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Profanity

Profanity, also known as swearing, cursing, or cussing,

involves the use of notionally offensive words for a variety of
purposes, including to demonstrate disrespect or negativity, to
relieve pain, to express a strong emotion, as a grammatical
intensifier or emphasis, or to express informality or conversational
intimacy. In many formal or polite social situations, it is
considered impolite (a violation of social norms), and in some
religious groups it is considered a sin.[1] Profanity includes slurs,
but most profanities are not slurs, and there are many insults that
do not use swear words. Profanity is often depicted in images
by grawlixes, which substitute
Swear words can be discussed or even sometimes used for the symbols for words.
same purpose without causing offense or being considered
impolite if they are obscured (e.g. "fuck" becomes "f***" or "the f-
word") or substituted with a minced oath like "flip".

Etymology and definitions

Profanity may be described as offensive language, dirty words, or taboo words, among other
descriptors.[2] The term profane originates from classical Latin profanus, literally 'before (outside)
the temple', pro meaning 'outside' and fanum meaning 'temple, sanctuary'.[3][4] This further
developed in Middle English with the meaning to desecrate a temple.[5] In English, swearing is a
catch-all linguistic term for the use of profanities, even if it does not involve taking an oath.[6] The
only other languages that use the same term for both profanities and oaths are French (jurer),
Canadian French (sacrer), and Swedish (svära).[7]

English uses cursing in a similar manner to swearing, especially in the United States. Cursing
originally referred specifically to the use of language to cast a curse on someone,[8] and in American
English it is still commonly associated with wishing harm on another.[9] Equivalents to cursing are
used similarly in Danish (bande), Italian (imprecare), and Norwegian (banne).[10] The terms
swearing and cursing have strong associations with the use of profanity in anger.[11] Various efforts
have been made to classify different types of profanity, but there is no widely accepted typology and
terms are used interchangeably.[12]

Blasphemy and obscenity are used similarly to profanity, though blasphemy has retained its religious
connotation.[5] Expletive is another English term for the use of profanity, derived from its original
meaning of adding words to change a sentence's length without changing its meaning.[13] The use of
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expletive sometimes refers specifically to profanity as an interjection.[14][15] Epithet is used to describe

profanities directed at a specific person.[16] Some languages do not have a general term for the use of
profanities, instead describing it with the phrase "using bad language". These include Mandarin (zang
hua), Portuguese (palavrão), Spanish (decir palabrotas), and Turkish (küfur etmek).[10]

History and study

Historical profanity is difficult to reconstruct, as written records may not reflect spoken language.[17]
Despite being relatively well known compared to other linguistic mechanisms,[18] profanity has
historically been understudied because of its taboo nature.[19] Profanity may be studied as an aspect of
linguistics and sociology, or it can be a psychological and neurological subject.[20] Besides
interpersonal communication, understanding of profanity has legal implications and related to
theories of language learning.[21][18]

In modern European languages, swearing developed from early Christianity, primarily through
restrictions on taking God's name in vain in the Old Testament.[22] Invocations of God were seen as
attempts to call upon his power, willing something to be true or leveling a curse.[23] Other mentions of
God were seen as placing oneself over him, with the person uttering a name implying power over the
name's owner.[24]

Modern study of profanity as its own subject of inquiry had started by 1901.[2] Sigmund Freud
influenced study of the topic by positing that swearing reflects the subconscious, including feelings of
aggression, antisocial inclinations, and the broaching of taboos.[25] Significant activity began in the
1960s with writings on the subject by Ashley Montagu and Edward Sagarin, followed by increased
study the following decade.[20] Specific types of discriminatory profanity, such as ethnophaulism and
homophobia, came to be described as part of a broader type of profanity, hate speech, toward the end
of the 20th century.[26] Another increase in the study of profanity took place with the onset of the 21st
century.[19]

Subjects
Profanities have literal meanings, but they are invoked to indicate a state of mind, making them
dependent almost entirely on connotation and emotional associations with the word, as opposed to
literal denotation.[27][28] The connotative function of profanity allows the denotative meaning to shift
more easily,[29] causing the word to shift until its meaning is unrelated to its origin or to lose meaning
and impact altogether.[30]

Literal meanings in modern profanity typically relate to religion, sex, or the human body, which
creates a dichotomy between the use of highbrow religious swears and lowbrow anatomical
swears.[31][32] Languages and cultures place different emphasis on the subjects of profanity.
Anatomical profanity is common in Polish, for example, while swearing in Dutch is more commonly in
reference to disease.[33] Words for excrement and for the buttocks have profane variants across most
cultures.[34] Though religious swears were historically more severe, modern society across much of
the world has come to see sexual and anatomical swears to be more vulgar.[31][35] Common profane
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phrases sometimes incorporate more than one category of profanity for increased effect. The Spanish
phrase me cago en Dios y en la Puta Virgen (transl. I shit on God and on the prostitute Virgin)
invokes scatological, religious, and sexual profanity.[36] Other swear words do not refer to any subject,
such as the English word bloody when used in its profane sense.[37]

Not all taboo words are used in swearing, with many only being used in a literal sense.[38] Clinical or
academic terminology for bodily functions and sexual activity are distinct from profanity. This
includes words such as excrement and copulate in English, which are not typically invoked as
swears.[38] Academics who study profanity disagree on whether literal use of a vulgar word can
constitute a swear word.[39] Conversely, words with greater connotative senses are not always used
profanely. Bastard and son of a bitch are more readily used as general terms of abuse in English
compared to terrorist and rapist, despite the latter two being terms being associated with strongly
immoral behavior.[40]

Some profane phrases are used metaphorically in a way that still retains elements of the original
meaning, such as the English phrases all hell broke loose or shit happens, which carry the negative
associations of hell and shit as undesirable places and things.[41] Others are nonsensical when
interpreted literally, like take a flying fuck in English as well as putain de merde (whore of shit) in
French and porca Madonna (the sow of Madonna) in Italian.[42]

Religion
A distinction is sometimes made between religious profanity,
which is casual, versus blasphemy, which is intentionally leveled
against a religious concept.[43] It was commonly believed among
early civilizations that speaking about certain things can invoke
them or bring about curses.[23] Many cultures have taboos about
speaking the names of evil creatures such as Satan because of
these historical fears.[22] A woman exclaiming "Oh My God!"
before a dirtbike crash
Religions commonly develop derogatory words for those who are
not among their members. Medieval Christianity developed terms
like heathen and infidel to describe outsiders.[44] Secularization in the Western world has seen
exclamations such as God! divorced from their religious connotations.[45] Religious profanity is not
inherent to all languages, being absent from Japanese, indigenous languages of the Americas, and
most Polynesian languages.[46]

European languages historically used the crucifixion of Jesus as a focal point for profane interjections.
Phrases meaning "death of God" were used in languages like English ('Sdeath), French (Mort de
Dieu), and Swedish (Guds död)[47] Christian profanity encompasses both appeals to the divine, such
as God or heaven, and to the diabolic, such as the Devil or hell. While the impact of religious swearing
has declined in the Christian world, diabolic swearing remains profane in Germany and the Nordic
countries. Islamic profanity lacks a diabolic element, referring only to divine concepts like
Muhammad or holy places.[48]

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Words related to Catholicism, known as sacres, are used in

Quebec French profanity, and are considered to be stronger than
other profane words in French. Examples of sacres considered
profane in Quebec are tabarnak (tabernacle), hostie (host), and
sacrament (sacrament). When used as profanities, sacres are
often interchangeable.[49]

The Book of Leviticus indicates that blasphemous language

warrants death, while the Gospel of Matthew implies
condemnation of all swearing, though only the Quakers have
imposed such a ban.[50] Islam, Judaism, and Brahmanism forbid
mention of God's name entirely.[51] In some countries, profanity
words often have pagan roots that after Christian influence were
turned from names of deities and spirits to profanity and used as Graffiti on a mailbox in Quebec
such, like perkele in Finnish, which was believed to be an original reading Pas de publicité tabarnak,
meaning "no advertising mail" and
name of the thunder god Ukko, the chief god of the Finnish pagan
using the sacre "tabarnak"
pantheon.[52][53][54][55] (tabernacle)

Anatomy and sexuality

Profanity related to sexual activity, including insults related to
0:02
genitals, exists across cultures.[56] The specific aspects invoked are
sensitive to a given culture, with differences in how much they The phrase "get fucked" spoken by
an American
emphasize ideas like incest or adultery.[57] Certain types of sex
acts, such as oral sex, anal sex, or masturbation, may receive
particular attention.[58] Verbs describing sexual activity are frequently profane, like fuck in English,
foutre in French, fottere in Italian, jodido in Spanish, and ебать (yebatˈ) in Russian.[59] Words
describing a person as one who masturbates are often used as terms of abuse, such as the English use
of jerk-off and wanker.[60][58] Terms for sexually promiscuous women can be used as profanity, such
English terms like hussy and slut.[61] Reference to prostitution brings its own set of profanities. Many
profane words exist to refer to a prostitute, such as whore in English, putain in French, puttana in
Italian, kurwa in Polish, блять (blyat') in Russian, and puta in Spanish.[62] Some languages,
including German and Swedish, do not see significant use of sexual terms as profanity.[59]

Profanities for the penis and vulva are often used as interjections. Penile interjections are often used
in Italian (cazzo), Russian (хуй, khuy), and Spanish (carajo). Vulvar interjections are often used in
Dutch (kut), Hungarian (pisca), Russian (пизда, pizda), Spanish (coño), and Swedish (fitta).[63] Such
terms, especially those relating to the vulva, may also be used as terms of abuse.[64] Profanities related
to testicles are less common and their function varies across languages. They may be used as
interjections, such as in English (balls or bollocks), Italian (coglione), and Spanish (cojones). Danish
uses testicles as a term of abuse with klotzaak.[59]

Words for the buttocks are used as a term of disapproval in many languages, including English (ass or
arse), French (cul), Polish (dupa), Russian (жопа, zhopa), and Spanish (culo). Similar words for the
anus appear in languages like Danish (røvhul), English (asshole or arsehole), German (Arschloch),
Icelandic (rassgat), Norwegian (rasshøl), and Polish (dupek).[63] Excrement and related concepts are

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commonly invoked in profanity.[48]

European examples include shit in English, merde in French,
Scheiße in German, and stronzo in Italian.[65] An example in an East Asian language would be クソ
(kuso) in Japanese.

Other subjects
Illness has historically been used to swear by wishing a plague on others.[66] The names of various
diseases are used as profane words in some languages; Pokkers (transl. pox) appears in both Danish
and Norwegian as an exclamation and an intensifier.[67] Death is another common theme in Asian
languages such as Cantonese.[47] Terminology of mental illness has become more prominent as
profanity in the Western world, with terms such as idiot and retard challenging one's mental
competency.[34]

Profane phrases directed at the listener's mother exist across numerous major languages, though it is
absent from Germanic languages with the exception of English. These phrases often include terms of
abuse that implicate the subject's mother, such as son of a bitch in English or wáng bā dàn (transl.
child of a cuckolded man) in Mandarin.[58] Russian profanity places heavy emphasis on the sexual
conduct of the listener's female relatives, either by describing sexual activity involving them or
suggesting that the listener engage in activities with them.[10] Aboriginal Australian languages
sometimes invoke one's deceased ancestors in profanity.[47]

The names of political ideologies are sometimes invoked as swear words by their opponents. Fascist is
commonly used as an epithet in the modern era, replacing historical use of radical.[68] Far-left groups
have historically used words like capitalist and imperialist as terms of abuse, while anti-communist
speakers use communist in the same manner.[69] The use of political terms in a profane sense often
leads to the term becoming less impactful or losing relevance as a political descriptor entirely.[70]

Words for animals can be used as terms of abuse despite not being inherently profane, commonly
referencing some attribute of the animal. Examples in English include bitch to demean a woman or
louse to describe someone unwanted.[71] They may also be used in interjections like the Italian porco
dio (transl. pig of a God).[47] Animal-related profanity is distinct from other forms in that it is used
similarly across different languages.[72] Terms for dogs are among the most common animal swears
across languages, alongside those for cows, donkeys, and pigs.[73] Swear words related to monkeys are
common in Arabic and East Asian cultures.[74]

Slurs are words that target a specific demographic.[31] These are used to project xenophobia and
prejudice, often through the use of stereotypes. They typically develop in times of increased contact of
conflict between different races or ethnic groups, including times of war between two or more
nations.[75] Terms for minority groups are sometimes used as swears. This can apply to both profane
terms such as kike or non-profane terms such as gay.[66] Many of these are culture-specific.[73] In a
case of using the name of one group to demean another, Hun came to be associated with a brutish

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caricature of Germans, first during the Renaissance and again during World War I.[76] Some terms for
people of low class or status can become generically profane or derogatory. English examples include
villain, lewd, and scum.[77]

Grammar and function

Profanity is used to indicate the speaker's emotional state,[27][78] and the
negative associations of swear words mean they are often emotionally
charged.[79][80] Expressions of anger and frustration are the most
common reason for swearing.[14] Such expressions are associated with
abusive profanity,[81] which is the most negatively charged and is
specifically chosen to insult or offend the subject. This may take the form
of a direct insult, such as calling the subject an asshole, or by addressing
the subject profanely, such as telling someone to fuck off.[14] It can also
be used to indicate contempt.[80] Cathartic profanity is used as an
expression of annoyance,[14] and it is often considered less rude than
profanity directed at a specific subject.[82] Profanity can be used as a
statement of agreement or disagreement, though disagreement is more
Exposing the buttocks is
common; the hell it is and my ass are examples of English profanities considered profane in many
that indicate disagreement.[83] The potent nature of swearing means that cultures.
it can be used to gain attention,[84] including the use of profanity to cause
shock.[80] In some circumstances, swearing can be used as a form of
politeness, such as when a speaker gives positive reinforcement by describing something as pretty
fucking good.[82]

Propositional or controlled swearing is done consciously, and speakers choose their wording and how
to express it. This is more common when using descriptive swearing. Non-propositional or reflexive
swearing is done involuntarily as an emotional response to excitement or displeasure.[85][66] Frequent
swearing can become a habit, even if the speaker does not have a specific intention of being
profane.[86]

Profanity is often used as a slot filler, which functions as a modifier,[87] and modifying a noun with a
swear is commonly used to indicate dislike.[88] A profane word can modify words as an adjective, such
as in it's a bloody miracle, or as an adverb, such as in they drove damn fast.[16] One type of adverbial
profanity is to use it as a modal adverb, such as in no you fucking can't.[88] Compound words can be
created to create a new modifier, such as pisspoor.[16] Many European languages use profanity to add
emphasis to question words in the form of who the hell are you? or with a preposition in the form of
what in God's name is that?.[89] Modifier profanities are frequently used as an expletive attributive,
or intensifiers that put emphasis on specific ideas.[90] These commonly take the form of interjections
to express strong emotion, such as the English examples bloody hell and for fuck's sake.[90] Such
stand-alone profanities are among the most common in natural speech.[15] Expletive infixation is the
use of a profane word as an intensifier inside of another word, such as modifying absolutely to
become abso-fucking-lutely.[91] Some languages use swear words that can generically replace nouns
and verbs. This is most common in Russian.[92]

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Though profanity exists in nearly all cultures, there is variation in when it is used and how it affects
the meaning of speech.[56] Each language has unique profane phrases influenced by culture.[33]
Japanese is sometimes described as having no swear words, though it has a concept of warui kotoba
(transl. bad words) that are not based on taboos but are otherwise functionally equivalent to
swears.[93] One linguistic theory proposes that sound symbolism influences the pronunciation of
profanities. This includes the suggestion that profanities are more likely to include plosives, but this
remains unstudied, especially outside of Indo-European languages.[94]

The use of profanity is the most common way to express taboo ideas.[21] The dichotomy between its
taboo nature and its prevalence in day-to-day life is studied as the "swearing paradox".[95] It is used
casually in some social settings, which can facilitate bonding and camaraderie, denote a social
environment as informal, and mark the speaker as part of an in-group.[96] The way speakers use
profanity in social settings allows them to project their identity and personality through
communication style,[97] and in some circumstances it can be used as a method used to impress one's
peers.[86] Stylistic swearing is used to add emphasis or intensity to speech,[14][98] which can be used
to emphasize an idea in an aggressive or authoritative fashion, make an idea memorable, or produce a
comedic effect.[96]

Profanity often presents as formulaic language, in which specific words

can only be used in specific phrases, often developed through
grammaticalization.[99] Many of these phrases allow words to be
swapped, presenting variations on a phrase like what in the bloody
heck, why in the flamin' hell, and how in the fuckin' hell.[100] Profane
phrases can be used as anaphoric pronouns, such as replacing him with
the bastard in tell the bastard to mind his own business.[88] They can
similarly be used to support a noun instead of replacing it, such as in
John is a boring son of a bitch.[101] Though profanity is usually
associated with taboo words, obscene non-verbal acts such as hand
gestures may be considered profane. Spitting in someone's direction has
historically been seen as a strong insult.[102] Exposure of certain body
parts, often the genitals or buttocks, is also seen as profane in many
parts of the world.[103]
The finger, an obscene hand
Though cursing often refers to the use of profanity in general, it can
gesture
refer to more specific phrases of harm such as damn you or a pox on
you.[9] Historically, people swore by or to the ideas that they were
invoking, instead of swearing at something.[104] Oaths in which the speaker swears by something,
such as by God, can be used as interjections or intensifiers, typically without religious connotation.
This is especially common in Arabic.[9] Self-immolating oaths, such as I'll be damned, involve
speakers casting harm upon themselves.[105] These are often invoked as conditional statements based

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on whether something is true—I'll be damned if...[106]

Profanity directed at an individual can take the
form of an unfriendly suggestion. English examples include go to hell and kiss my ass.[83] Some
profanities, such as your mother!, imply taboos or swear words without using them explicitly.[107]

Social perception
Whether speech is profane depends on context, because what is taboo or
impolite in one environment might not be in another.[81][108][109] Swear
words vary in their intensity, and speakers of a language might disagree
that weaker swear words are actually profane.[110] Isolated profanities are
often seen as more profane than those used in context.[95]

The identity of the speaker affects how profanity is seen, as different

cultures may hold classes, sexes, age groups, and other identities to
different standards.[111] Profanity is often seen as more socially
acceptable when coming from men,[112] and it is commonly associated
with machismo.[113] Profanity varies in how it affects a speaker's
credibility. It can be seen as unprofessional in some circumstances, but it
can make an argument more persuasive in others.[84] Milder words can
become more impactful in different circumstances; cheat may be more
provocative in schools or gambling clubs, and informer replaces crook as Pejorative terms like queer
a term of abuse for a dishonest person in a criminal setting.[114] Profanity may be reappropriated by
is often associated with lower class professions like soldiers and the people they are directed
carters.[38] against.

Expectancy violations theory holds that expectations about a speaker's

behavior come from impressions based not only on the speaker's identity, but how the specific speaker
typically communicates and the socially expected way to speak to a given listener.[115] Swearing in
formal contexts is a greater violation of expectations than swearing in informal conversation.[95]
Whether the profanity is spoken in public or private is also a factor in social acceptability.[116]
Conversations that involve profanity are correlated with other informal manners of speech, such as
slang, humor, and discussion of sexuality.[80]

Native speakers of a language can intuitively decide what language is appropriate for a given context.
Those still learning a language, such as children and non-native speakers, are more likely to use
profane language without realizing that it is profane.[109] Acceptable environments for profanity are
learned in childhood as children find themselves chastised for swearing in some places more than
others.[116] Swearing is often milder among young children, and they place more stigma on terms that
are not seen as profane by adults, like fart or dork. Young children are more likely to use the mildest
terms as swear words, such as pooh-pooh. Adolescents develop an understanding of double meanings
in terms like balls.[116]

The severity of a swear word may decline over time as it is repeated.[117] In some cases, slurs can be
reclaimed by the targeted group when they are used ironically or in a positive context, such as queer to
refer to the LGBTQ community.[118] People who speak multiple languages often have stronger

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emotional associations with profanity in their native languages over that of languages that they
acquire later.[119] The severity of a profane term can vary between dialects within the same
language.[114] Publishers of dictionaries must take profanity into consideration when deciding what
words to include, especially when they are subject to obscenity laws.[120] They may be wary of
appearing to endorse the use of profane language by its inclusion.[121] Slang dictionaries have
historically been used to cover profanity in lieu of more formal dictionaries.[122]

In some cultures, there are situations where profanity is good etiquette. A tradition exists in some
parts of China that a bride was expected to speak profanely to her groom's family in the days before
the wedding, and one Aboriginal Australian culture uses profanity to denote class.[46]

Censorship and avoidance

The idea of censoring taboo ideas exists in all cultures.[124]
Swearing inappropriately can be punished socially, and public
swearing can bring about legal consequences.[31] There is
disagreement as to whether freedom of speech should permit all
forms of profane speech, including hate speech, or if such forms of
speech can be justifiably restricted.[125] Censorship is used to
restrict or penalize profanity, and governments may implement
laws that disallow certain acts of profanity,[126] including legal
limitations on the broadcast of profanity over radio or
television.[127] Broadcasting has unique considerations as to what
is considered acceptable, including its presence in the home and
children's access to broadcasts.[128] Profane language is often subject to
regulation in media. This icon, used
Profanity may be avoided when discussing taboo subjects through by PEGI, indicates that a video
euphemisms. Euphemisms were historically used to avoid game may contain "bad
language".[123]
invoking the names of malevolent beings.[129] Euphemisms are
commonly expressed as metaphors, such as make love or sleep
with as descriptors of sexual intercourse.[130] Euphemisms can be alternate descriptors such as white
meat instead of breast meat, or they may be generic terms such as unmentionables.[131] Minced oaths
are euphemisms that modify swear words until they are no longer profane, such as darn instead of
damn in English.[132]

Substitution is another form of euphemism, with English examples including the replacement of fuck
with the f-word or effing and the use of "four-letter words" to refer to profanity in general.[133]
Chinese and some Southeast Asian languages use puns and sound-alikes to create alternate swear
words. The Chinese word for bird, niao, rhymes with the Chinese word for penis and is frequently
invoked as a swear.[74] The Cockney dialect of English uses rhyming slang to alter terms, including
profanity; titty is rhymed as Bristol city, which is then abbreviated as bristols.[134]

Speakers and authors may engage in self-censorship under legal or social pressure.[126] In the 21st
century, censorship through social pressure is associated with political correctness in Western
society.[135][136] This has led to the intentional creation of new euphemisms to avoid terms that may

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be stigmatizing. Some become widely accepted, such as substance abuse for drug addiction, while
others are ignored or derided, such as differently abled for disabled.[137]

Physiology and neurology

The brain processes profanity differently than it processes other forms of language.[138] Intentional
controlled swearing is associated with the brain's left hemisphere, while reflexive swearing is
associated with the right hemisphere.[66] Swearing is associated with both language-processing parts
of the brain, the left frontal and temporal lobes, as well as the emotion-processing parts, the right
cerebrum and the amygdala.[82] The association of emotional swearing with the amygdala and other
parts of the limbic system suggests that some uses of profanity are related to the fight-or-flight
response.[138]

Profanity requires more mental processing than other forms of language, and the use of profanity is
easier to remember when recalling a conversation or other speech.[139] Exposure to profanity leads to
higher levels of arousal,[119] and it can cause increases in heart rate and electrodermal activity as part
of a fight-or-flight response.[140][141] Swearing has also been shown to increase pain tolerance,
especially among people who do not regularly swear.[142]

Compulsive swearing is called coprolalia, and it is associated with neurological conditions such as
Tourette syndrome, dementia, and epilepsy.[112] The ability to use profanity can remain intact even
when neurological trauma causes aphasia.[138][56] Frequent swearing is more common among people
with damage to the brain or other parts of the nervous system.[56] Damage to the ventromedial
prefrontal cortex can negatively affect one's ability to control their use of profanity and other socially
inappropriate behaviors. Damage to Broca's area and other language-processing regions of the brain
can similarly make people prone to outbursts. Damage to the right hemisphere limits the ability to
understand and regulate the emotional content of one's speech.[112]

Legality

Australia
In every Australian state and territory it is a crime to use offensive, indecent or insulting language in
or near a public place.[143] These offences are classed as summary offences. This means that they are
usually tried before a local or magistrates court. Police also have the power to issue fixed penalty
notices to alleged offenders.[144] It is a defence in some Australian jurisdictions to have "a reasonable
excuse" to conduct oneself in the manner alleged.[145]

Brazil
In Brazil, the Penal Code does not contain any penalties for profanity in public immediately. However,
direct offenses against one can be considered a crime against honor, with a penalty of imprisonment
of one to three months or a fine.[146] The analysis of the offence is considered "subjective", depending

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on the context of the discussion and the relationship between the parts.[147]

Canada
Section 175 of Canada's Criminal Code makes it a criminal offence to "cause a disturbance in or near a
public place" by "swearing […] or using insulting or obscene language". Provinces and municipalities
may also have their laws against swearing in public. For instance, the Municipal Code of Toronto bars
"profane or abusive language" in public parks.[148] In June 2016, a man in Halifax, Nova Scotia, was
arrested for using profane language at a protest against Bill C-51.[149]

India
Sections 294A and 294B of Indian penal code have legal provisions for punishing individuals who use
inappropriate or obscene words (either spoken or written) in public that are maliciously deliberate to
outrage religious feelings or beliefs.[150] In February 2015, a local court in Mumbai asked police to file
a first information report against 14 Bollywood celebrities who were part of the stage show of All India
Bakchod, a controversial comedy stage show known for vulgar and profanity based content.[151] In
May 2019 during the election campaign, Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi listed out the abusive
words the opposition Congress party had used against him and his mother during their campaign.[152]

In January 2016, a Mumbai-based communications agency initiated a campaign against profanity and
abusive language called "Gaali free India" (gaali is the Hindi word for profanity).[153] Using creative
ads, it called upon people to use swatch (clean) language on the lines of Swachh Bharat Mission for
nationwide cleanliness. It further influenced other news media outlets who further raised the issue of
abusive language in the society especially incest abuses against women, such as "mother fucker".[154]

In an increasing market for OTT content, several Indian web series have been using profanity and
expletives to gain attention of the audiences.[155]

New Zealand
In New Zealand, the Summary Offences Act 1981 makes it illegal to use "indecent or obscene words in
or within hearing of any public place". However, if the defendant has "reasonable grounds for
believing that his words would not be overheard" then no offence is committed. Also, "the court shall
have regard to all the circumstances pertaining at the material time, including whether the defendant
had reasonable grounds for believing that the person to whom the words were addressed, or any
person by whom they might be overheard, would not be offended".[156]

Pakistan
Political leaders in Pakistan have been consistently picked up for using profane, abusive language.
While there is no legislation to punish abusers, the problem aggravated with abusive language being
used in the parliament and even against women.[157]

Philippines

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The Department of Education in the Philippine city of Baguio

expressed that while cursing was prohibited in schools, children
were not following this prohibition at home. Thus as part of its
anti profanity initiative, in November 2018, the Baguio city
government in the Philippines passed an anti profanity law that
prohibits cursing and profanity in areas of the city frequented by
children. This move was welcomed by educators[158] and the
Department of Education in Cordillera.[158][159]

Russia
Swearing in public is an administrative crime in Russia. However,
law enforcement rarely targets swearing people. The punishment
is a fine of 500–1000 roubles or even a 15-day imprisonment.[160]
Tagalog-language graffiti in San
United Kingdom Juan, Metro Manila, depicting a
penis and the text Docdocos burat
titi, claiming that "Docdocos" has an
In public uncircumcised penis.

Swearing, in and of itself, is not usually a criminal offence in the

United Kingdom although in context may constitute a component of a crime. However, it may be a
criminal offence in Salford Quays under a public spaces protection order which outlaws the use of
"foul and abusive language" without specifying any further component to the offence, although it
appears to be unclear as to whether all and every instance of swearing is covered. Salford City Council
claims that the defence of "reasonable excuse" allows all the circumstances to be taken into
account.[161] In England and Wales, swearing in public where it is seen to cause harassment, alarm or
distress may constitute an offence under section 5(1) and (6) of the Public Order Act 1986.[162] In
Scotland, a similar common law offence of breach of the peace covers issues causing public alarm and
distress.

In the workplace
In the United Kingdom, swearing in the workplace can be an act of gross misconduct under certain
circumstances. In particular, this is the case when swearing accompanies insubordination against a
superior or humiliation of a subordinate employee. However, in other cases, it may not be grounds for
instant dismissal.[163] According to a UK site on work etiquette, the "fact that swearing is a part of
everyday life means that we need to navigate away through a day in the office without offending
anyone, while still appreciating that people do swear. Of course, there are different types of swearing
and, without spelling it out, you really ought to avoid the 'worst words' regardless of who you're
talking to".[164] Within the UK, the appropriateness of swearing can vary largely by a person's industry
of employment, though it is still not typically used in situations where employees of a higher position
than oneself are present.[164]

In 2006, The Guardian reported that "36% of the 308 UK senior managers and directors having
responded to a survey accepted swearing as part of workplace culture", but warned about specific
inappropriate uses of swearing such as when it is discriminatory or part of bullying behaviour. The
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article ended with a quotation from Ben Wilmott (Chartered Institute of Personnel and
Development): "Employers can ensure professional language in the workplace by having a well-
drafted policy on bullying and harassment that emphasises how bad language has potential to amount
to harassment or bullying."[165]

United States
In the United States, courts have generally ruled that the
government does not have the right to prosecute someone solely
for the use of an expletive, which would be a violation of their right
to free speech enshrined in the First Amendment. On the other
hand, they have upheld convictions of people who used profanity
to incite riots, harass people, or disturb the peace.[166] In 2011, a
North Carolina statute that made it illegal to use "indecent or
profane language" in a "loud and boisterous manner" within
earshot of two or more people on any public road or highway was Local law in Virginia Beach prohibits
struck down as unconstitutional.[167] In 2015, the city of Myrtle the use of profanity along the
Beach, South Carolina passed an ordinance that makes profane boardwalk of Atlantic Avenue
language punishable with fines up to $500 and/or 30 days in
jail.[168] An amount of $22,000 was collected from these fines in
2017 alone.[169]

Religious views

Judaism
Rabbi Yisroel Cotlar wrote in Chabad.org that Judaism forbids the use of profanity as contradicting
the Torah's command to "Be holy", which revolves around the concept of separating oneself from
worldly practices (including the use of vulgar language).[170] The Talmud teaches that the words that
leave the mouth make an impact on the heart and mind; he stated that the use of profanity thus
causes the regression of the soul.[170] Judaism thus teaches that shemirat halashon (guarding one's
tongue) is one of the first steps to spiritual improvement.[170]

Christianity
Various Christian writers have condemned the use of "foul language" as being sinful, a position held
since the time of the early Church.[171][1] To this end, the Bible commands including "Don't use foul or
abusive language. Let everything you say be good and helpful, so that your words will be an
encouragement to those who hear them" (Ephesians 4:29)[172] and also "Let there be no filthiness nor
foolish talk nor crude joking, which are out of place, but instead let there be thanksgiving" (Ephesians
5:4).[173] These teachings are echoed in Ecclesiasticus 20:19,[174] Ecclesiasticus 23:8-15,[175] and
Ecclesiasticus 17:13-15,[176] all of which are found in the Deuterocanon/Apocrypha.[177] Jesus taught
that "by your words you will be justified, and by your words you will be condemned." (cf. Matthew
12:36-37[178]),[179] with revilers being listed as being among the damned in 1 Corinthians 6:9-
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10.[180][181]Profanity revolving around the dictum "Thou shalt not take the name of the Lord thy God
in vain", one of the Ten Commandments, is regarded as blasphemy as Christians regard it as "an
affront to God's holiness".[182][183] Paul the Apostle defines the ridding of filthy language from one's
lips as being evidence of living in a relationship with Jesus (cf. Colossians 3:1-10[184]).[185] The Epistle
to the Colossians teaches that controlling the tongue "is the key to gaining mastery over the whole
body."[177] The Didache 3:3 included the use of "foul language" as being part of the lifestyle that puts
one on the way to eternal death.[1] The same document commands believers not to use profanity as it
"breeds adultery".[171] John Chrysostom, an early Church Father, taught that those engaged in the use
of profanity should repent of the sin.[186] The Epistle of James holds that "blessing God" is the
primary function of the Christian's tongue, not speaking foul language.[177] Saint Tikhon of Zadonsk, a
bishop of Eastern Orthodox Church, lambasted profanity and blasphemy, teaching that it is
"extremely unbefitting [for] Christians" and that believers should guard themselves from ever using
it.[187]

Islam
According to Ayatullah Ibrahim Amini, the use of "bad words" is haram in Islam. Additionally,
impertinence and slander are considered immoral acts.[188]

See also
Animal epithet – Name for a person or group, by association with some perceived quality of an
animal
Bleep censor – Beep used to censor profanity, typically at 1000 Hz
Expletive deleted – Censored or redacted profanity
Fighting words – Speech or writing intended to incite hatred or violence
Flyting – Exchange of insults in the form of verse
Lists of pejorative terms for people
Maledictology – Research into cursing and swearing
Profanity in science fiction
Scunthorpe problem – Problem caused by profanity filters on the Internet
Sexual slang – Terms and phrases relating to sexual activities
Swear jar – Container used for storing money from informal fines for swearing
Use–mention distinction – Difference between using a word and mentioning it
Verbal abuse – Form of abuse using verbal communication for intent to harm person and entity
Vulgarism – Expression considered non-standard characteristic of uneducated speech or writing
Wordfilter – Script used to censor words or phrases on the internet

Notes
1. "The Teaching of the Twelve Apostles to the Nations, known as The Didache" (https://legacyicons.
com/content/didache.pdf) (PDF). Legacy Icons. 2016. p. 6. Retrieved 16 February 2022. "But the
way of death is this. First of all, it is evil and full of curses: murder, adultery, lust, promiscuity, theft,

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idolatry, magical arts, witchcraft, robbery, false testimony, hypocrisy, duplicity, treachery, pride,
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11. Matusz 2017, p. 36.
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17. Hughes 2015, pp. xix, xxii.
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8028-4357-9. "The city was stunned with fear when John Chrysostom entered the pulpit to prepare
his congregation to enter the forty-day fast. Never was a congregation more ripe for repentance
than the Christians of Antioch were at the beginning of the fast that year. The preacher lamented
the sins of the city and challenged its citizens not merely to fast but to lay aside every form of sin,
especially the sins of swearing and cursing. All through the twenty-one sermons John preached
during the fast, this theme keeps recurring. Perhaps our preacher planned to mount a special
crusade against the making of oaths, the use of foul language, and other expressions of anger
during the fasting season, or maybe he had intended to challenge his congregation to rid
themselves of the sins of the..."
187. Bobosh, Ted (21 June 2018). "The Problem of Profanity" (https://orthochristian.com/113857.html).
OrthoChristian. Retrieved 16 February 2022.
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188. "Chapter 62: Tongue Lashing and Impertinence" (https://www.al-islam.org/principles-upbringing-ch

ildren-ibrahim-amini/chapter-62-tongue-lashing-and-impertinence). www.al-islam.org. 30 January
2013. Retrieved 7 November 2022.

References
Hughes, Geoffrey (2015). An Encyclopedia of Swearing: The Social History of Oaths, Profanity,
Foul Language, and Ethnic Slurs in the English-speaking World (https://www.taylorfrancis.com/boo
ks/mono/10.4324/9781315706412/encyclopedia-swearing-geoffrey-hughes). Routledge.
doi:10.4324/9781315706412 (https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9781315706412). ISBN 978-1-315-
70641-2.
Jay, Timothy; Janschewitz, Kristin (2008). "The Pragmatics of Swearing" (https://www.degruyter.co
m/document/doi/10.1515/JPLR.2008.013/html). Journal of Politeness Research. Language,
Behaviour, Culture. 4 (2): 267–288. doi:10.1515/JPLR.2008.013 (https://doi.org/10.1515%2FJPLR.
2008.013). ISSN 1612-5681 (https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1612-5681).
Johnson, Danette Ifert; Lewis, Nicole (2010). "Perceptions of Swearing in the Work Setting: An
Expectancy Violations Theory Perspective" (http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/0893421
5.2010.511401). Communication Reports. 23 (2): 106–118. doi:10.1080/08934215.2010.511401 (h
ttps://doi.org/10.1080%2F08934215.2010.511401). ISSN 0893-4215 (https://search.worldcat.org/is
sn/0893-4215).
Kapoor, Hansika (2016). "Swears in Context: The Difference Between Casual and Abusive
Swearing" (http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s10936-014-9345-z). Journal of Psycholinguistic
Research. 45 (2): 259–274. doi:10.1007/s10936-014-9345-z (https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10936-0
14-9345-z). ISSN 0090-6905 (https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0090-6905). PMID 25480107 (http
s://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25480107).
Lev-Ari, Shiri; McKay, Ryan (2023). "The Sound of Swearing: Are There Universal Patterns in
Profanity?" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10264537). Psychonomic Bulletin &
Review. 30 (3): 1103–1114. doi:10.3758/s13423-022-02202-0 (https://doi.org/10.3758%2Fs13423-
022-02202-0). ISSN 1069-9384 (https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1069-9384). PMC 10264537 (http
s://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10264537). PMID 36471228 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.n
ih.gov/36471228).
Ljung, Magnus (2011). Swearing: A Cross-Cultural Linguistic Study (https://link.springer.com/book/
10.1057/9780230292376/). Palgrave Macmillan. doi:10.1057/9780230292376 (https://doi.org/10.1
057%2F9780230292376). ISBN 978-0-230-57631-5.
Matusz, Łukasz (2017). "Taboos and Swearing: Cross-Linguistic Universalities and Peculiarities".
In Gabryś-Barker, Danuta; Gałajda, Dagmara; Wojtaszek, Adam; Zakrajewski, Paweł (eds.).
Multiculturalism, Multilingualism and the Self: Studies in Linguistics and Language Learning (http
s://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-319-56892-8). Second Language Learning and
Teaching. Springer. pp. 33–47. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-56892-8 (https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-
319-56892-8). ISBN 978-3-319-56892-8.
Stapleton, Karyn; Beers Fägersten, Kristy; Stephens, Richard; Loveday, Catherine (2022). "The
Power of Swearing: What We Know and What We Don't" (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.lingua.2022.
103406). Lingua. 277. doi:10.1016/j.lingua.2022.103406 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.lingua.2022.
103406).
Van Lancker, D; Cummings, J.L (1999). "Expletives: Neurolinguistic and Neurobehavioral
Perspectives on Swearing" (https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0165-0173%2899%2900060-0). Brain
Research Reviews. 31 (1): 83–104. doi:10.1016/S0165-0173(99)00060-0 (https://doi.org/10.101
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6%2FS0165-0173%2899%2900060-0). PMID 10611497 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/106114

97).

Further reading
Almond, Ian (2003). "Derrida and the Secret of the Non-Secret: On Respiritualising the Profane".
Literature and Theology. 17 (4): 457–471. doi:10.1093/litthe/17.4.457 (https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fli
tthe%2F17.4.457).
Bryson, Bill (1990) The Mother Tongue
Bulcke, Camille (2001) [1968]. An English-Hindi Dictionary (3rd ed.). Ramnagar, New Delhi:
Chand. ISBN 81-219-0559-1.
Croom, Adam M. (2011). "Slurs". Language Sciences. 33 (3): 343–358.
doi:10.1016/j.langsci.2010.11.005 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.langsci.2010.11.005).
Eggert, Randall (2011). This Book Is Taboo: An Introduction to Linguistics through Swearing.
Kendall Hunt Publishing. ISBN 978-0757586422.
Hughes, Geoffrey (2004) [1991]. Swearing: A Social History of Foul Language, Oaths and Profanity
in English (https://books.google.com/books?id=yR1sZmrIBeoC&q=hindi). Penguin UK.
ISBN 9780141954325.
Jay, Timothy (1992). Cursing in America: A psycholinguistic study of dirty language in the courts, in
the movies, in the schoolyards and on the streets. John Benjamins Publishing Company.
ISBN 978-1556194511.
Johnson, Sterling (2004) Watch Your F*cking Language
McEnery, Tony (2006) Swearing in English: bad language, purity and power from 1586 to the
present, Routledge ISBN 0-415-25837-5.
McWhorter, John (2021). Nine Nasty Words: English in the Gutter: Then, Now, and Forever. Avery.
ISBN 978-0593188798.
O'Connor, Jim (2000) Cuss Control
Roache, Rebecca (2023). For F*ck's Sake: Why Swearing is Shocking, Rude, and Fun. Oxford
University Press. ISBN 978-0190665067.
Sagarin Edward (1962) The Anatomy of Dirty Words
Sheidlower, Jesse (2009) The F-Word (3rd ed.)
Spears, Richard A. (1990) Forbidden American English
Stollznow, Karen. "Swearing is bad?" (https://web.archive.org/web/20070521231712/http://www.ba
d-language.com/arse). Archived from the original (http://www.bad-language.com/arse) on 21 May
2007.
Wajnryb, Ruth (2005) Expletive Deleted: A Good Look at Bad Language

External links
Most vulgar words in The Online Slang Dictionary (http://onlineslangdictionary.com/lists/most-vulg
ar-words/) (as voted by visitors)

Francis Grose (1811). Dictionary of the Vulgar Tongue (https://gutenberg.org/ebooks/5402) at

Project Gutenberg

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