TRANSPORTATION SAFETY AND ECONOMICS The 4 E’s of Safety
To plan for and shape a safer
transportation system, agencies typically
consider strategies from engineering,
education, enforcement, and emergency
medical services (EMS) to improve safety
outcomes.
1. Engineering:
Engineers play a critical role in
DISCUSSION PROPER identifying and recommending solutions to
Topic 1: Transportation Safety address safety performance of the
The goal of safety planning is to reduce transportation infrastructure. Some of their
fatalities and serious injuries on all public roads. responsibilities may include managing and
Safety planning is a collaborative and participating in the development and
implementation of a State wide or regional
integrated approach that brings together
road safety plan; collecting and managing
safety partners to leverage resources for a crash data; analyzing crash data to identify
common safety goal. A data-driven safety safety issues and projects; utilizing analysis
planning process can identify opportunities to methods, such as network screening, and
address the safety performance of a roadway. sharing the results; identifying safety projects
Transportation safety is a required factor and countermeasures; designing
improvements; conducting before and after
in the planning process and transportation
studies; managing roadway improvements;
planners are key partners ensuring that safety is and coordinating safety issues with other state
an integral component of all planning wide, regional, and local engineers.
processes. With knowledge and understanding
of safety and safety planning, transportation 2. Enforcement:
planners can enhance collaboration,
communication, and coordination with their Law enforcement personnel generally
safety specialist partners to achieve the goal are responsible for collecting crash data, traffic
of reducing serious injuries and fatalities. law enforcement, behavioral safety
campaigns, and sharing information with
1.1. Safety Stakeholders transportation professionals. In the event
Transportation safety performance is crashes do occur, law enforcement collect
linked to a variety of elements, including data for crash reports, which provide details on
roadway design, traffic law enforcement, road the crash itself, such as the people and
user behavior, and emergency response time. vehicles involved and the environmental
Therefore, effective transportation safety circumstances. This information is critical to
warrants a multidisciplinary approach. Over planners and engineers who use it to identify
the past years, safety practitioners have found and address safety issues
value in partnering with a variety of other
disciplines, such as public health, advocacy 3. Emergency Medical Services:
groups, universities, and others to more fully
engage the community and the public in This group includes first responders and
safety enhancements. The key players differ paramedics, fire and rescue personnel, law
from State to State and community to enforcement, Department of Transportation
community. Safety stakeholders are becoming (DOT) personnel, and tow truck operators.
increasingly adept in recognizing opportunities Crash survival and injury severity are integrally
for partnerships to help attain safety goals and linked to response time and the medical care
objectives. This section identifies major safety received after a crash. EMS personnel
stakeholders and their roles in the safety understanding of impediments to effect
planning process. response and recovery can be critical.
Emergency responders can provide insights
into health and trauma data recorded at the
crash scene and updated at the hospital to service groups, and the general public. Where
more accurately report fatalities and serious available and effective, they serve as a useful
injuries; advise on emergency responder safety resource for advocacy, community education,
as they work a crash scene; discuss how to and fund raising.
collect better data (i.e., blood draws) at the
crash scene to understand all the factors Tribal Governments:
involved; and share knowledge on roadway
connectivity or other issues, which may hinder Tribal governments are responsible for
rapid emergency response and transport. the transportation issues and needs of their
citizens. Tribal areas usually experience
4. Education: disproportionately high rates of transportation-
related fatalities based on population, so it is
Transportation systems users are not critical to engage them in the safety planning
always aware of the risks associated with process.
their behaviors. This community may include
school teachers and administrators, hospital Planners:
and emergency medical services personnel,
driver education instructors, health educators, State DOT, MPO, local jurisdiction, and
advocacy groups, DOTs, Metropolitan Planning Tribal transportation planners have multiple job
Organizations (MPO), State Highway Safety functions, which may include duties related to
Offices (SHSO), and others. Specific roles differ safety. Safety responsibilities vary, but general
by agency or group, but the main purpose is to tasks might include participating in safety plan
administer, advocate for, and implement development and implementation;
safety education programs for all road users. cooperating on State wide or regional safety-
related committees such as emphasis area
Other Safety Stakeholders teams, to discuss and collaborate on safety
issues, crash data collection and
Health Department Personnel: management, and data analysis tools, such as
geographic information system (GIS) crash
Many State and local health mapping.
departments have injury prevention programs, Transportation planners may specialize
which often include efforts to prevent motor in a specific transportation mode, such as
vehicle crashes and resulting injuries and transit, freight, bicycle, or pedestrian. Planners
fatalities. This stakeholder group can identify existing and future short- and long-
be particularly effective in providing safety range needs, identify projects and programs,
data and analysis skills and insights, lessons help in establishing priorities, and evaluate
learned from other public health efforts, public outcomes. Experience from each of these
health approaches to transportation concerns areas may provide insight on current safety
and advice on topics, such as transportation issues and needs, as well as effective methods
access, walking, biking, and active lifestyles in for addressing them.
general.
Elected Officials:
Safety Advocates:
Decision makers sometimes serve as
Many States have locally based groups powerful advocates for road safety. They may
of safety advocates committed to addressing champion safety needs and direct resources
transportation safety concerns and can be towards the most pressing safety issues; attend
effective in driving awareness and change. ceremonies to publicize newly constructed
The groups typically consist of citizens, law safety projects; and vocalize support for safety
enforcement, public health, medical, diverse efforts, such as a Vision Zero or Towards Zero
groups, government, business, civic and Deaths campaigns. Some agencies
successfully recruit elected officials to
participate in safety plan development and Emergency Response Strategies
implementation as executive committee
members. Improved crash fire and rescue
capabilities at airports
Three Types of Safety Strategies Training and certification of emergency
medical technicians
Crash prevention (before the crash) Video surveillance of high crash
Crash injury and fatality mitigation locations
(during the crash) Pre-positioning of emergency response
Improving emergency response and vehicles
medicine (after the crash) Mayday systems on motor vehicles
Some Crash Prevention Strategies
Commercial driver testing and licensing
Drunk driving limits and enforcement
Speed limits and speed limit
enforcement
Standardization of traffic control
devices
Improvement of roadway geometric
designs
Managing direct access to land from
arterial roads
Aircraft safety regulation and inspection
Post-crash investigations and analysis of
crash
Camera enforcement of speed and red
light running
Road condition and weather
Some Mitigation Strategies Reduce the
Consequences of Crashes
Wider roadway clear zones
Ditch slope standards
Improved roadway medians
Crash testing of vehicles and roadside
hardware
Automobile safety feature requirements
(e.g., seat belts, air bags, tire grading,
stability control)
Flammability standards for materials
used in aircraft cabins and inside
automobiles
Improved guard rails and
breakaway posts
consequences. For instance, congestion
Topic 2: The fundamental economics of safety is often an unintended consequence in
the provision of free or low-cost
In terms of traditional economic models, transport infrastructure to the users.
safety is most likely an important part of However, congestion is also an
both the demand and supply functions. indication of a growing economy where
The possibility of loss, injury and death capacity and infrastructure have
presumably enters travel demand and difficulties keeping up with the rising
mode choice decisions, albeit that the mobility demands.
profession is still hard pressed to quantify
the exact magnitude of the relationship. TYPES OF IMPACTS OF MITIGATION
Safety also pays a large (if somewhat ill-
defined) part of the costs of Core. The most fundamental impacts of
transportation. The cost of automobiles transportation-related to the physical
is inflated by the inclusion of many types capacity to convey passengers and
of safety-related design features. goods and the associated costs to
Commercial transportation providers support this mobility. This involves the
invest in higher quality equipment and setting of routes enabling new or
staff training to reduce the probability of existing interactions between economic
mishaps. entities.
At some level, safety can be regarded Operational. Improvement in the time
as “quality” attribute of transportation, performance, notably in terms of
and economists can ask the usual reliability, as well as reduced loss or
question concerning “how much quality damage. This implies a better utilization
should be provided?” level of existing transportation assets
benefiting its users as passengers and
Topic 3: The Economic Importance of freight are conveyed more rapidly and
Transportation with fewer delays.
Geographical. Access to a broader
Because of its intensive use of market base where economies of scale
infrastructures, the transport sector is an in production, distribution, and
important component of the economy consumption can be improved.
and a common tool used for Increases in productivity from the
development. High-density transport access to a larger and more diverse
infrastructure and highly connected base of inputs (raw materials, parts,
networks are commonly associated with energy or labor) and broader markets
high levels of development. When for diverse outputs (intermediate and
transport systems are efficient, they finished goods). Another important
provide economic and social geographical impact concerns the
opportunities and benefits that result in influence of transport on the location of
positive multiplier effects such as better activities and its impacts on land values.
accessibility to markets, employment, The economic importance of the
and additional investments. When transportation industry can thus be
transport systems are deficient in terms assessed from a macroeconomic and
of capacity or reliability, they can have microeconomic perspective:
an economic cost such as reduced or At the macroeconomic level (the
missed opportunities and lower quality importance of transportation for a
of life. whole economy), transportation and
The impacts of transportation are not the mobility it confers are linked to a
always intended and can have level of output, employment, and
unforeseen or unintended income within a national economy.
At the microeconomic level (the
importance of transportation for specific Clustering. Due to clustering and
parts of the economy), transportation is agglomeration, several locations
linked to producer, consumer, and develop advantages that cannot be
distribution costs. The importance of readily reversed through improvements
specific transport activities and in accessibility. Transportation can be a
infrastructure can thus be assessed for factor of concentration and dispersion
each sector of the economy. depending on the context and the level
of development. Less accessible regions
Topic 4: Economic Returns of Transport thus do not necessarily benefit from
Investments transport investments if they are
embedded in a system of unequal
Transport investments tend to have relations.
declining marginal returns (diminishing returns).
While initial infrastructure investments tend to Topic 5: Transportation Impacts
have a high return since they provide an
entirely new range of mobility options, the The relationship between transportation
more the system is developed, the more likely and economic development is difficult to
additional investment would result in lower formally establish and has been debated for
returns. The most common reasons for the many years. In some circumstances, transport
declining marginal returns of transport investments appear to be a catalyst for
investments are: economic growth, while in others; economic
High accumulation of existing growth puts pressures on existing transport
infrastructure. Where there is a high level infrastructures and incites additional
of accessibility and where investments. Transport markets and related
transportation networks that is already transport infrastructure networks are key drivers
extensive, further investments usually in the promotion of more balanced and
result in marginal improvements. This sustainable development, particularly by
means that the economic impacts of improving accessibility and the opportunities of
transport investments tend to be less developed regions or disadvantaged
significant when infrastructures were social groups.
previously lacking and tend to be Transport, as a technology, typically
marginal when an extensive network is follows a path of experimentation,
already present. Additional investments introduction, adoption, and diffusion and,
can thus have a limited impact outside finally, obsolescence, each of which has an
convenience. impact on the rate of economic development.
Economic changes. As economies The most significant benefits and productivity
develop, their function tends to shift gains are realized in the early to mid- diffusion
from the primary (resource extraction) phases while later phases are facing
and secondary (manufacturing) sectors diminishing returns.
towards advanced manufacturing, Containerization is a relevant example
distribution, and services. These sectors of such a diffusion behavior as its productivity
rely on different transport systems and benefits were mostly derived in the 1990s and
capabilities. While an economy 2000s when economic globalization was
depending on manufacturing will rely accelerating. If relying upon new
on road, rail, and port infrastructures, a technologies, transportation investments can
service economy is more oriented go through what is called a “hype phase” with
towards the efficiency of logistics and unrealistic expectations about their potential
urban transportation. In all cases, and benefits.
transport infrastructure is important, but
their relative importance in supporting Topic 6: Transportation as an Economic Factor
the economy may shift.
Contemporary trends have underlined
that economic development has become less
dependent on relations with the environment increases productivity and spatial
(resources) and more dependent on relations interactions. An economic entity tends
across space. to produce goods and services with the
While resources remain the foundation of econ most appropriate combination of
omic activities, thecommodification of the capital, labor, and raw materials.
economy has been linked with higher levels of A region will thus tend to specialize in
material flows of all kinds. Concomitantly, the production of goods and services
resources, capital, and even labor have shown for which it has the greatest advantages
increasing levels of mobility. This is particularly (or the least disadvantages) compared
the case for multinational firms that can benefit to other regions as long as appropriate
from transport improvements in two significant transport is available for trade. Through
markets: geographic specialization supported by
efficient transportation, economic
Commodity market. Improvement in the productivity is promoted. This process is
efficiency with which firms have access known in economic theory as
to raw materials and parts as well as to comparative advantages that have
their respective customers. Thus, enabled the economic specialization of
transportation expands opportunities to regions.
acquire and sell a variety of
commodities necessary for industrial Scale and scope of production. An
and manufacturing systems. efficient transport system offering cost,
Labor market. Improvement in access to time, and reliability advantages enable
labor and a reduction in access costs, goods to be transported over longer
mainly by improved commuting (local distances. This facilitates mass
scale) or the use of lower-cost labor production through economies of scale
(global scale). because larger markets can be
accessed. The concept of “just-in-time”
Transportation provides market in supply chain management has further
accessibility by linking producers and expanded the productivity of
consumers so that transactions can take production and distribution with benefits
place. Transportation is an economic factor of such as lower inventory levels and
production of goods and services, implying better responses to shifting market
that it is fundamental in their generation, even conditions. Thus, the more efficient
if it accounts for a small share of input costs. transportation becomes the larger the
This means that irrespective of the cost, an markets that can be serviced, and the
activity cannot take place without the larger the scale of production. This
transportation factor and the mobility it results in lower unit costs.
provides. Thus, relatively small changes in
transport cost, capacity, and performance Increased competition. When transport
can have substantial impacts on dependent is efficient, the potential market for a
economic activities. An efficient transport given product (or service) increases,
system with modern infrastructures favors many and so does competition. A wider array
economic changes, most of them positive. The of goods and services becomes
major impacts of transport on economic available to consumers through
factors can be categorized as follows: competition, which tends to reduce
costs and promote quality and
Geographic specialization. innovation. Globalization has clearly
Improvements in transportation and been associated with a competitive
communication favor a process of environment that spans the world and
geographical specialization that
enables consumers to have access to a
wider range of goods and services.
Increased land value. Land which is
adjacent or serviced by good transport
services generally has greater value due
to the utility it confers. Consumers can
have access to a wider range of
services and retail goods. In contrast,
residents can have better accessibility
to employment, services, and social
networks, all of which transcribes in
higher land value. Irrespective of if used
or not, the accessibility conveyed by
transportation is impacting the land
value. In some cases, due to the
externalities there generate
transportation activities can lower land
value, particularly for residential
activities. Land located near airports
and highways, near noise and pollution
sources, will thus be impacted by
corresponding diminishing land value.
