may be thought of as the same thing, but they, in fact, have many
differences. While they are both appropriate in certain circumstances, sometimes the presence of
one may be to the detriment of the other. Often, a balance between both is necessary.

Strictly Defined
Teaching is typically defined as, "to cause to know something, to guide the studies of, to impart
knowledge or to instruct by example, precept or experience.”
Training seeks “to form by instruction, discipline or drill” or “to make prepared for a test or
skill.” Training usually has a more specific focus than teaching, which seeks to instill a deeper
knowledge over a longer period of time. Training, on the other hand, seeks to help people master
a specific skill, or skill set, until they are able to execute it efficiently. Training is usually a one-
time or short-term event, as with job training.

Implied Differences
Teaching is usually broader in focus than training. It generally is theoretical, while training is
the practical application of knowledge.
Also, teaching seeks to impart new knowledge, while training equips the already knowledgeable
with tools and techniques to develop a specific skill set.
One of teaching's goals is to enrich the mind, while training's end is to mold habits or
performance. Teaching is usually within the context of the academic world, while training is
generally associated with the commercial realm.
Another difference is found between thought and action. H. Clay Trumbull, a noted author,
editor and Sunday school teacher, stated, “It has been said that the essence of teaching is causing
another to know. It may similarly be said that the essence of training is causing another to do."
Also, teaching usually deals with a subject or topic, while training deals with a duty or function.
Teachers generally give students feedback, while trainers receive feedback from trainees.

Teaching and Training Working Together

There are times when teaching and training must work in tandem. For example, an excellent
singer may be wonderfully trained but not necessarily taught about the theory of her craft. For
example, she may not know how a certain muscle moves when she sings. Most importantly, she
must have strong training in order to perform the physical tasks that make up a great
performance. However, learning is involved here as well. She inevitably will be required to sing
in a specific style; therefore, learning various styles will allow her to apply her training
appropriately. For this purpose, then, it appears that teaching should precede training. However,
the process of training, in this situation, can be of higher benefit to the singer.
When Teaching Interferes with Training
 There is always a danger that training may interfere with teaching, such as when parents and
teachers are concerned with classroom teaching that seems to merely train students for a
standardized test, but teaching can, in certain circumstances, interfere with training.
 Again, thinking about what one is doing or analyzing it, as one would do when learning,
would actually distract one from the task at hand. The part of one’s brain that allows one to
perform physically is different from that which is involved in knowledge acquisition. The
time one begins analyzing what one is doing, she/he will lose touch with her/his free-
flowing actions. She/he must instead focus on training, including developing her/his
muscles and mind to perform.

Balancing the Two

Enhancing teaching and training, each with the other, is generally necessary. If someone has the
academic or theoretical knowledge required to flourish in a position, or at a function, she will no
doubt need some kind of skill-set training at one point or another. On the other side, training will
always be enriched when a deeper, longer-term knowledge is continually sought and acquired.
Finding a balance between the two creates a person who not only can understand and perform
but also can contribute, invent and lead.
METHODOLOGY OF TEACHING & LEARNING:
Introduction
Since the time of the great Athenian philosophers such as Socrates, Plato and Aristotle (around
469-322 BC) man has been deeply concerned with the education of his offspring. Major areas of
concern that have agitated the minds of scholars tend to center on questions such as:
1. How should we educate our children?
2. What method should we use?
3. Which methods are best?
4. What purposes do such methods serve?
5. -Which Methods should we use in specific situations?

EDUCATIONAL METHODOLOGY
Educational Methodology, which is a term used to describe methods of teaching and learning,
has been a subject of consuming passion for educational psychologists and schools.
In this presentation, we are going to look at four methods of teaching and learning. These are:

 The Lecture Method

  The Discussion Method
 Demonstration method
 The Individualized Instruction Method.
The reason for the selection of these methods of teaching and learning is borne out of their
historical importance, their potency and their currency.

OBJECTIVES
At the end of our presentation, the class should be able to:
1. Define Methodology, teaching and learning.
2. Explain the three ways in which teaching can be conceptualized.
3. List examples of activities involved in teaching.
4. Explain the principles, functions and the process of methodology
5. Define Lecture Method and distinguished it from the discussion method.
6. Determine when to use each of the methods.
7. List advantages and disadvantages of each of the methods.
8. Define and explain the objectives of individualized method.
9. Explain the characteristics of individualized method.
10. List the problems of Individualized Instruction.
11. Suggest possible ways of improving the Implementation of the Individualized Instruction
Method.
12. Explain the application of the system approach to teaching
13. Explain the bloom’s taxonomy domains of learning

Definitions of Key Terms

1. Methodology: – The study and practice of various methods of teaching and learning. When
we talk of teaching methods, we are referring to the strategies, systems or techniques, used
by the teacher in piloting the pupils to learn.
2. Teaching: – An Occupation (the job we do). Also regarded as an enterprise (a cluster of
activities) which a teacher may engage in, in the process of practicing his occupation). Can
also be seen as an act (the very act of teaching itself, explaining, reading, writing,
illustrating, demonstrating, dramatizing, rewarding, punishing, motivating, etc). The aim of
teaching is to help the leader to acquire or change some skill, attitude, knowledge, ideas, or
appreciation.
3. Learning: – A process, which produces series of changes in human behavior and
experiences. It is a process, which leads to relatively permanent change in the behavior of the
learner as a result of experience, deliberate and purposeful activity, training and observation.
How can a Teacher Succeed in his or her Occupation or Profession?
To succeed, a teacher must:
1. Understand both theory and practice of methodology(teaching & learning)
2. Use the methods to teach according to the nature of the topics, the subject, the learners,
available resources, locations and environmental conditions.
3. Consider individual differences of learners
4. Use his/her knowledge of psychology and personality development to determine the
appropriate teaching procedures and evaluation techniques to be used.
5. Develop a good rapport with the learners, colleagues and the school administration because
the implementations of certain methodologies depend on the co-operation of these
stakeholders.

What do we Mean by Teaching?

Teaching can be seen as the work we do to earn our living (occupation). It can also be seen as a
group or cluster of activities that teachers engage in during the process of performing their job.
Such functions will be considered shortly.
Teaching, above all, can be properly regarded as an act of a particular kind, i.e., movement of the
body, or parts of it, talking, pausing, explaining, reading, giving examples, etc.

What are the Functions of Teaching?

Teaching is more than imparting of knowledge; it includes attempts to help someone acquire or
change some skills, attitudes, knowledge, idea or appreciation. Its functions include informing,
explaining, stimulating, directing, guiding and administering the pupils; identifying what to
learn, identifying learning problems; evaluating, reporting and recording the performances of the
pupils.
Other functions include classroom management, giving security, development of school
community relationship, socialization, participating in school and professional activities.
The Principles of teaching include setting clear objectives, recognising learners’ readiness,
taking account of previous knowledge otherwise known as entry behaviour, recognising
individual differences and being systematic in the treatment of subject matter.
What Does Learning Consist of?
Learning in ancient times emphasized memorization or rote learning. Now it is seen as
acquisition of new knowledge, ideas, skills, values, and experiences that enable the individuals to
modify or alter their actions. Learning and teaching are inseparable activities.
The process of learning involves input, perception, covert activities, overt activities, repetition,
association and output. Input relates to the stimulus, which helps to initiate a learning experience.
Perception has to do with the process of becoming aware through the eyes or the mind. The other
stages of covert activities, repetition and association also contribute t
o learning, which leads to the output stage, which is the learning outcome.
Effective Ways of Learning
Learning is not a one-step activity. It is a continuous process even lasting throughout the life of
the learner. The teacher can make learning more effective by:
1. Creating learning opportunities outside the classroom.
2. Informing learners of learning facilities around them (libraries, bookshops, other resources).
3. Giving students assignments & give immediate feedback
4. Encouraging learners to develop individual areas of interest.
5. Encouraging discussions, debates and competitions.
6. Using problem-solving methods.
7. Using group projects methods (heterogeneous groups).

The Lecture Method

Lecture Method is a process of teaching whereby the teacher tells the students his/her planned
facts. The students listen and take notes. It is one of the oldest methods in use. The success of
this method depends on the ability of the teacher to speak fluently in good tone and style.
The lecture method may be used in the following situations:
1. When introducing a new topic
2. To stimulate interest of learners in a new topic
3. To clarify some misunderstood points
4. When there are no appropriate or adequate text books for the learners
5. When students are mature enough e.g. SS1 – SS3 and in tertiary institutions.
How to Use the Lecture Method
This requires adequate preparation, which should take note of the following factors:
1. Consider the objectives of the lesson
2. A good command of the language
3. Preparation of the materials or lecture, supporting resources and examples to help drive home
the important points.
4. An interesting introduction to stimulate students to listen.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Lecture Method
The Lecture Method has both strong points as well as some drawbacks. The main advantages
are:
1. It can cover a wide topic within a short time.
2. Teacher can teach a large group at the same time.
3. Fewer instructional materials are used.
4. There is uniformity of facts given to the students.
5. Students are given facts so they are saved the time and effort.
6. Teacher has full control of what students are to learn.

The shortcomings/disadvantages of the Lecture Method are as follows:

1. Students may be passive.
2. Method is teacher-centered.
3. No communication or interaction among learners.
4. Method does not encourage students’ enquiry or creative mind.
5. Individual differences not considered or neglected.
6. Students with hearing problems may not get the points.
7. The Method assumes too much in respect of students understanding.
8. As students are not involved, they may sleep off and they are prone to forget easily what is
taught.

The Discussion Method

Discussion Methods is an organized teaching/learning process. By this method, the class may be
arranged in groups or panels. The class may remain together to exchange views, opinions or
ideas on pre-determined topics.

This is a method in which the students are actively involved if the groups are in small numbers
and heterogeneous (grouping learners according to their ability, interest, gender, age etc.).

The discussion groups may be in three forms, i.e., the whole class, small groups or a panel
discussion. The teacher should guide the students, ensuring that students speak only when
allowed, they learn to respect the views of others and they avoid personal or verbal attacks
during and after discussions.
Advantages of the Discussion Method
The main advantages are:
1. Students are encouraged to listen, think, analyze and evaluate points made.
2. Students learn from one another.
3. Students have opportunity to practice oral communication skills.
4. Students get training in respecting other people’s views.
5. It gives students training in looking for facts on their own.

The Disadvantages have been cited as:

1. Not all topics are suitable to this method (discussion). For instance, it is not very suitable for
mathematics, technical drawing or the sciences, in general.
2. Brighter students may show off while shy or weaker ones may find it difficult to argue
convincingly.
3. It is not ideal for a large group.
4. It may sometimes lead to the acquisition of inaccurate information as the learners are
sometimes left to discuss on their own.
5. It may consume a lot of time
Demonstration Method
Demonstration method of teaching is a traditional classroom strategy used in technical and
training colleges and in teacher education.
Focus, Structure and Principles
Demonstration Strategy focuses to achieve psychomotor and cognitive objectives. If we talk
about its structure, it is given in three successive steps:
1. Introduction: In this step, objectives of the lesson are stated. The teacher may be called a
demonstrator. He/she demonstrates the activity before the students.
2. Development. Students try to initiate the demonstrated activity. If there is any query the
teacher tries to satisfy them by further demonstration and illustrations.
3. Integration. At this step, the teacher integrates all the activities and then these activities are
rehearsed, revised and evaluated.
Principles of demonstration method
This teaching strategy is based on the following principles

 Learning by doing is followed or encouraged

 Skills can be developed by imitation
  The perception helps in imitation
Application
This strategy is applied mainly in technical or training institutes. In teacher education programs,
it is used to develop skills in the student teacher. At school level, a teacher applies it in teaching
science, biology, nature study arts and crafts.
Advantages of Demonstration Method
1. It helps in involving various sense to make learning permanent
2. Though, teacher behavior is autocratic, he/she invites the cooperation of learners in teaching
learning process
3. It develops interest in the learners and motivates them for their active participation
4. It helps in achieving psychomotor objectives/manipulative skills
5. Any simple or complex skill becomes easy to understand

Disadvantages of Demonstration Method

1. It can be used only for skills subjective
2. Only the attention of the learners is invited towards the activity demonstrated. They are not
free to discuss about it
3. Due to poor economic conditions of the government schools, there is scarcity of audio-visual
aids and equipment and the teachers are not so creative to produce handmade models for
demonstration
4. There is a general lack of sincerity and diligence among teachers who wish to complete the
syllabus or syllabi at the earliest without putting sincere efforts

Suggestions on how to improve demonstration method

1. The teacher should be a sincere, diligent and skilled person
2. Teacher should himself prepare the models for demonstrations and encourage the learners too
3. Demonstration should be followed by discussion
4. A teacher must have the ability to use audio-visual resources with expertise

Direct method
The direct method of teaching, which is sometimes called the natural method, and is often
used in teaching foreign languages, it refrains from using the learners' native language and uses
only the target language.
It was established in Germany and France around 1900 and contrasts with the grammar–
translation method and other traditional approaches.

In general, teaching focuses on the development of oral skills. Characteristic/features of the

direct method are:
1. Teaching concepts and vocabulary through real-life objects and other visual materials
2. Teaching grammar by using an inductive approach (i.e. having learners find out rules through
the presentation of adequate linguistic forms in the target language)
3. Centrality of spoken language (including a native-like pronunciation)
4. Focus on question-answer patterns

Expository and Heuristic strategies of teaching.

A teaching strategy is a way and means of organizing and facilitating learning experiences.
There are two teaching strategies namely: expository (transmission) and heuristic (discovery)
strategies.
Expository is an approach to teaching which a teacher uses to impart or expose knowledge to the
students. The teacher tells students both the generalizations and specifics which are expected to
be learned.

They are further defined as strategies that are particularly effective for presenting declarative
information in a step to step way through lecture, explanation, note taking and the provision of
guided practice through oral drills.
Examples of methods which fall under this are lecture, storytelling, narratives, teacher
demonstration, text reading, recitation, note-dictating, audio-visual presentations etc.
The pros of the teacher-centered instruction:
 The classroom remains orderly.
 Students are quiet as the teacher presents new information and lead the activities
 Teachers retain full control of the classroom and its activities.
 The teacher is an effective model of the target language.
 The teacher is an important source of information on how the learners are doing.

The cons of the teacher-centred instruction:

 Students don’t learn to collaborate with other students missing opportunities to share
what they have learned.
 Students don’t use their communication skills.
 This type of instruction can be boring for students.
 Teacher-centred learning doesn’t allow students to express themselves and direct their
own learning.
 Students don’t outgrow their dependency on the supervising instructors and teachers.
 Teacher-Centred Instruction doesn’t empower learner’s autonomous study-skills and
subsequently lifelong learning skills.
 Teacher-centred learning most often doesn’t address the importance of open inquiry.
 It kills creativity by the learners
Heuristic approaches also known as discovery or inquiry or experimental or facilitation refers to
an approach in teaching and learning where the learners are left to explore; find out information
by themselves. Teachers assume the non-directive role
It is fundamentally based on the timeless psychological principles of the “trial and error” theory.
Examples of methods which fall under heuristic are: experimental (laboratory experiment),
project work, etc. small group work, role-play, discussion, inquiry or discovery.

Advantages of Heuristic Teaching Strategies

1. It greatly aids and facilitates the overall achieving of cognitive, psychomotor and also
affective objectives. i.e. it helps in the development of an all round child.
2. It serves to develop an attitude of scientific exploration and creativity in learners.
3. By the teacher encouraging the students to explore the environment by themselves in search
of an adequate solution of the problems, the learners get to discover knowledge by
themselves
4. Knowledge learnt is easily retained by the learners.
5. The learners are placed in situations in which they have to learn by themselves and through
self-experience. This has the ripple effect of teaching the learners the skill of self-reliance.
6. The teacher in such situations is always ready to give adequate individual guidance with
regard to the solution to the specific problem. Hence such an interaction between the teacher
and the learner takes place in a cooperative manner and in a much needed conducive
environment.
Disadvantages of Heuristic Teaching Method
1. The slow learners may shy off from participating in the teaching and learning process
because they feel inferior to the fast learners.
2. Many teachers are just not patient enough to provide the needed due diligence for the
individual guidance of the students involved.
3. The learners too may be intimidated and fear approaching teachers who may be able to
provide the needed help.
4. The method cannot be used at the primary level of teaching/education.
5. Some learners may mislead one another i.e they may give one another wrong concepts.

Suggestions on how to improve this teaching strategy

 There ought to be a sort of eligibility criteria for the provision of solutions of such
problems.
  The capabilities, interests and also a choice of the subject ought to be taken to account
when it comes to the allocation of problems to individual students.
Ideally, the problem ought to be related to the course and curriculum and a definite relevant time
period ought to be designated to the learners so as to finish their respective research work.

Individualized Instruction Method

As far back as the 1950s, the developed countries had been changing to Individualized
Instruction.

This method is defined as a process in which the students, through the use of specially
programmed books or electrical or electronic machines, learn what they want at their own pace.
The teacher serves as a consultant. Among the techniques used in individualized Instruction
include Programmed Instruction (PI), Computer Assisted Instruction (CAI), Learner Controlled
Instruction (LCI), Teaching Mathine (TM), and Personalized System of Instruction (PSI).

Active Learning.
Meyers and Jones (1993) define active learning as learning environments that allow students to
talk and listen, read, write and reflect as they approach course content through problem-solving
exercises, informal small groups, simulations, case studies, role playing and other activities -- all
of which require students to apply what they are learning.
Many studies show that learning is enhanced when students become actively involved in the
learning process. Instructional strategies that engage students in the learning process stimulate
critical thinking and a greater awareness of other perspectives. Although there are times when
lecturing is the most appropriate method for disseminating information, current thinking in
college teaching and learning suggests that the use of a variety of instructional strategies can
positively enhance student learning. Obviously, teaching strategies should be carefully matched
to the teaching objectives of a particular lesson.

Assessing or grading students' contributions in active learning environments is somewhat

problematic. It is extremely important that the course syllabus explicitly outlines the evaluation
criteria for each assignment whether individual or group. Students need and want to know what
is expected of them.

Cooperative Learning.
Cooperative Learning is a systematic pedagogical strategy that encourages small groups of
students to work together for the achievement of a common goal.
 The term 'Collaborative Learning' is often used as a synonym for cooperative learning when, in
fact, it is a separate strategy that encompasses a broader range of group interactions such as
developing learning communities, stimulating student/faculty discussions and encouraging
electronic exchanges (Bruffee, 1993). Both approaches stress the importance of faculty and
student involvement in the learning process.
When integrating cooperative or collaborative learning strategies into a course, careful planning
and preparation are essential. Understanding how to form groups, ensure positive
interdependence, maintain individual accountability, resolve group conflict, develop appropriate
assignments and grading criteria, and manage active learning environments are critical to the
achievement of a successful cooperative learning experience. Before you begin, you may want to
consult several helpful resources which are contained in Appendix N. In addition, the Program in
Support of Teaching and Learning can provide faculty with supplementary information and
helpful techniques for using cooperative learning or collaborative learning in college classrooms.

Integrating Technology.
Today, educators realize that computer literacy is an important part of a student's education.
Integrating technology into a course or curriculum when appropriate is proving to be valuable for
enhancing and extending the learning experiences for faculty and students.

Many faculty have found electronic mail to be a useful way to promote student/student or
faculty/student communication between class meetings. Others use list serves or on-line notes to
extend topic discussions and explore critical issues with students and colleagues, or discipline-
specific software to increase student understanding of difficult concepts.

Currently, our students come to us with varying degrees of computer literacy. Faculty who use
technology regularly often find it necessary to provide some basic skill level instruction during
the first week of class. In the future, we expect that need to decline. For help in integrating
technology into a course curriculum contact the Program in Support of Teaching and Learning or
the Instructional Development Office (IDO) at 703-993-3141. In addition, watch for information
throughout the year about workshops and faculty conversations on the integration of technology,
teaching and learning.

Characteristics of Effective Teaching and Learning

Research has organized characteristics around five areas/components:
 learning climate;
 classroom assessment and reflection;
 instructional rigor and student engagement;
 instructional relevance;
 Knowledge of content.

The following statements represent characteristics that are common to all content areas.
1: Learning Climate- a safe environment supported by the teacher in which high, clear
expectations and positive relationships are fostered and active learning is promoted
Teacher Characteristics:

 Motivates students and nurtures their desires to learn in a safe, healthy and
supportive environment which develops compassion and mutual respect.

 creates learning environments where students are active participants as

individuals and as members of collaborative groups

 cultivates cross cultural understandings and the value of diversity

 encourages students to accept responsibility for their own learning and

accommodates the diverse learning needs of all students

 displays effective and efficient classroom management that includes classroom

routines that promote comfort, order and appropriate student behaviors

 Provides students with equitable access to technology, space, tools and time.

 effectively allocates time for students to engage in hands-on experiences, discuss

and process content and make meaningful connections.

 designs lessons that allow students to participate in empowering activities in

which they understand that learning is a process and mistakes are a natural part of
learning

 creates an environment where student work is valued, appreciated and used as a

learning tool

Student Characteristics:
A. accepts responsibility for his/her own learning
B. actively participates and is authentically engaged
C. collaborates/teams with other students
D. exhibits a sense of accomplishment and confidence
E. takes educational risks in class
F. Practices and engages in safe, responsible and ethical use of technology

2: Classroom Assessment and Reflection- the teacher and student collaboratively gather
information and reflect on learning through a systematic process that informs instruction

Teacher Characteristics:
A. Uses multiple methods to systematically gather data about student understanding and ability
B. Uses student work/data, observations of instruction, assignments and interactions with
colleagues to reflect on and improve teaching practice
C. Revises instructional strategies based upon student achievement data
D. Uncovers students’ prior understanding of the concepts to be addressed and addresses
students’ misconceptions/incomplete conceptions
E. Co-develops scoring guides/rubrics with students and provides adequate modeling to make
clear the expectations for quality performance
F. Guides students to apply rubrics to assess their performance and identify improvement
strategies
G. Provides regular and timely feedback to students and parents that moves learners forward
H. Allows students to use feedback to improve their work before a grade is assigned
I. Facilitates students in self- and peer-assessment
J. Reflects on instruction and makes adjustments as student learning occurs

Student Characteristics:
A. Recognizes what proficient work looks like and determines steps necessary for improving
his/her work
B. Monitors progress toward reaching learning targets
C. Develops and/or uses scoring guides periodically to assess his/her own work or that of peers
D. Uses teacher and peer feedback to improve his/her work
E. Reflects on work and makes adjustments as learning occurs

3: Instructional Rigor/thoroughness and Student Engagement- a teacher supports and

encourages a student’s commitment to initiate and complete complex, inquiry-based learning
requiring creative and critical thinking with attention to problem solving

Teacher Characteristics:
A - Teacher instructs the complex processes, concepts and principles contained in state and
national standards using differentiated strategies that make instruction accessible to all students.
B – Teacher scaffolds instruction to help students reason and develop problem-solving strategies.
C - Teacher orchestrates effective classroom discussions, questioning, and learning tasks that
promote higher-order thinking skills.
D -Teacher provides meaningful learning opportunities for students.
E -Teacher challenges students to think deeply about problems and encourages/models a variety
of approaches to a solution.
F -Teacher integrates a variety of learning resources with classroom instruction to increase
learning options.
G -Teacher structures and facilitates ongoing formal and informal discussions based on a shared
understanding of rules and discourse.
H -Teacher integrates the application of inquiry skills into learning experiences.
I -Teacher clarifies and shares with students learning intentions/targets and criteria for success.

Student Characteristics:
A -Student articulates and understands learning intentions/targets and criteria for success.
B - Student reads with understanding a variety of texts.
C -Student applies and refines inquiry skills.

4. Instructional Relevance- a teacher’s ability to facilitate learning experiences that are

meaningful to students and prepare them for their futures.

Teacher Characteristics:A-Teacher designs learning opportunities that allow students to

participate in empowering activities in which they understand that learning is a process and
mistakes are a natural part of the learning.
B-Teacher links concepts and key ideas to students’ prior experiences and understandings, uses
multiple representations, examples and explanations.
C-Teacher incorporates student experiences, interests and real-life situations in instruction.
D-Teacher selects and utilizes a variety of technology that support student learning.
E-Teacher effectively incorporates 21st Century Learning Skills that prepare students to meet
future challenges.

F-Teacher works with other teachers to make connections between and among disciplines.
G-Teacher makes lesson connections to community, society, and current events.

Student Characteristics:
A-Student poses and responds to meaningful questions.
B-Student uses appropriate tools and techniques to gather, analyze and interpret information
from quantitative and qualitative evidence.
C-Student develops descriptions, explanation, predictions, and models using evidence.
D-Student works collaboratively to address complex, authentic problems which require
innovative approaches to solve.
E-Student communicates knowledge and understanding in a variety of real-world forms.
F-Student communicates knowledge and understanding for a variety of purposes.

5: Knowledge of Content- a teacher’s understanding and application of the current theories,

principles, concepts and skills of a discipline.

Teacher Characteristics:
A- Teacher demonstrates an understanding and in-depth knowledge of content and maintains
an ability to convey this content to students.
B- Teacher maintains on-going knowledge and awareness of current content developments.
C- Teacher designs and implements standards-based courses/lessons/units using state
 and national standards.
D- Teacher uses and promotes the understanding of appropriate content vocabulary.
E- Teacher provides essential supports for students who are struggling with the content.
F- Teacher accesses a rich repertoire of instructional practices, strategies, resources and applies
them appropriately.

Student Characteristics:
A- Student demonstrates growth in content knowledge.
B-Student uses and seeks to expand appropriate content vocabulary.
C-Student connects ideas across content areas.
D- Student uses ideas in realistic problem solving situations.
---------------------------------------------------------------

System Approach to Instruction

A) The Definition of System

In terms of etymology, the word system is actually derived from Greece, namely “Systema”,
which in English is known as "SYSTEM", that had a meaning as a set of parts or components
that are interconnected on regularly and it is a whole that cannot be separated.
Accordingly, “System is essentially a set of components, elements, which are related to each
other, interplay and interdependence, so that the whole is an integrated unit or a totality, and has
a specific role or purpose.”
The following are the definitions of system according to some experts:

1. Stoa
System is a combination of heaven and earth who work together, so that we can see that system
consist of elements that work together to form a whole and if one element is missing or not
working, then the overall combination cannot be called as a system.

2. Buckley
System is a whole that functions as a whole by virtue of interdependence of its parts.

3. H. Kerzner
System is a group of components consisting of humans and or non-human who organized and
arranged so that the components can act as a unity in achieving its objectives, common goals or
outcomes. This meaning implies the importance of aspects arrangement and organizing the
components of a system to reach the common goal, because if there is no proper coordination
and synchronization, then the activities of each component, sub–system, or areas in an
organization will be less support each other.
Furthermore, understanding of system is in fact also used to show a lot of things like: a system
that is used to indicate a set and the set of objects that are merged or combined by a mutual
connection form or interdependence in regularly; a set of parts that combined naturally or by
human resources to become an integrated unity.

In general, within the scope of the understanding of system contained a variety of components
(elements), various activities (pointing function of each component), a mutual dependency
relationship between components, the integrity (unity organist = integration) between
components, the breadth of system (there are areas in the system and outside the system), and
dynamic motion of all the functions of all the component leads (oriented) to the achievement of
the goal of predetermined system.

Based on the various definitions above, then it can be taken a conclusion that system is an
association of many components that integrate each other, mutual functioning cooperatively and
influence each other in order to achieve a particular goal.

Many people argue that system has the same meaning in “a way or method”. However, system is
different with a way or method. The term system has a wider scope. For instance human. Human
as a system because human have certain components that one and each other is inter-related. In
the human body, there are component of the eyes, nose, mouth, hands and so forth. Each
component has a definite function. Each component in the human body is also interconnected
each other. For example, when our eyes hurt, then the whole body will feel the pain which means
it will affect the overall body system.

B) The Features of System

Based on the explanations above, there are 3 main features of a system, which are:

1. The existence of objective

Every system definitely has an objective, the objective of system has been determined first, and
it became benchmark of the selection of components and activities in the work process of the
system. Components, component functions and work stage which exists in a system leads to the
achievement of system goal. System objective is a main orientation in a system.

2. The existence of system components (other than objective)

If a system is a machine, then each parts are the components of the machine (the system);
Similarly with the instruction at school as a system, then all the elements included in it (both
human and non human) and other activities that happened in it is the components of system. So
each system must have components.
3. The existence of function that guarantee the dynamics (movement) and the unity of the work of
system.
In a system, each component contained in it has and run each function and every function is
related to one another to achieve a particular goal. For example, our body is a system, each organ
(part) in the body run certain functions, which are entirely (all the functions of the system
components) is coordinated in a compact, in order to ourselves and our lives as human be able to
work in a healthy and proper manner.

The third features above are one unit which is then called “System”. All of those are parts which
integrate as a unity (totality) that one and another cannot stand alone, interdependent and
strengthened in achieving the goal.

C. The Characteristics of Components

The existence of components and its functions have an important position. It can be ascertained
that it is not possible a system without any components. There are several characteristics of the
component in a system. The following are the characteristics of the component in a system.

1. According to its function, components are distinguished in two characteristics, which are:

a. Integral Component.
Integral component is a component that cannot be separated from the existence of the system
itself. It means that when a component is missing, then the existence of the system is missing
too, for example, student and teacher components in the education system. The existence of
school is determined by the existence of student and teacher components. We would be difficult
to assume that school exists when there are no students that are taught or there are no teachers
who teach. Thus, the student and teacher components are integral components in the schooling
system.

b. Not Integral Component

1. Not Integral components have the same meaning with complementary components. That are,
even though those components do not exist, it will not affect the existence of a system,
although it may affect the work of the system itself, for example, the library component in a
school. Although a school had no library, it will affect the existence of the school.

2. Each component in a system has the characteristics of interconnected or interacted, influence

each other, and interrelated. All the components of the system have to work their function
 properly, because when one of the components apart from other components, or cannot
perform its functions properly, it would undermine the system as a whole. For instance, if the
eyes component is not functioning properly, it would undermine the system of human body.

3. Each component in a system represents a whole that has a meaning. In a system, components
are not only separate part, but a meaningful unity. Although a car has a complete part, but if it
is not installed properly on the right place, the car would not work properly too. Each
component in a system is a unified whole that is well in place.

4. Each component in a system is part of the larger system. The component in a system is
essentially a subsystem of larger system. It means that components basically form their own
smaller systems. For instance, school is as a system, which is a subsystem of the education
system. Education as a system is a subsystem of social system.

System Approach
System approach is an effort to solve the problems that is done by looking at the problems
thoroughly and performing a system analysis. Systems approach is needed if we are facing a
complex problem that required an analysis of those problems, to understand the relationships of a
section with other sections in the problem, as well as the link between problems with other
problems.
For example, in the case of a car accident, we cannot assume the occurrence of accidents caused
by speeding car run. If we examined more closely, there are many factors that can be the cause of
a car accident.
Therefore, the system approach is required in order to the various possibilities that are available
can be calculated, so that no one escapes from attention. In short, it can be said that many of the
advantages we get by taking this systematic conclusions or decisions.

Instruction
The views of instruction continuously change and develop in accordance with the progress of
science and technology. Those development signs can be observed based on the understanding
that are presented in the explanation below.
1. Instruction has the same meaning with teaching activities. Teaching activities are conducted
by the teacher to convey knowledge to students. In this concept, the teacher acts and plays an
active role, even very prominent and decisive everything in learning process. Instruction has the
same meaning with the Act of teaching.
2. Instruction is the interaction of teaching and learning. Instruction takes place as a process of
mutual influence in the form of interaction between teachers and students. The teacher acts as an
educator, while student has a role as subject that committed learning. Teachers and students
show a balance activity, even though their role different, but related to each other.

Instruction System
Gagne and Atwi Suparman said that instruction system is a set of events that affect students,
leading to the learning process.
Oemar Hamalik, said, “Instruction system is an organized combination which includes the
elements of human, material, facilities, equipment, and procedures that interact to achieve a
purpose.”
As a system, all of the elements form the system that has interdependence characteristic that is
directed to achieve a goal. In the instruction process, all of the elements move dynamically in a
directed combination in order to bring students or learners to achieve the instruction objective.
Instruction is a pattern in which established a procedure that is planned and directed, also has an
objective.
From the descriptions above, then obviously the duty of an instruction designer involves 3 main
principles, which are:
1. As the Planner, organizing all of the elements in order to function well, because when one
element is not working properly it will undermine the system itself.
2. As the Implementation Manager in accordance with the procedures and the schedules which
are planned.
3. As the Evaluator of student in achieving the goal to determine the effectiveness and efficiency
of the instruction system.

System Approach to Instruction

Based on the definitions before, we can take a conclusion that the system approach to instruction
is a starting point or the point of view based on the system analysis of the learning process which
refers to the view to realize the instruction system which has a clear objective and direction by
optimizing the function of each component.

The Advantages of System Approach to Instruction

Planning the instruction by using the system approach has some advantages, which are:
1. Through the system approach, the direction and the objective of instruction can be
planned clearly. The formulation of goals is one of the characteristics of system
approach. Determination of the instruction components basically directed to achieve the
goal. Thus, all efforts of both the teacher and student do basically turned to the goal
achievement.

Therefore, through the system approach every teacher can understand well the purpose
and direction of the instruction, so that through a clear goal, it is not only able to
 determine the steps of instruction and the development of other components, but it is also
able to be used as a criteria of instruction process effectiveness.
2. The system approach leads teacher to systematic activities. Thinking systematically is
thinking coherently, so that through the clear and definite steps, enabling to reach the
maximum results. Because through systematic measures, we are led to do the instruction
process step-by-step from the entire series of activities. So the possibility of failure can
be minimized. Thus, the system approach also can avoid the unnecessary activities.

3. The system approach can design instruction by optimizing all the available potential and
resources. The system is designed so that instruction objectives can be achieved with
optimal. In this case, thinking systematically means thinking how to the goals that has
been defined are able to be achieved by students. For the achievement of instruction
objectives within the system framework, every teacher tried to utilize the entire potential
that relevant and available.
4. The system approach can provide feedback. Through a process of feedback in the system
approach can be known whether that goal has been successfully achieved or not. It is
very important because achieving a goal is a main purpose in thinking systematically. For
example, when based on the feedback is known that the goal cannot be reached, we can
figure out which components need to be fixed and which component needs to be
maintained.

The Components of Instruction System

Instruction planning is a result of rational thinking about specific instruction objectives, as well
as a series of activities that should be implemented as an attempt to achieve the goal by utilizing
all the potential and existing learning resources. The instruction planning leads to the translation
process of the valid curriculum. While the instruction design emphasis on designing instruction
program to help the student learning process. This instance which is distinguishes both of them.
Instruction planning is oriented to curriculum, while the instruction design is oriented to learning
process.
However, planning and design, both of them are compiled based on the system approach.
Therefore, there are various components that consist in instruction system, which are:
1. Student
The instruction process essentially is directed to teach student to achieve the goals that have been
determined. So in the development process of design and planning, students should become the
central consideration, which is the decisions that is taken should be adapted to the conditions of
the students, including basic ability, interest, talent, learning motivation, and learning style of
students themselves.
If we have understood the problems that relate to the students, then we can start to make the
instruction planning and arrange the instruction design. Thus, any decision that we take should
begin from the conditions of the students that we teach.
2. Objective
Objective is the most important component in instruction after student component as the learning
subject. Objective is actually a direction that must be used as reference in creating design and
planning as well as instruction in the classroom. The specific objectives that have to be planned
by the teacher are:
a. Knowledge, information and understanding as the objective of the cognitive field.
b. Attitude and appreciation as the objective of the affective field.
c. Various skills and abilities as the objective of the psychomotor field.
In the instruction context, a special objective formulated as a technique to achieve the
educational objective.
3. Condition
Condition is various learning experiences that are expected present in student in order for student
to achieve the instruction objective as it has been formulated. These experiences should be able
to make students active in learning, both physical and non-physical.
One of instruction planning is providing opportunities to students to study according to their
learning style tendencies. Likewise, instruction design should be able to make students learn with
great motivation and passion. Therefore, the duty of the teacher is to facilitate students to learn in
accordance with the interest, motivation, and their own style.
4. Learning resource
Learning resource related to everything that allows students to gain learning experiences. It
includes the physical environment, such as learning place; the tools used, the librarian, media
experts, and so forth.
5. Learning outcomes
Learning outcomes relating to the achievement in gaining the skill in accordance with the
specific purposes are planned. Thus, the main duty of teacher is designing instruments that can
generate data about the success of student in achieving instruction objectives.

Criteria and Variables that Can Affect the Instruction System

A. Learning outcomes as the criteria of the success of instruction system

Instruction is a complex system and its success can be viewed from two aspects, which
are the product aspect and the process aspect.

The instruction success viewed from the product aspect is the success of student in the
results obtained by ignoring the learning process (for example, when a teacher
 formulates objective or competency that must be accomplished: “expected students may
mention the 2 X 2”, then learning is considered successful when students can mention or
write the number 4, without have to elaborate where the number 4 was obtained.)
The success of instruction seen from the product aspect is easily to be seen and
determines the criteria, but this can reduce the meaning of the instruction process as the
process that contains the education values.

In other words, the success of instruction that looks at the product aspect has the same
meaning with downgrading the meaning of instruction itself.

B. Variables Which Affect the Success of Instruction System

There are several variables that can affect the process of instruction system, which are:

1. Teacher Factor
Teacher is a crucial component. It is because teacher is one who deals directly with the
students. In the instruction system, teacher commonly serves as planners or designers
instruction, implementer, or both.
As a planner, teacher is required to properly understand the curriculum, the student
characteristics, facilities and resources, so that all of those are used as components in
preparing the planning and design of instruction.
In performing his function as implementer and designer of instruction, teacher is not only
required to serve as a model of the design that has been made. However, teacher also acts
as the Instruction Manager.
Thus, the effectiveness of the instruction process lies in teacher. Therefore, the success of
instruction process is determined by the quality and the ability of teacher. According to
Dunkin (1974) there are several aspects that can affect the quality of the teacher, which
are:

a. Teacher formative experience,

Including gender as well as all the life experiences of teachers who become their social
background.

START b. Teacher training experience,

Including experiences related to the activities and educational background of teacher. For
example, professional practice experience, education level, the tenure experience and so forth.

c. Teacher properties,
Including everything that is related to properties of teacher.
2. Student factor
Students are unique organisms that develop according to the stages of its development. Children
development is the development of entire aspects of their personality, but the tempo and rhythm
of development of each child in every aspect is not always the same. The instruction process can
be influenced by the difference process of the children development, besides other characteristics
that inherent in children itself. As well as teachers, the student development is also influenced by
the pupil formative experience and pupil properties.

3. Equipment and Infrastructure Factors

Equipment is everything that supports instruction directly to smooth the instruction process,
for example, instructional media, learning tools, school supplies, and so on; while the
infrastructure is everything that indirectly supports the success of instruction process. For
example, distance to school, school lighting, restroom, and so forth. The completeness of
equipment and infrastructure will help teachers in organizing the instruction process. Thus,
the equipment and infrastructure is an important component that can affect the instruction
process.
There are several advantages to school that has a complete equipment and infrastructure.
First, the completeness equipment and infrastructure can grow up passion and motivation of
teachers in teaching. Second, the completeness equipment and infrastructure can provide
various options to students to learn.

4. Environment factor
Viewed of the environment dimension, there are two factors that can affect the instruction
process, which are class organization factor and social psychological climate factor.
Class organization factor in which including the number of students in one class is an
important aspect which can affect the instruction process. Class organization that is too large
will be less effective to achieve the instruction objectives. The large learning group in a
classroom tends to:

a. Group resources will gain wide according to the number of students. So the time available will
be less too.

b. Study groups will be less able to exploit and use all of the resources. For example, in the use
of discussion time, number of students that too many will take much time as well, so that it
will be difficult to obtain the contribution of each student.
c. Learning satisfaction every student will tend to decline. This is because the learning group
which is too many will get a limited service of teacher, in other words, the teacher's attention
will be more fragmented.

d. Individual differences between members will be more visible, so that it will be more difficult
to reach an agreement. The group that is too large will tend to be split into subgroups that
contradicted each other.

e. Members of the group that is too many will tend more students that reluctant to actively
participate in every activity of the group.

Other factor of environment dimension that can affect the learning process is the factor of social
psychological climate, which is the harmonious relationship among people that involved in the
instruction process. This social climate can occur internally or externally. Internally is the
relationship among the people involved in the school environment, for instance, the social
climate among students with other students, among teachers with other teachers, even among
teachers with school leader. Externally is the harmonious relationship among school with the
around environment, for example, the schools’ relationship with parents of students, the schools’
relationship with the community institutions, etc.

Based on all the explanation above, the application of system approach to instruction actually
have three characteristics, which are, planning, interdependence and goals to be achieved.

In planning, there are some components that influence each other, and work together to achieve a
goal. So in the instruction system approach, all the components have meaning in the achievement
of a goal. It means that the achievement of that goal will be hampered while there are some
components that are not working properly.
The various stages in the systems approach to teaching & learning
(a) Consider target population characteristics and topic area

The range of backgrounds, interests, knowledge, attitudes and skills of students

coming on to the course will have a strong influence on course design. Pre-
knowledge and any common misconceptions will have to be catered for in the
design of the course (these may, for example, affect sequence, structure and support
mechanisms).

The broad thrust of the course content will also have to be considered. Consideration will be
given to the sort of people which the course is trying to develop. The subject area may have
traditional aims and directions, but one may wish to consider the justification of these and/or
preparation for future change.
(b) Estimate relevant existing skills and knowledge of learners

There may be minimum standards of entry to the course, but this will not always be so. For
example, the increasing numbers of non-standard and mature student entrants to higher education
will not necessarily have conventional paper qualifications, but may possess skills and qualities
which will have an influence on course design. This may have implications for teaching
methods, bridging courses, support systems etc.

(c) Formulate objectives/learning outcomes

The roles of objectivesand learning outcomesin a systems approach to instruction are dealt with
in detail in the booklet on 'Specifying the Outcomes of Student Learning'. The objectives and
learning outcomes of the course or curriculum element will attempt to encapsulate the new skills,
knowledge or attitudes which it is intended that the students will acquire. They may be
formulated by the learners themselves, by employers, by teaching staff, by a validating,
examining or professional body, or by some combination of these and other sources.

(d) Select appropriate instructional methods

Having specified the objectives and learning outcomes (ie, what we are trying to achievein the
course), we should be in a better position to select appropriate teaching/learning methods
through which these have a reasonable chance of being achieved. There are far more teaching
methods available to choose from than most people realise - one recent book describes no less
than 303 different teaching/learning methods! The process of attempting to match appropriate
methods to given objectives and learning outcomes is normally done on the basis of a
combination of research and experience. The strengths and weaknesses of different methods are
discussed in the booklet on 'Selecting Appropriate Teaching/Learning Methods'.

(e) Operate course or curriculum

The next element in the system is the actual implementation of the course. This involves all the
logistical arrangements associated with running the course, including overall structuring, pacing,
implementing the chosen teaching strategies, using appropriate supportive media and materials,
and ensuring that all aspects of the course run as smoothly as possible. Later booklets will
provide detailed guidance on how this can be done.

(f) Assess and evaluate

The combined result of the preceding stages is that students are involved in a learning experience
that is planned to develop their knowledge, skills and attitudes, taking into account the individual
needs and experience of the learners. Just how effective the pre-planning and subsequent
operation has been can be measured by studying student performance in continuing and/or post-
course assessments. These assessments should be closely related to the specified course
objectives and learning outcomes. Poorly-achieved objectives or learning outcomes should lead
the course designers to examine the entire system in order to identify places where improvements
might be made. This could involve a change in the objectives/learning outcomes, a revised
assessment of students'pre-knowledge, a critical review of the instructional methods used, an
examination of the course structure and organisation, a consideration of the assessment methods
used, or a combination of some or all of these. These deliberations, together with feedback on the
course from staff, students, employers, etc, can be used in an evaluation of the entire concept of
the course, which should, in turn, form the basis of an on-going cyclical course development
process. The topic of assessment is reviewed in the section on 'Assessing Student Performance',
with evaluation being covered in the section on 'Evaluating the Effectiveness of the
Teaching/Learning Process'.

Extrinsic and Intrinsic Motivation

Educators are always trying to find ways to motivate their students. When talking about
motivation, the two hierarchies that all techniques fall within are extrinsic and intrinsic
motivation. On the other hand, intrinsic means to come from within, so intrinsic motivation is
best defined as motivation derived from the person.
Most educators are well versed in the techniques of providing extrinsic motivation to students, as
it is the easiest to implement and most often produces immediate benefits. However, intrinsic
motivation is very difficult as the educator has little control over what the learner produces
internally. So, how does an educator use a balance of both to produce the results he is looking
for?
Extrinsic Motivation
Extrinsic means outward, so extrinsic motivation comes from outside the person to entice a
particular action.
Examples and Function:
1. Money: financial gain
2. Candy: sweets are enticing
3. Stars/points/stickers/stamps/etc: boosts confidence, shows good student, competition
4. Classroom rules: Conform to rules or face punishment
5. Grades: Higher grades mean good student, scholarship money, etc…
6. Food: free food!
7. Many other things educators use
Why It Is Good
Extrinsic motivation is great way to maintain interests in class activities or as motivation to
behave properly. There are physical objects that the student can acquire in the list above, and
some non-tangible concepts that the student cannot possess. The good points of extrinsic
motivation are:
1. It can provide students with the sense they gained the educator’s recognition for doing
something well
2. Creates a deeper involvement in activities
3. Can increase competition which may increase studying
4. Allows students to aim for goals and be rewarded for reaching them
5. May increase confidence in the student

Why It Is Bad
Extrinsic motivation also has a dark side as most educators have figured out. When the items or
techniques do not meet student expectations, then it becomes negative and can have adverse
effects.
1. Promotes disharmony. During a team competition, a weak team member may cause the team
to not meet expectations, so other students may chastise that student.
2. Can create inferiority. Some students may notice others getting more rewards and believe it
is because they aren’t good.
3. Creates selfishness. Students may protest if there is no reward or begin to ask first what the
reward will be so they can decide to “play” or not.
4. Creates complaints. Students will complain if the reward does not meet expectations.
5. May perceive unfairness. Sometimes it is difficult to judge who did better and should receive
the reward. In this case, if both aren’t satisfied then the educator can be seen as playing
favorites.
6. May cause some students not to try. If there are certain students who always dominate, then
the lower level students may not try as they feel like they have no chance.
Ultimately, extrinsic motivation, if utilized too much, has more opportunity to produce harm than
good. For instance, some educators who teach younger students resort to giving chocolate to get
them to talk in class, and this works for some time, but then spirals out of control where the
students WILL ONLY talk if they receive chocolate. Also, students will start visiting the
educator outside of class to ask for chocolate. When the educator fails to meet their requests and
tries to end using candy as motivation, many students will be upset and potentially shut down.
Extrinsic motivation can be a slippery slope for educators to venture down, so caution is greatly
needed.
Intrinsic Motivation
Intrinsic motivation is on the opposite end of the spectrum as extrinsic motivation as this type of
motivation is created by the learner and not the educator. There is a higher rate of learning if
students are motivated by internal means as opposed by external measures.
How to Increase
Intrinsic motivation is very difficult to gauge as the educator cannot easily see into the mind and
heart of the learner. Also, what motivates one student may not motivate another, so how can the
educator provide intrinsic motivation?
1. Provide the student with useful language. Students, especially in an EFL context rarely have
opportunity to use the target language in a natural setting, so it is important that students
receive language they can easily use when the opportunity arises. For example, teaching
young learners how to talk with a travel agent is not something they see as useful. Therefore,
find subjects they will be able to use if given a chance.
2. Help the students make the language personal. Have the students add their own ideas, views
or personal information so the language becomes an expression of them and an opportunity
to learn about others. Stay away from meaningless chunks of information.
3. Build a rapport with students. Students are usually interested in the educator and want to talk
on a personal level- especially true with younger students. Have real conversations with
students inside/outside of class that builds a connection between the educator and student.
This connection can motivate the student to learn more as it is an experience in different
culture, people, and language.
4. Provide students with information in which they are interested. University students may not
find it enjoyable to describe themselves, but may find more engagement to talk about their
ideal mate. Produce topics that engage the students while using the target language.
Combining this element with the three aspects above, can encourage the student to be more
involved.
By using these strategies above, this may increase motivation and build confidence. Many
students view language learning as hard, and it is difficult for many students, but giving the
students useful language, allowing them to talk personally, and being able to speak freely with a
native speaker will do wonders for their confidence. Most students shy away because they feel
like they are not good at language, so give them a chance to prove themselves wrong.
Why It May Not Work
Sometimes students do not want to learn a foreign language, and there is little the educator can
do to change that. Here are some elements the educator may have to overcome.

 The student may not want to be connected with the language community. For example,
Iraqi students may not want to learn English as they see the Americans, who speak
English, as an occupying force.
 Students may want to retain their national identity. On the surface this sounds strange, but
when learning and using foreign languages students need to understand the target
language’s culture and fear of losing their own in the process. For example, many
Koreans opposed the school system teaching all subjects in English as they believed it
would eventually do away with Korean all together. So Koreans may not object to
learning English for the benefits of travel, education, and jobs, but fear their national
identity is at stake if too much use of English is emphasized.
Advantages of intrinsic motivation by learners
1) Students feel more successful and their intrinsic desire to learn increases
2) Learning and intrinsic motivation are mutually reinforcing one another
3) Helps students to shift from doing something for a reward to doing something for
themselves.
4) Working on a task for intrinsic reasons is enjoyable.
5) Promotes retention of what has been learnt
6) It promotes student-centered approach of teaching & leaning

Final Thoughts
Motivating students is a complicated area of education that usually has no single correct answer
as all students and classes are different. It is in the educator’s best interest to emphasize intrinsic
motivation the most, but extrinsic motivation is very useful at the same time. Classroom rules
and grades have the least downside of all extrinsic motivation, but still have to be utilized
properly. Candy, stars, food, and other forms of outer rewards can be used, but these can easily
work against the educator and must be monitored closely.
Educators need to be mindful of how intrinsic and extrinsic motivation are being used when
lesson planning and managing the classroom. Using only one or the other can deprive the
students from the benefits of both, so careful planning is needed to properly motivate the
students. Motivation is not easy, and easy motivation (candy, etc…) does not last long.
Questions to Think About to Help Teaching
1. What forms of extrinsic motivation do you use and does it work well? Have there been any
downsides to extrinsic motivation?
2. Make a list, in order, from the worst forms to the best forms of extrinsic motivation.
3. How can you handle students who only want to do something when they receive a reward?
4. How can you make activities fun without using rewards?
5. How do you use intrinsic motivation in your class?

The Difference Between Intrinsic & Extrinsic Motivation (As it Pertains to Learning
Even if you think you already know the answer to this question, there is a need to reexamine the
definition here, as it applies directly to the topic at hand. According the article on “Igniting a
Love of Learning in All Students” plainly put: “Intrinsic motivation is the natural curiosity and
desire to learn that we are all born with. We experience intrinsic motivation when we find
ourselves seeking answers to a question that intrigues us or pushing ourselves to work hard to
master a skill. Extrinsic motivation is when we work for an external reward or to avoid an
external punishment provided by someone else (Gianni 2010)”. The authors continue: “When
students are extrinsically motivated, they participate because they expect a desirable outcome
like a reward or avoidance of punishment (Gianni 2010)”. However, when an intrinsic mode for
learning has been accessed and incorporated into the learning environment, student engagement
increases, where profound student learning begins its process of becoming a deep-seated trend in
their own personal learning style.
Further quoting the depth of the article as it applies to student learning: “Researchers have found
that intrinsic beliefs in our ability to be successful influence our level of motivation”, and “that
working on a task for intrinsic reasons rather than extrinsic influences are not only more
enjoyable for the participant, but it also facilitates learning and achievement.” “Researchers also
have found that people have an innate desire to learn for the sake of learning and that this
intrinsic desire is connected to our engagement in learning new concepts or skills (Gianni et.al
2010).” And while, “extrinsic rewards have been shown to be effective when used with students
who were not intrinsically motivated…”, this form of incentive was only effective “when
rewards were given initially followed by increasingly longer periods of time in which no rewards
were given to reinforce effort and persistence.” The authors continue: “Extrinsic rewards must be
given immediately following the success, as people in general and middle school students in
particular are not motivated by rewards that are too far in the future. Researchers have also found
that extrinsic praise or positive reinforcement of behaviors such as effort or persistence rather
than fixed traits such as intelligence can increase behaviors associated with motivation. (Gianni
et.al 2010)”
Now that we have established the difference between the two types of motivation, and which one
is preferred for developing long-term learning patterns that will endure beyond the classroom,
the authors further discuss the rationale that addresses the two contrasting forms. In addition to
advocating for the lifelong learner in each of us, particularly our students, the authors continue to
offer insight into the value of the daily learner’s innate desire to learn and grow, acknowledging
that: “Learning and intrinsic motivation are also mutually reinforcing; intrinsic motivation
facilitates learning, and when students acquire new skills and observe their own growth, they feel
more successful and their intrinsic desire to learn increases.” However, while taking the time to
establish an individualized learning environment that accounts for the personal motivation of
each and every student certainly sacrifices time better spent working towards proficiency,
because “indeed, instilling intrinsic motivation is a longer process that may use some external
rewards, but (that time spent building a learning community) really focuses on self-improvement
and helps students to shift from doing something for a reward or for a teacher or parent to doing
something for themselves. (Gianni 2010)”.

BLOOM’S TAXONOMY LEARNING DOMAINS

In 1956, educational psychologist Dr. Benjamin Bloom created a system to classify learning
objectives into a series of learning domains that encourage teachers to think holistically about
education. His system came to be known as Bloom’s Taxonomy. Much has been written about it,
and it has been widely applied.

Bloom identified three domains, or categories, of educational activities:

1. Cognitive Domain/Knowledge or Mental Skills

2. Affective Domain/Attitude or Emotions
3. Psychomotor Domain/ Skills or Physical Skills

When these learning domain ideas are applied to learning environments, active verbs are used to
describe the kind of knowledge and intellectual engagement we want our students to
demonstrate.

Cognitive Knowledge

The Cognitive Domain develops six areas of intellectual skills that build sequentially from
simple to complex behaviors.
This domain is concerned with the ability to recall/remember, recognize, analyze and apply
information that was learnt earlier.

Bloom arranged them this way:

 Knowledge (recall of information)

 Comprehension (understanding of meaning)
 Application (use of concept)
 Analysis (deconstruction of concept)
 Synthesis (combination of information to create meaning)
 Evaluation (judgment or assessment of concept)

Affective Attitude

The Affective Domain includes five areas of emotional response, categorized as simple to
complex ways of processing feelings and attitude. Bloom arranged them this way:

 Receiving (passively paying attention)

 Responding (actively learning and reacting)
 Valuing (attaching worth to information)
 Organizing (arranging and elaborating on information)
 Characterizing (valuing belief that influences behavior)

Psychomotor/Skills domain

The Psychomotor Domain, which focuses on physical skills, was identified.

It is about the use of one’s muscles in coordination with the brain to do a physical activity e.g.
writing, driving, tailoring, sporting etc.

His original ideas were expanded by 1970s educators, including Dr. Elizabeth Simpson, who
developed them in this simple-to-complex order:

 Perception (sensory guiding of motor activity)

 Set (feeling ready to act)
 Guided Response (beginning to learn complex skills)
 Mechanism (developing basic proficiency)
 Complex Overt Response (performing with advanced skill)
 Adaptation (modifying movement to meet special circumstances)
 Origination (creating situation-specific movements)