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Ce 2121 - Lecture

The document outlines the course CE 2121 - Fundamentals of Surveying, detailing learning outcomes and various modules covering essential surveying concepts and techniques. It emphasizes the importance of self-discipline, time management, and maintaining academic decorum in a distance learning environment. Additionally, it provides guidelines for successful course completion and expectations for student engagement and originality in their work.

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)

205 views194 pages

Ce 2121 - Lecture

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MODULE

MODULE IN
IN
FUNDAMENTALS OF SURVEYING
DESCRIPTIVE TITLE

CE 2121

Civil and Geodetic Engineering Department

SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE

Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any
Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited.
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited.
CE 2121

COURSE LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of the module, you should
be able to:
1. Apply the basic surveying
concepts, principles and theories
on distance and angular
measurements as well as area
computation.
2. Solve for distances, elevations and
areas from a provided set of survey
data.
3. Apply the basic surveying
concepts, principles and theories
on determining horizontal and
vertical distances using stadia.
4. Compute for the missing data from
incomplete traverse data.
FUNDAMENTALS OF 5. Acquire a working knowledge in
design and layout of horizontal or
SURVEYING vertical curves in highway or
railway.
6. Determine and use the
appropriate methodology in
calculating earthworks in various
civil engineering constructions.

“FAILURE is CENTRAL to ENGINEERING.

EVERY SINGLE CALCULATION that ENGINEER MAKES is a
FAILURE CALCULATION.
SUCCESSFUL ENGINEERING is ALL ABOUT
UNDERSTANDING HOW THINGS BREAKS or FAIL”
-HENRY PETROSKI

Dear Future Civil Engineers,

In this course, you will learn about the Concepts and Principles of Fundamentals
of Surveying as a sub- discipline of Civil Engineering. This course deals with:
Measurement of Distance and Distance Correction, The Use of Surveying
Instruments, Area Computations, Balancing the Traverse, Elevation
Determination and Leveling. Stadia Surveying, Topographic Surveying,
Triangulation and Trilateration, Missing Data, Irregular Boundaries, and Global
Positioning System.

As a result of your educational experiences in the course CE 2121, you should be

able to:

 Understand the basic concepts and principles of Surveying- introducing

different theories, fundamentals, and using appropriate equations as an
actual solutions to applied Surveying problems.
 Understand the important topics and informations under Elementary
Surveying such as- Measurement of Horizontal and Vertical Distances,
Measurement of Angles and Directions, and Traverse Analysis including Area
computations.
 Solve problems under Higher Surveying topics such as- Tacheometry, Omitted
Measurement Computation, Topographic Survey, Control Survey, and
Introduction to Hydrographic Surveying.
 Understand the important concepts on Route or Engineering Surveys as
preparation to Highway and Railroad Engineering.
 Master all the generated topics in Fundamentals of Surveying.

MODULE 1: INTRODUCTION to SURVEYING – This aims to give you an overview of

the course, particularly its specific definition; in regards to its wide application in
the world of civil engineering. The different structures and or systems wherein
SURVEYING principles is applied as its main analysis.

MODULE 2: MEASUREMENT of HORIZONTAL DISTANCES – This aims to give you an

overview and understanding in solving problems involving Horizontal distances
and Tape Corrections and Errors in measurement.

MODULE 3: MEASUREMENT of VERTICAL DISTANCES – This will give you a thorough

understanding on how to measure vertical distances, methods and instruments
used, types of leveling, earth’s curvature and atmospheric refraction.

MODULE 4: MEASUREMENT of ANGLES and DIRECTIONS – This will provide you a

detailed solution on how to measure angles and direction, methods and
instruments used in measuring horizontal angles, methods and instruments used
to define direction of lines, the Engineer’s Transit, description, use and
adjustments, bearings and azimuths, magnetic declination.

MODULE 5: TRAVERSING – This will explain and illustrate how to balance a

traverse using Compass Rule and Transit Rule, Traverse Area Computations by
DMD and DPD Method.

MODULE 6: TACHEOMETRY – This aims to give you a brief explanation and

understanding the methods and uses of tacheometry; stadia leveling, stadia
interval factor, measurement by stadia for horizontal distance, vertical distance
and inclined distance.

MODULE 7: OMITTED MEASUREMENTS–This will provide you a detailed

explanations and calculations on how to compute for omitted measurement
following it’s different cases: one side completely missing, two adjacent sides
missing, two non-adjacent sides missing.

MODULE 8: TOPOGRAPHIC SURVEY – This will explain and illustrate the uses of
topographic map, methods of plotting contour lines, characteristics of contours,
types of contours, and topographic map symbols.

MODULE 9: CONTROL SURVEY – This will explain and illustrate how to compute
triangulation and trilateralization as part of control survey under horizontal
control points.

MODULE 11: INTRODUCTION to ENGINEERING SURVEYS – This will provide a brief

description on Engineering Surveys. Identify the operation/ stages in locating a
railroad or highway.

MODULE 12: HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT – This aims to analyze, compute and lay
out Horizontal Curves such as Simple Curves, Compound Curves, Reverse
Curves, and Spiral Curves.

MODULE 13: VERTICAL ALIGNMENT – This aims to analyze and compute Vertical
Parabolic Curves.

MODULE 14: EARTHWORKS and VOLUMES – This aims to analyze earthwork

computations and solve earthwork problems and haul estimates.

Review the course study guide and study schedule for your guidance.

Sincerely,

ENGR. ROMSAN D. LOPEZ ENGR. LOVELY L. RAŃOSA

Course Facilitator Course Facilitator

Finishing this course successfully relies heavily on your self-discipline and time
management skills. The course modules were prepared for you to learn diligently,
intelligently, and independently. Keeping yourself motivated to follow the schedules
specified in the learning plan, maintaining excellence in the expected student
outputs, and mastering the different technologies and procedures required in the
delivery and feedback for this course, will instil in you important qualities you will
need in the future as an engineer practicing your profession.

The following course guides and house rules are designed for you to practice
decorum consistent with standards expected within a formal academic
environment. These guides shall lay the groundwork for consistency, coherence,
cooperation, and clear communication among learners and instructors throughout
the conduct of this course:

1. MANAGE YOUR MINUTES. Create a study routine and stick to it. Keep
requirement deadlines and study schedules always in mind by providing
visual cues posted in your place of study or listed in your reminders
(electronically, online, or on paper). Remember that there are other daily
activities that take up your time, not to mention other courses you may be
concurrently taking. Choose a time of day when you are most likely to
maximize learning. Communicate your schedule to other members of your
household so they could help you keep it. It would also help to prepare a
dedicated space in your residence conducive for learning.

2. MIND YOUR MANNERS. Treat the distance learning environment as an

academic space not too different from a physical classroom. Do not do in
the distance learning environment, acts you would not normally do in a
face-to-face classroom set up. Avoid asking questions that have already
been answered in the lessons or in the instructions previously discussed or
provided. Acts like these will reflect your poor focus and uninspired
preparation for this course. Practice Electronic Conversation Etiquette in
group chats, open forums, and similar electronic venues.
a. Use appropriate language and tone, correct grammar and
spelling, and complete sentences acceptable in an academic
forum. Avoid text-speak, slang, all caps, and other informal
expressions in your posts.
b. Express your opinions politely and do not dominate the
conversation.
c. Avoid lengthy as well as offensive posts by sticking to the topic of
the discussion.
d. Take time to understand the salient points of the discussion, and
provide a meaningful and well-thought response to the posts of
other participants.

3. MASTER THE MEDIUM. The distance learning courses will be delivered

making use of the institutional Google Suite account of Saint Louis
University. It would be worthwhile on your part to devote some time and
effort to learn the applications you will need to access your course
materials, interact with me and your classmates, and submit course
requirements. Applications of note are Google Classroom, Google Drive,
and Google Meet. There are also available alternatives to Microsoft Office
tools you might want to explore. Certain requirements will require you to
take a video on your smart phone, save it, and submit it electronically.
Work on this skill as well. If you are offline, identify the most convenient
means for express mail correspondence and inform me as early as possible
so we can make the necessary arrangements ahead of time.

4. MAKE MASTERPIECES. Go beyond minimum requirements. The course

learning outcomes will serve as a guide to the minimum expected
competencies you are to acquire at the end of this course. It does not limit
you from performing beyond it. Keep in mind that the quality of your work
reflects the amount of thought and care you put into the process of
completing it. It provides a very tangible measure of how much of the
competencies you have developed and fully obtained throughout this
course.

5. CONNECT CONSTANTLY. There are more than sufficient online and offline
modes to ensure that you are well informed and provided on time with the
needed learning materials, instructions, requirements, and feedback either
from me or from your classmates. Exhaust all means possible to keep in
touch and updated. My contact details can be found at the latter part of
this document and will be made available and widely disseminated to
enrolees of this course.

6. OBSERVE ORIGINALITY. Your course outputs will largely be submitted in

electronic form. It is going to have a highly traceable and comparable
digital footprint that can be easily checked for originality. Cite your
sources properly for referenced statements you decide to use in your own
work. Attribute statements by persons other than you by using terms like
according to, he said/she said, and the like.

7. INSTIGATE INDEPENDENCE. You are the focus of this course. Nobody else.
All assessment and evaluation tools in this course are designed to measure
your competence and not anybody else’s. You may use all resources at
your disposal, and ask other people for advice. In the end however, it is
going to be your independent work that will be judged against the
standards set for this course. The only way for you to maximize this course

8. RESPECT THE ROUTINE. There are traditionally respected routines we follow

in the conduct of our everyday lives. Please be mindful of universally
accepted norms of courtesy attached to regular schedules of personal
and family time. Unless of utmost importance, please refrain from any form
of communication between 8:30 PM and 7:30 AM everyday and the whole
day on Sundays and official holidays. You shall expect me to adhere to
this guideline myself. This will allow us all to dedicate personal time and
space to other aspects of our life and maintain a healthy work-life/study-
life balance.

9. FINISH THE FIVE. To be able to help you build your own understanding from
experience and new ideas, the modules in this course are designed based
on the 5E Instructional Model (Engage, Explore, Explain, Elaborate, and
Evaluate). The following icons will help you find some of the most critical
areas in the units of the learning modules:

Part of module unit that is designed to pique

your interest in the topics to be discussed by
accessing your prior knowledge and build up
your curiosity to learn more.

Part of the module unit that presents the main

lesson through materials that will give you a
general picture of the topics to be discussed,
introducing you to new concepts and ideas.

Part of the module unit that contains detailed

discussions of topics and provide you the
definition of the smaller pieces of the general
picture you encountered in the previous stage.

Part of the module unit that expounds on the

ideas of the previous stage and allows you to
extrapolate into a broader field or delve deeper
into the finer details of the topics.

Part of the module unit that gives us the

opportunity to gauge your attainment of the
learning outcomes using formative and
evaluative assessment tools.

 If you are a student opting for the correspondence-based learning (CBL)

mode, you will be tasked to send back the accomplished requirements
at given stages of the course through express mail correspondence to
me, on or before the scheduled date. I will provide you with the
feedback on your submissions at the soonest possible time through any of
the available means of communication.
 While waiting for my feedback of your accomplished requirements,
continue doing the tasks in the succeeding units of the module.
 If needed, do not hesitate to keep in touch with me through any
available means.

This module was prepared for you to learn diligently, intelligently, and independently.
Aside from meeting the content and performance standards of this course in
accomplishing the given activities, you will be able to learn other invaluable learning
skills which you will be very proud of as a responsible learner.

In this course, you will explore and learn to analyze and solve Surveying Problems which
will be needed by Civil Engineer in developing conceptual designs for the various
features which interacts with surveying and highways such those surveying systems. You
are therefore encouraged to:

1. Go over the main references for this course:

 Ghilani, Charles D. Elementary Surveying: an introduction to geomatics.
Fourteenth edition, Global edition
 Kavanagh, Barry F. Surveying: Principles and Applications (9th Edition),
2014
 Kavanagh, Barry F. Surveying with Construction Applications (8th Edition),
2015
 Surveying: Theory and Practice by James M. Anderson and Edward M.
Mikhail, (7th Edition), 2002
 Ghilani, C. D., and Wolf, P. R., Elementary Surveying: An Introduction to
Geomatics (13th Edition), 2011
 Schofield W. and M. Breach, Engineering Surveying, (6th Edition), 2007
 La Putt, J. P., Elementary Surveying (3rd Edition) 2013 Reprint

2. You are encouraged to dedicate at least fifteen (15) hours for the lecture and
nine (9) hours for the laboratory, per week to this course throughout the short
semester.

3. Schedule and manage your time to read and understand every part of the
module. Read it over and over until you understand the point.

4. Study how you can manage to do the activities of this module in

consideration of your other modules from other courses. Be very conscious

5. Do not procrastinate. Remember, it is not others who will be short-changed if

you will not do your work on time. It will be you.

6. Before you start doing your tasks, read and understand the assessment tools
provided. Do not settle with the low standards, target the highest standards in
doing your assigned tasks. I know you can.

7. You are free to browse and read the different units of the module even prior
to doing the tasks in each unit. However, you need to ensure that you will not
miss any part of the module and you will not miss to accomplish every activity
in every unit as scheduled.

8. Before the end of the midterms, you will be tasked to send back through
correspondence the accomplished and scheduled modules for midterms to
me. Make sure you will follow it up with me through text or any other media
available for you.

9. While waiting for my feedback of your accomplished modules, continue

doing the task in the succeeding units of the module that are scheduled for
the finals.

10. If needed, do not hesitate to keep in touch with me through any available
means. Remember, if there is a will, there is a way.

11. In answering all the assessment and evaluation activities, write legibly. It will
help if you will not write your answers in the module if you are not yet sure of
your answers. You must remember that all activities in the module are
academic activities, which mean that the relevant academic conventions
apply.

12. Lastly, you are the learner; hence, you do the module on your own. Your
family members and friends at home will support you but the activities must
be done by you. As Louisan, we always need to demonstrate our core values
of competence, creativity, social involvement and Christian spirit.

Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited.
STUDY SCHEDULE
DATE/S TOPIC LEARNING OUTCOME UNIT LECTURE ACTIVITIES
MODULE 1
Jan.18- Engage: Pre-assessment
Explain the basic concepts and
2021 Explore: Module 1
principles of surveying, sources
To Explain: Introduction to Surveying
of survey information, kinds of
1,2
Jan.21- Elaborate: Discussion and Research
surveys and proper use and care
2021 Evaluate: Discussion and Problem
of Instruments.
Solving.
MODULE 2 and 3
Jan.22- Solve problems involving 1, 2 Engage: Pre-assessment
2021 Horizontal distances and Tape Explore: Module 1 and 2
To Corrections and Errors in Explain: Measurement of Horizontal and
Feb.05- measurement. Vertical Distances.
2021 Explain how to measure vertical Elaborate: Problem solving.
distances, methods and Evaluate: Discussion and Problem
instruments used, types of Solving
leveling, curvature and
refraction.
FEB 06, 2021 : SUMMATIVE ASSESSMENT: PRELIM QUIZ
MODULE 4 and 5
Feb.08- Explain and illustrate how to 1, 2 Engage: Pre-assessment
2021 measure angles and direction, Explore: Module 4 and 5
To methods and instruments used Explain: Measurement of Angles and
Feb.20- in measuring horizontal angles, Directions, and Traversing.
2021 methods and instruments used Elaborate: Problem Solving
to define direction of lines, the Evaluate: Research and Problem Solving.
Engineer’s Transit, description,
use and adjustments, bearings
and azimuths, magnetic
declination.
Explain and illustrate how to
balance a traverse using
Compass Rule and Transit Rule,
Traverse Area by DMD and DPD
Method.
FEB 22, 2021 : SUMMATIVE ASSESSMENT: PRELIMINARY TERM EXAMINATION
SUBMIT YOUR ACCOMPLISHMENTS TO YOUR COURSE LEARNING FACILITATOR ON OR BEFORE
MARCH 3, 2021
MODULE 6
Mar.02- Explain and illustrate the 1 Engage: Pre-assessment
2021 methods and uses of Explore: Module 6

Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited.
To tacheometry; stadia leveling, Explain: Tacheometry
Mar.13- stadia interval factor, Elaborate: Problem solving.
2021 measurement by stadia for Evaluate: Prob. Solving and Evaluation.
horizontal distance, vertical
distance and inclined distance
MODULE 7
Mar.15- Explain and illustrate how to 1 Engage: Pre-assessment
2021 compute for omitted Explore: Module 7
To measurement: one side Explain: Omitted Measurement
Mar.20- completely missing, two adjacent Elaborate: Problem solving.
2021 sides missing, two non-adjacent Evaluate: Problem Soving and
sides missing. Evaluation.
MODULE 8
Mar.22- Explain and illustrate the uses of 1 Engage: Pre-assessment
2021 topographic map, methods of Explore: Module 8
To plotting contour lines, Explain: Topographic Survey
Mar.27- characteristics of contours, types Elaborate: Research
2021 of contours, and topographic Evaluate: Evaluation on your answers.
map symbols.
MAR 29, 2021 : SUMMATIVE ASSESSMENT: MIDTERM QUIZ
MODULE 9 and 10
Mar.30- Explain and illustrate how to 1 Engage: Pre-assessment
2021 compute triangulation and Explore: Module 9 and 10
To trilateralization. Explain: Control Survey and Hydrographic
Apr.10- Explain and illustrate how to Survey.
2021 compute hydraulic discharge. Elaborate: Discussion and Problem
Solving
Evaluate: Problem Solving and
Evaluation.
APR 12, 2021 : SUMMATIVE ASSESSMENT: MIDDLE TERM EXAMINATION
SUBMIT YOUR ACCOMPLISHMENTS TO YOUR COURSE LEARNING FACILITATOR ON OR BEFORE
APRIL 19, 2021
MODULE 11 and 12
Apr.13- Identify the operation/ stages in 1, 2 Engage: Pre-assessment
2021 locating a railroad or highway. Explore: Module 11 and 12
To Analyze, compute and lay out Explain: Introduction to Engineering
Apr.24- Horizontal Curves. Surveys, and Horizontal Alignment
2021 Elaborate: Outline Discussion and
Problem Solving.
Evaluate: Problem Solving.
APR 26, 2020 : SUMMATIVE ASSESSMENT: FINAL QUIZ 1
MODULE 13
Apr.27- Analyze and compute Vertical 1,2 Engage: Pre-assessment

SAINT LOUIS UNIVERSITY CALENDAR FOR THE FIRST SEMESTER AY 2020-2021

Online Registration: January 5 – 8, 2021

Start of Classes: January 18, 2021
Chinese New Year: February 12, 2021 (No Classes)
Preliminary Exams: February 22 – March 1, 2021
EDSA People Power Revolution: February 25, 2021
Holy Week: March 29 – April 3, 2021
Araw ng Kagitingan: April 9, 2021
Mid-Term Exams: April 12 – 17, 2021
Extension & Outreach Week: April 26 – 30, 2021
Labor Day: May 1, 2021
Research, Innovations, & Creatives Week: May 3 – 7, 2021
Final Exams: May 20 – 26, 2021
Baccalaureate Mass & Graduation Exercises: June 24 – 25, 2021

TO PASS THE COURSE, YOU MUST:

1. Read all course readings and answer the pre-assessment quizzes, self-assessment
activities and problem sets
2. Submit two graded quizzes for midterms and finals.
3. Submit the final project (portfolio) for the laboratory class
4. Take the Midterm and Final Examination.

FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT ACTIVITIES

Formative Assessment
Formative assessments such as pre-assessment forms, self-assessment activities and
problem sets aim to enhance and deepen your understanding of the course. The
requirements will be posted upon the upload of the modules and you are expected to
submit your output by the scheduled due dates. Submission may only be done once
and you are not allowed to edit and re-submit your work. You are required to complete
these tasks to complete the course.

All submissions are automatically time stamped and recorded. The honor pledge shall
always be a part of all requirements submitted online.

Summative Assessment

Quizzes and Examination

The two graded quizzes will be posted one week before its scheduled date. The two
graded quizzes are 20-item multiple choice type of google quiz. You will be required to
finish the quiz within the given timeframe and you will not be allowed to edit your
answers once submitted.

Midterm and Final Individual assessments will be conducted as scheduled. Students will
be assigned a problem/question to be answered within the given timeframe and are
not allowed to edit their answers once submitted.

All submissions are automatically time stamped and recorded. The honor pledge shall
always be a part of all requirements submitted online.

To be able to accomplish all the tasks in this course, you will be needing the following
software applications: Word Processing, Presentation, Publication, and Spreadsheet. All
materials and activities will be facilitated through Google Suite Applications particularly,
Google Forms, Google Hangouts, Google Meet, and Google Doc. These are all
available in the Google Suite package subscribed by Saint Louis University for you.

Students are required to have a cellphone/laptop/personal computer capable to

download the google classroom application, save pdf/word/ppt files; scan/take
photos of written documents; and view YouTube videos.

REFERENCES

1. Ghilani, Charles D. Elementary Surveying: an introduction to

geomatics. Fourteenth edition, Global edition
2. Kavanagh, Barry F. Surveying: Principles and Applications (9th Edition), 2014
3. Kavanagh, Barry F. Surveying with Construction Applications (8th Edition), 2015
4. Surveying: Theory and Practice by James M. Anderson and Edward M. Mikhail,
(7th Edition), 2002
5. Ghilani, C. D., and Wolf, P. R., Elementary Surveying: An Introduction to
Geomatics (13th Edition), 2011
6. Schofield W. and M. Breach, Engineering Surveying, (6th Edition), 2007
7. La Putt, J. P., Elementary Surveying (3rd Edition) 2013 Reprint

CONTACT INFORMATION OF THE FACILITATOR

ENGR. Romsan D. Lopez, CE

FB account/messenger: Romsan Romrom Lopez
E-mails: rdlopez@slu.edu.ph
Mobile No.: 09976737231

ENGR. Lovely L. Rańosa, MAEHP, MSCE

FB account/messenger: Lovely Lorenzo Rańosa
E-mail: llranosa@slu.edu.ph
Mobile No.: 09328838827

This module will explain the basic concepts and principles of surveying, sources
of survey information, kinds of surveys and proper use and care of Instruments.

Pre- assessment: Recall your knowledge on Engineering Physics by answering the

following questions, which is part of the Surveying Measurements topic on this Module.

How many Significant Figures are present in the following?

1. 100
2. 0.001
3. 12345
4. 32.25
5. 155.28
6. 12.3
7. 0.24
8. 3.6
9. 0.0024
10. 0.000005

Read: Introduction to Surveying

Uploaded Module

(You have a PDF File of the Module in your USB packet)

 “Surveying is the art of determining the

positions of points on or near the earth’s
surface by means of measurements in the
three elements of space; namely, distance,
direction, and elevation.” – Rayner and
Schmidt.

 “Surveying is the art of measuring horizontal

and vertical distances between objects, of
measuring angles between lines, of
determining the direction of lines, and of
establishing points by predetermined
angular and linear measurements.” – Davis,
Foote, Anderson, and Mikhail.

 “Surveying is the art of making such measurements of the relative positions of points
on the surface of the earth that, on drawing them to scale, natural and artificial
features may be exhibited in their correct horizontal or vertical relationships.” –
Clarke.
 “Surveying is that branch of applied mathematics which teaches the art of
determining area of any portion of the earth’s surface, the length and directions of
the boundary lines, the contour of the surface, and of accurately delineating the
whole on paper.” – Webster.
 “Surveying is the science or art of making such measurements as are necessary to
determine the relative position of points above, on, or beneath the surface of the
earth, or to establish such points.” –Breed, Hosmer, and Bone.
 “Surveying is the science and art of determining relative positions of points above,
on, or beneath the surface of the earth, or establishing such points.” – Binker and
Wolf.

Surveys are divided into two general classifications, plane and geodetic.
1. Plane Surveying- is that type of surveying in which the earth is considered to be a
flat surface, and where the distances and areas involved are of limited extent
that the exact shape of the earth is disregarded.
2. Geodetic Surveying- are surveys of wide extent which take into account the
spheroidal shape of the earth. These surveys employ principles of geodesy, are of

TYPES OF SURVEYS
1. Cadastral Surveys – are usually closed surveys which are undertaken in urban
and rural locations for the purpose of determining and defining property lines
and boundaries, corners, and areas. These surveys are also made to fix the
boundaries of municipalities, towns, and provincial jurisdictions.

2. City Surveys – are surveys of the areas in and near a city for the purpose of
planning expansions or improvements, locating property lines, fixing reference
monuments, determining the physical features and configuration of the land,
and preparing maps.

3. Construction Surveys – these are surveys which are undertaken at a construction

site to provide data regarding grades, reference lines, dimensions, ground
configuration, and the location and elevation of structures which are of concern
to engineers, architects, and builders.

4. Forestry Surveys – a type of survey executed in connection with forest

management and mensuration, and the production and conservation of forest
lands.

5. Hydrographic Surveys – refer to surveying streams, lakes, reservoirs, harbors,

oceans, and other bodies of water. These surveys are made to map shore lines,
chart the shape of areas underlying water surfaces, and measure the flow of
streams. They are general importance in connection with navigation,
development of water supply and resources, flood control, irrigation, production
of hydroelectric power, subaqueous constructions, and recreation.

6. Industrial Surveys – sometimes known as optical tooling. It refers to the use of

surveying techniques in ship building, construction and assembly of aircraft, lay-
out and installation of heavy and complex machinery, and in other industries
where very accurate dimensional layouts are required.

7. Mine Surveys – are surveys which are performed to determine the position of all
underground excavations and surface mine structures, to fix surface boundaries
of mining claims, determine geological formations, to calculate excavated
volumes, and establish lines and grades for other related mining work.

8. Photogrammetric Surveys – a type of survey which makes use of photographs

taken with specially designed cameras either from airplanes or ground stations.
Measurements are obtained from the photographs which are used in
conjunction with limited ground surveys.

10. Topographic Surveys – are those surveys made for determining the shape of the
ground, and the location and elevation of natural and artificial features upon it.
The features shown include such natural objects as hills, mountains, rivers, lakes,
relief of the ground surface, etc; and works of man, such as roads, buildings,
ports, towns, municipalities, and bridges.

SURVEYING INSTRUMENTS

1. Telescope – The invention of the telescope in 1607 is generally accredited to

Lippershey. In 1609, Galileo constructed a refracting telescope for astronomical
observations. However, it was only when cross hairs for fixing the line of sight were
introduced, that the telescope was used in early surveying instruments.

2. Transit – The invention of transit is accredited to Young and Draper who worked
independently from each other sometime in 1830.

3. Plane Table – used in field mapping. It consists of a board attached to a tripod in

such a way that it can be leveled or rotated to any desired direction.

4. Vernier – a short auxiliary scale placed alongside the graduated scale of an

instrument, by means of which refractional parts of the smallest or least division of
the main scale can be determined precisely without having to interpolate. It was
invented 1631 by a Frenchman name Pierre Vernier. Surveying instrument employ
either a direct or retrograde vernier.
5. Compass – The magnetic compass came into wide use during the 13th century for
determining the direction of lines and in calculating angles between lines. It was first

SURVEYING MEASUREMENTS

ANGULAR UNITS OF MEASUREMENT

 Sexagesimal Units- units of angular measurement are the degree, minute,

and second. The unit of angle used in surveying is the degree which is
defined as 1/360th of a circle. One degree equals 60 minutes, and 1 minute
equals to 60 seconds.
 Centesimal Units- many countries in Europe and the Middle East use the
centesimal system where grad is the angular unit. The grad is divided into 100
centesimal minutes or 0.9 degrees, and the minute is subdivided into 100
centesimal seconds or 0 degree 00 minute 32.4 seconds.

THE CONCEPTS OF MISTAKES, ERRORS, ACCURACY, AND PRECISION.

MISTAKES. Are inaccuracies in measurements which occur because some
aspect of a surveying operation is performed by the surveyor with carelessness,
inattention, poor judgment, and improper execution. Mistakes are also caused
by misunderstanding of the problem, inexperience, or indifference of the
surveyor. A large mistake is reffered to as a blunder.

TYPES OF ERRORS-
1. Systematic Errors
This type of error is one which will always have the same sign and magnitude
as long as field conditions remain constant and unchanged. For changing
field conditions there is a corresponding change in magnitude of error,
however, the sign remains constant. A systematic error will repeat itself in
other measurements, still maintaining the same sign, and thus will
accumulate. It is for this reason that this type of error is also called a
cumulative error.

2. Accidental Errors
These errors are purely accidental in character. The occurrence of such errors
are matters of chance as they are likely to be positive or negative, and may
tend in part to compensate or average out according to laws of probability.
There is no absolute way of determining or eliminating them since the error for
an observation of a quantity is not likely to be the same as for a second
observation.

ACCURACY. Indicates how close a given measurement is to the absolute or true

value of the quantity measured. It implies the closeness between related
measurements and their expectations. The difference between the measured value
of a quantity and its actual value represents the total error in the measurement. As
the measured value approaches the actual value, the magnitude of the error
becomes smaller and smaller; and as the magnitude of the total error is decreased,
the accuracy of the measurement increases. Therefore, a measurement is termed
less accurate if it deviates by a significant amount from its expected value, and it is
more accurate if the deviation is relatively small.

PRECISION. Precision refers to the degree of refinement and consistency with which
any physical measurement is made. It is portrayed by the closeness to one another
of a set of repeated measurements of a quantity. Thus, if a set of observations is
closely clustered together, the observation is said to have been obtained with high
precision. Since precision relates to the expertness of manipulation on the part of the
observer or to the capabilities of the instrument used, it requires the use of precise
instruments under ideal conditions employing the best techniques.

Relate your course to your subject by giving a detailed application and importance of
your course to your field of specialization or to the civil engineering field.

This module will explain the basic concepts and principles of surveying, sources
of survey information, kinds of surveys and proper use and care of Instruments.

Pre-assessment: Site atleast three instances in real life scenario wherein mistakes,
accuracy, and precision applies especially in measurement. Explain the details wherein
these 3 principles acquired.

Read: Introduction to Surveying

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A. MOST PROBABLE VALUE (mpv)

The most probable value (mvp) of a group of repeated measurements made under
similar conditions is the arithmetic mean or the average. It refers to a quantity which,
based on available data, has more chances of being correct than has any other.

mpv= ΣX/n= (X1+X2+X3+.....+Xn)/ n

Illustrative Problems.
1. A surveying instructor sent out six groups of students to measure a distance
between two points marked on the ground. The students came up with the
following six different values: 250.25, 250.15, 249.90, 251.04, 250.50, and 251.22
meters. Assuming these values are equally reliable and that variations result from
accidental errors, determine the most probable value of the distance measured.

Solutions:

mpv= ΣX/n= (X1+X2+X3+.....+Xn)/ n

mpv= (250.25+ 250.15+ 249.90+ 251.04+ 250.50+ 251.22)/6

mpv= 250.51m (the most probable value of of the distance measured)

2. The angles about a point Q have the following observed values. 130°15’20”,
142°37’30”, and 87°07’40”. Determine the most probable value of each angle.

Solutions:

a) Determining the correction to be applied.

Sum= θ1+θ2+ θ3= 130°15’20”+ 142°37’30”+ 87°07’40”
= 360°00’30’’ (sum of the angles observed about point Q)
Disc= 360- 360°00’30’’
= -30” (discrepancy in the observation)

b) Determining the most probable values.

correction= Discrepancy/ n= -30”/3= -10”
corrected θ1= 130°15’20” + (-10”)= 130°15’10’’

c) Solution Check.
130°15’10’’+142°37’20’’+ 87°07’30”= 360°
B. RESIDUAL (v)

Sometimes referred to as the deviation, is defined as the difference between any

measured value of a quantity and its most probable value or

v= X- 𝑿
̅

v is the residual in any measurement, X is a measurement made of a particular

quantity, and 𝑿̅ is the most probable value of the quantity measured.

C. PROBABLE ERROR (PE)

The probable error is a quantity which, when added to and subtracted from the
most probable value, defines a range within which there is a 50 percent chance
that the true value of the measured quantity lies inside (or outside) the limits thus
sets.

∑𝒗𝟐
PES = ±0.6745√𝒏−𝟏

∑𝒗𝟐
PEm = ±0.6745√𝒏(𝒏−𝟏)

PEs = probable error of any single measurement of series

PEm= probable error of the mean

n = number of observations

D. RELATIVE (ERROR) PRECISION (RP)

Relative error, sometimes called relative precision, is expressed by a fraction having

the magnitude of the error in the numerator and the magnitude of the measured
quantity in the denominator. The relative precision (RP) would be expressed as
0.10/235.50 or 1/2355, also written as 1:2355.

E. WEIGHTED OBSERVATIONS

It is usually based upon the judgment of the surveyor, the number of measurements
taken for a particular quantity, and by assuming that the weights are inversely
proportional to the square of the probable errors

F. INTERRELATIONSHIP OF ERRORS

PEs= ±√𝑷𝑬𝟏 𝟐 + 𝑷𝑬𝟐 𝟐 + ⋯ + 𝑷𝑬𝒏 𝟐

PEs is the probable error of the sum and 𝑷𝑬𝟏 𝟐 + 𝑷𝑬𝟐 𝟐 + ⋯ + 𝑷𝑬𝒏 𝟐 are the probable
error of each measurement.

F.2. Product of Errors

PEp= ±√(𝑸𝟏 𝒙𝑷𝑬𝟐 )𝟐 + (𝑸𝟐 𝒙𝑷𝑬𝟏 )𝟐

PEp is the probable error of the product, Q1 and Q2 are the measured quantities, and
PE1 and PE2 are the probable error corresponding to each quantity measured.

Illustrative Problems.

The length of a line was measured repeatedly on three different occasions and
probable error of each mean value was computed with the following results:

1st set of measurements = 1201.50± 0.02m

2nd set of measurements= 1201.45± 0.04m

3rd set of measurements = 1201.62± 0.05m

Determine the weighted mean of the three sets of measurements.

This module will gives you a detailed procedures on solving problems involving
Horizontal distances and Tape Corrections and Errors in measurement.

Pre-assessment: Research on the different types of tape used in measuring distances.

Illustrate and gives atleast a brief description on it.

Read: Measurement of Horizontal Distances

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Pace Factor (PF) = Length of a line/ Mean number of paces

DISTANCE BY TAPING

Taping consists of stretching a calibrated tape

between two points and reading the distance
indicated on the tape. It is a form of a direct
measurement which is widely used in the
construction of buildings, dams, bridges, canals,
and many other engineering as well as non-
engineering activities.

DISTANCE BY TACHYMETRY
Tachymetry or tacheometry is another procedure of obtaining horizontal distances.
 Stadia Method. It was introduced in 1771 by James Watt of Scotland and was at
that time referred to as micrometer for measuring distances.

D = Ks + C
D = Horizontal distance

DISTANCE BY GRAPHICAL AND MATHEMATICAL METHODS

Unknown distances may be determined through their relationship with known distances
geometrically. Determining distances by scaling from maps or aerial photographs could
also provide sufficiently accurate results.

DISTANCE BY MECHANICAL DEVICES

1. Odometer. The odometer is a simple device that can be attached to a wheel for
purposes of roughly measuring surface distances.
2. Measuring Wheel. A measuring wheel is very similar in operation to an odometer
except that it is a more portable and self-contained measuring device. It
basically consists of a small wheel which is attached to a rod and handle, and
can be pushed by an operator. As the wheel of the device is rolled along a line
to be measured, a built-in calibrated recorder automatically gives a distance
readout in meters and decimals of a meter. It is suitable for measuring distances
along irregular or curved lines and boundaries.

CORRECTION IN TAPING. Taping operations could either be of the following:

taping to determine an unknown length, or taping for the purpose of laying out a
required or specified length. Regardless of which of these two categories is involved,
there are some corrections which are applied to the original measurements to
determine the correct and more accurate length.

1st RULE: When a line is measured with a tape that is “too long”, the corrections are
a pplied to the observed length by adding.
2nd RULE: When a specified or required length is to be laid out with a tape that is
“too long”, the corrections are subtracted from the known length to
determine the corrected length to be laid out.
3rd RULE: When measuring or laying out lengths with a tape that is “too short”, the
corrections are applied opposite to those stated in the first two rules.

“When measuring with tape too long, add; tape too short, subtract. Do the reverse
when laying out.”

SLOPE TAPING.
Taped measurements may be made directly along the slopes when the ground is of
uniform inclination and fairly smooth, rather than break tape every few meters. This very

A. CORRECTION DUE TO INCORRECT TAPE LENGTH

The absolute value for the correction per tape length (Corr) is determined from the
difference between the true or actual length of tape (TL) and the nominal length of
tape (NL) .

Corr = TL – NL
TL = actual length of tape
NL = nominal length of tape

𝑴𝑳
𝑪𝒍 = Corr ( )
𝑵𝑳
CL = ML ± 𝑪𝒍
𝐶𝑙 = total correction to be applied to the measured length or length to be laid
out.
CL = corrected length of the line to be measured or laid out
ML = measured length or length to be laid out
NL = nominal length of tape

B. CORRECTION DUE TO SLOPE

When distances are measured along the slope, the equivalent horizontal distance
may correspondingly be determined by applying an approximate slope correction.
𝒉𝟐
𝑪𝒉 = (𝒔+𝒅)
s = measured slope distance between points A and B
h = difference in elevation between A and B
d = equivalent horizontal distance AC
𝐶ℎ = slope correction or the difference between the slope length and the horizontal
distance, 𝑪𝒉 = s – d

For gentle slopes (less than 20%) it is safe to assume that the slope distance (s) is
approximately equal to the horizontal distance (d) or
𝒉𝟐
𝑪𝒉 = 𝟐𝒔

𝒉
Slope = 𝒅 (100%)

For very steep slopes are involved such as those greater than 30%.
𝒉
Sin𝜽 = , d = cos𝜃, and 𝑪𝒉 = s – d
𝒔
Therefore:
𝑪𝒉 = s – s cos𝜽 or 𝑪𝒉 = s ( 1 – cos 𝜽 )

C. CORRECTION DUE TO TEMPERATURE

“The tape lengthens as the temperature rises and shortens as the temperature falls”
𝑪𝒕 = α(T – 𝑻𝒔 )L
𝐶𝑡 = Correction due to temperature
α = Coefficient of linear expansion
T = is the observed temperature of the tape at the time of measurement
𝑇𝑠 = is the temperature at which the tape was standardized
L = Length of tape was standardized

D. CORRECTION DUE TO PULL (TENSION)

(𝐏𝐦−𝐏𝐬)𝐋
Cp=
𝐀𝐄
Cp = total elongation in tape length due to pull or the correction due to incorrect
pull applied on the tape
Pm = pull applied to the tape during measurement
Ps = standard pull for the tape or pull for which the tape is calibrated
L = measured length of line
A = cross sectional area of the tape
E = modulus of elasticity of the tape material

E. CORRECTION DUE TO SAG

The correction due to sag is the difference in length between the arc formed by the
tape and the subtending chord. In determining this correction, the arc is assumed to
be a parabola, and is computed with sufficient precision by the formula
𝐰 𝟐 𝐋𝟑
Cs = 𝟐𝟒𝐏𝟐
Since W = wL or W 2 = w 2 L2 , and substituting this to equation 1, we obtain
𝐖𝟐𝐋
Cs = 𝟐𝟒𝐏𝟐
Cs = correction due to sag or the difference between the tape reading and the
horizontal distance between supports (m)
w = weight of tape per unit length (kg/m)
W = total weight of tape between supports (kg)
L = interval between supports or the unsupported length of tape (m)
P = tension or pull applied on the tape (kg)

F. CORRECTION DUE TO WIND

G. CORRECTION DUE TO NORMAL TENSION

The normal tension is the amount of pull required to make the end points coincide
with the marked points on the pavement.
𝟎.𝟐𝟎𝟒 𝐖 √𝐀𝐄
𝐏𝐍 =
√𝐏𝐍 −𝐏𝐬
PN = normal tension or the pull which will eliminate the effect of sag (kg)
W = total weight of tape between supports (kg)
A = cross-sectional area of tape (cm2 )
kg
E = modulus of elasticity of tape material (cm2)
Ps = standard pull for the tape (kg)

COMBINED CORRECTIONS.
The corrections for the effects of incorrect length of tape, temperature, tension, slope,
and sag may be combined as a single net correction per tape length. Each correction
is computed separately and it is important to identify which correction tends to make
the tape too long or too short. Since the sign of each correction can be determined
during computation, it is then a matter of adding these quantities algebraically to arrive
at a single and overall correction to lengths which are measured or laid out. Combined
corrections are usually determined on the basis of the nominal tape length since each
correction is relatively small and do not appreciably affect each other. The resulting net
correction per tape length may be used as long as conditions remain constant during
taping. Variation in conditions may be due to changes in temperature during the day,
non-uniformity of pull exerted on the ends of the tape, the ground may be such that it
becomes necessary to support the tape at various intervals, and some other factors
which may affect the taping operation.

Illustrative Problems:
1. A 45 – m course, AB, on a level ground was placed by a surveyor for the purpose of
determining his pace factor. The number of paces for each trial taken are shown in
the accompanying tabulation.

a. Determine his pace factor.

b. If the surveyor then took 771, 770, 768, 770, 772, and 769 paces in walking an
unknown distance CD, what is the length of the line?
c. Assuming that the taped length of line CD is 667.0 m, determine the relative
precision of the measurement performed.

1 AB 50

2 BA 53

3 AB 51
45.000
4 BA 53

5 AB 52

6 BA 53

SOLUTIONS:
a) Determining Pace Factor (PF)
L= 45 m
M=( 50+53+51+53+52+53)/6
M= 52 paces
PF= 45m/52paces
PF= 0.865 m/pace
b) Determining Unknown Distance
Sum= (771+770+768+770+772+769)
Sum= 4620 paces
M= 4620/6
M= 770 paces
PD= 770 paces x 0.865 m/paces
PD= 666.1 m
c) Determining the Relative Precision
TD= 667.0 (taped distance)
PD= 666.1 (paced distannce)
RP= (TD- PD)/ TD
RP= (667.0- 666.1)/667.0
RP= 1/741 or say 1/700

2. A line was determined to be 2395.25 m when measured with a 30-m steel tape
supported throughout its length under a pull of 4 kg and at a mean temperature of
35ᵒC. Determine the correct length of the line if the tape used is of standard length
at 20ᵒC under a pull of 5 kg. The cross-sectional area of the tape is 0.03 cm2, its
0.0000116
coefficient of linear expansion is 1ᵒC
, and the modulus of elasticity of steel is 2.0 x
kg
106 2.
cm

SOLUTIONS:
Ct - Ts)= 0.0000116(2395.25)(35-20)

Cp= (Pm- Ps)L/ AE = (4-5)(2395.25)/0.03(2.0x106)

Cp= -0.04m (the negative sign indicates that the tape is too short)

Correct Length= 2395.25+ 0.42- 0.04

Correct Length= 2395. 63

3. A 50- m steel tape weighs 0.04 kg/m and is supported at its end points and at the 8-
m and 25- m marks. If a pull of 6kg is applied, determine the following:
a) correction due to sag between the 0-m and 8- m marks, 8-m and 25-m marks,
and the 25- m and 50- m marks.
b) correction due to sag for one tape length
c) correct distance between the ends of the tape.

Solutions:

a. determining correction due to sag for each span.

Cs1= ω2 L3/ 24P2

Cs1= (0.04)2 (8)3/ 24(6)2
Cs1= 0.0009 m (correction due to sag between 0m and 8m marks)

Cs2= (0.04)2 (17)3/ 24(6)2

Cs2= 0.0091 m ( between 8m and 25m marks)

Cs3= (0.04)2 (25)3/ 24(6)2

Cs3= 0.0289 m (between 25m and 50m marks)

b. total sag correction

Cs= 0.0009+ 0.0091+ 0.0289

Cs= 0.0389 m

c. correct distance

4. A steel tape weighing 0.85 kg has a cross sectional area of 0.05 cm 2. The tape
measures exactly 30.0 m when supported throughout its length under a standard
pull of 5.5 kg. If the modulus of elasticity of the tape is 2.10 x10 6 kg/ sq. cm.
determine the tension required to make the tape equal to its nominal length when
supported only at the end points.

Solutions:
𝟎.𝟐𝟎𝟒 𝐖 √𝐀𝐄
𝐏𝐍 =
√𝐏𝐍 −𝐏𝐬

By trial and error method:

Try PN= 16.75 kg
56.188
16.75kg=
√16.75−5.5
16.75= 16.75 (check)
therefore the tension is equal to 16.75 kg.

a) Determine the total correction for temperature.

b) Determine the total correction due to sag.
c) What is the correct length of the line?

Write a brief conclusion on the answer that you obtain from the above question. Is it
liable and okay to obtain this amount of error? Explain your point of view.

This module will explain how to measure vertical distances, methods and
instruments used, types of leveling,and the effect of earth’s curvature and
atmospheric refraction.

Pre- assessment: What common error of leveling do you think will be made the most in
the field and why?

Read: Measurement of Vertical Distances

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DEFINITION OF TERMS.
 Level surface – It is a curved surface which is at any point perpendicular to the
direction of gravity or the plumb line. It is best represented by the surface of a large
body of still water.

 Level line – A level line is a curved line in a level surface all points of which are
normal to the direction of gravity and equidistant from the center of the earth.

 Horizontal surface – it is a plane that is tangent to a level surface at a particular

point. The horizontal surface is also perpendicular to the line at the same point.

 Horizontal line - a straight line in a horizontal plane which is tangent to a level line at
one point. This line is perpendicular to the direction of gravity at the point of
tangency. Since the mean radius of the earth is comparatively large, it is practical
for most purposes to assume that a level line and a horizontal line are the same for
short distances.

 Vertical line – A vertical line at any point is a line parallel to the direction of gravity.
It is exemplified by the direction taken by a string supporting a suspended plumb
bob passing through a point. For ordinary purposes it is convenient to assume that
the earth is a true sphere with a smooth surface, and that a plumb line held at any
point on its surface is always directed toward the center of the sphere.

 Mean sea level – mean sea level is an imaginary surface of the sea which is midway
between high and low tides. It is taken as the reference surface to which most
ground elevations are referred. This surface is determined by averaging the height
of the sea’s surface.

 Datum – Datum is any convenient level surface coincident or parallel with mean
sea level to which elevations of a particular area are referred. Any surface may be

 Elevation – For a particular point, its elevation is the vertical distance above or
below mean sea level or any other selected datum.

 Difference in elevation – the difference in elevation between two points is the

vertical distance between the two level surfaces in which the points lie.

LEVELING METHODS.
1. Direct or Spirit Leveling – it is the commonly employed method of determining the
elevation of points some distance apart by a series of set ups of a leveling
instrument along a selected route. This method of leveling is also referred to as spirit
leveling since the device used is a spirit level. Differential leveling, double-rodded
leveling, three-wire leveling are forms of direct leveling. In direct leveling vertical
distances are measured above or below a level line and these values are used to
compute the elevation of points or their differences in elevation. Being the most
precise method of leveling, it is used when a high degree of accuracy is required.

2. Reciprocal Leveling – reciprocal leveling is the process of accurately determining

the difference in elevation between two intervisible points located at a
considerable distance apart and between which points leveling could not be
performed in the usual manner. This method is commonly employed when leveling
across a wide river, a deep ravine, or across canyons and gullies where it would be
difficult or impossible to maintain a foresight and a backsight distance of nearly
equal lengths.

3. Profile Leveling – This method of leveling is used to determine differences in

elevation between points at designated short measured intervals along an
established line to provide data from which a vertical section of the ground surface
can be plotted. In the design of roads, railroads, canals, drainage systems, and
transmission lines, it is necessary to first obtain a profile of the existing ground
surface.

4. Trigonometric Leveling – this method of leveling is employed in determining by

trigonometric computations the difference in elevation between two points from
measurements of its horizontal or slope distance and the vertical angle between
the points. The required distances are usually obtained by stadia, triangulation, or
by direct taping.

5. Stadia Leveling – Stadia leveling combines features of direct leveling with those of
trigonometric leveling. This method is in fact a form of trigonometric leveling. It can
provide reasonable accuracy for preliminary surveys, mapping, and rough leveling
where quick measurements are needed. In stadia leveling, differences in elevation
between points are computed from observed vertical angles and the three
intercepts on a rod held at each point backsighted or foresighted. Any surveying

6. Barometric Leveling – Barometric Leveling involves the determination of differences

in elevation between points by means of a barometer. This leveling method
depends on the basic principle that differences in elevation are proportional to the
differences in atmospheric pressure. The readings of a barometer at different points
on the earth’s surface provides a measure of the relative elevations of these points.
It is an accepted fact that the pressure caused by the weight of a column of air
above the observer decreases as the observer goes higher in altitude. The method
is particularly useful for low precision leveling over rough terrain where extensive
areas need to be covered and differences in elevation are large. It is principally
employed on reconnaissance surveys or other work requiring only approximate
values. However, it is not desirable to employ when the atmospheric pressure in the
area changes rapidly.

7. Cross-Section Leveling – In highway or railroad constructions it is often necessary to

obtain a representation of the ground surface on either side of the centerline Short
profiles at right angles to the line of work are usually plotted at regular intervals for
this purpose. This type of data is obtained in the field by a process referred to as
cross-sectional leveling.

8. Borrow-pit Leveling – Borrow-pit leveling is a method of determining the relative

elevations of points in borrow-pit excavations for the purpose of calculating
volumes of earthworks. This type of work is usually encountered in the construction
of roads and railroads.

TYPES OF LEVEL.
1. Dumpy level – The dumpy level is the most widely used direct leveling instrument. It
has a long telescope which is rigidly attached to the level bar. The telescope,
which can be rotated through 360 degrees, fixes the direction of the line of sight.
Attached to the level bar is a level vial which always remains in the same vertical
plane as the telescope. A leveling head supports the telescope and permits the
bubble in the tube to be centered by means of the leveling screws. The whole
instrument is in turn supported by means of a tripod.

2. Wye level – The wye level is very identical to the dumpy level. The only distinct
difference between these two instruments is in the manner by which their
telescopes are attached to the supporting level bar. The wye level has a
detachable telescope which rests in supports called wye. It can be removed from
the Y-shaped supports and turned end for end during adjustment by releasing the
two clamping collars which fit across the tops of Y’s. Curved clips are used to fasten
the telescope in place.

4. Automatic level – Self leveling features are incorporated in automatic levels. This
type of level has become popular for conventional leveling work because of the
ease and speed of their operation. It does not use a level vial and its ability to level
itself depends upon the action of a complex pendulum-and-prism device. This type
of leveling instrument is particularly useful where ground is soft or when strong winds
blow against the instrument since it can automatically relevel itself.

5. Tilting Levels – This type of leveling instrument can be tilted or rotated about its
horizontal axis. A bull’s eye level is employed for its quick and approximate leveling.
The tilting knob is used to rotate the telescope into a correct horizontal position.
Tilting levels are commonly employed for very precise leveling operations and in
other general leveling work. It is also equipped with a horizontal circle which makes
it suitable for lay out and construction surveys.

6. Geodetic level – The geodetic level is basically another type of tilting level. Most of
its metal parts are made of invar to reduce the effects of temperature. Geodetic
levels are employed in first-order leveling work where extreme precision is an
important requirement. The equipment is equipped with stadia hairs in addition to
the standard vertical and horizontal cross hairs to make it suitable for three-wire
leveling. When using the instrument the observer has to stand erect since it is
designed with a high tripod to bring the line of sight way above any intervening
ground surface. This was purposely done to lessen the effects of differential
refraction of extra-long lines of sight.

7. Transit as a level – The engineer’s transit has always been referred to as the
“universal surveying instrument” because of its variety of uses. It can provide results
which are fairly precise although not as good as those obtained with conventional
levels. This is because the transit has relatively shorter telescope and level vial.

8. Laser level – a new innovation introduced to surveying operations is the use of

lasers. A laser system is a separate unit equipped with a portable power supply and
may be a helium-neon laser or gas laser. They are usually mounted or attached to
conventional surveying instrument such as levels, transits and theodolites. Laser light
is a low-powered beam of red light which is suitable for projecting a line of sight
since it is coherent and highly collimated. A sharply defined light spot is focused at
the target when the telescope image is focused.

9. Hand level - The hand level is a handheld instrument used on surveys involving short
sights and where a low order of accuracy is sufficient. It has been proven useful in
reconnaissance surveys, in cross-sectioning to obtain additional rod readings on
sloping ground, and in taping to determine of the tape is held horizontally during
measurement. This instrument also provides a quick way of determining how high or

DIFFERENTIAL LEVELING. Is a technique used to determine differences in elevation

between points that are remote from each other. Differential leveling requires the use
of a surveyor's level together with graduated measuring rods. An elevation is a vertical
distance above or below a referenced datum.

DEFINITION OF TERMS

 Bench mark – a fixed point of reference whose elevation id either known or

assumed.
 Backsight – a reading taken on a rod held on a point known or assumed elevation.
 Foresight – a reading taken on a rod held on a point whose elevation is to be
determined.
 Backsight distance – measured from the center of the instrument to the rod on
which a backsight is taken.
 Foresight distance – the horizontal distance from the center of the instrument to the
rod on which a foresight is taken. Its length is usually made nearly equal to its
corresponding backsight distance.
 Turning point – an intervening point between two bench marks upon which point
foresight and backsight rod readings are taken to enable a leveling operation to
continue from a new instrument position.

HI = Elev BMa + BS
Elev TP1 = HI – FS

ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS-

1. Determine the elevation of B.M. 2 from the following notes. Check arithmetic by
adding F.S.s and B.S.s.

Solutions:

Elev B.M. 2 - Elev B.M. 1 = 49.12 - 50.00 = -0.88

Arithmetic check: do these differences equal?

Sum (B.S.) - Sum (F.S.) = Elev B.M. 2 - Elev B.M. 1

Answer: yes, they do equal.

2. A differential level network is run from BM Ripp through A, TP1, B, and closes back on
BM Ripp, Figure 2. The elevation of BM Ripp is 820.12 ft.

The BS and FS numbers shown in Figure are the Backsight (BS) and Foresight (FS)
readings respectively at each instrument set up. These are shown only for example
purposes - this is not how readings are recorded in the field.

The measurement and computation sequence carries an elevation from the BS

point through the instrument to the FS point, in Figure The notes are recorded and
reduced reflecting this process.

PROFILE LEVELING. The process of determining differences in elevation along a

fixed line at designated short measure intervals is referred to as profile leveling.

 Profile – a curved line which graphically portrays the intersection of a vertical plane
with the surface of the earth.
 Stationing – A numerical designation given in terms of horizontal distance any point
along a profile line is away from the starting point.
 Intermediate Foresights – These sights, which are also known as ground rod readings,
are taken along the centerline of the proposed project to provide an accurate
representation of the ground surface.
 Full Stations – Are points which are established along the profile level route at
uniformly measured distances.
 Plus Stations – Any other intermediate point established along a profile level route
which is not designated as a full station is called a plus station.
 Profile paper – A special heavy grade graphing paper used for plotting profiles.

BM1 1.256 127.133

TP1 1.116 1.886

TP2 1.228 1.527

BM2 1.189 2.246

BM3 1.070 2.017

TP3 1.831 2.656

BM4 2.765

BM33 2.32 328.70 m

0 + 00 1.7

1 + 00 2.2

2 + 00 1.2

3 + 00 0.9

TP1 2.77 3.43

4 + 40 2.2

5 + 00 3.7

6 + 00 1.6

TP2 2.22 3.06

8 + 00 2.8

9 + 00 3.6

10 + 00 2.0

11 + 00 1.1

BM34 2.45

This module will explain how to measure vertical distances, methods and
instruments used, types of leveling,and the effect of earth’s curvature and
atmospheric refraction.

Pre- assessment: Choose the letter of your answer/s that described in each item.

1. Levelling is a branch of surveying objects of which is to establish points at a given

elevation or at different elevations with respect to given or assumed datum.
a) True
b) False
2. Levelling deals with measuremens in a ______
a) Horizontal plane
b) Inclined plane
c) Vertical plane
d) Both vertical and horizontal plane
3. Horizontal plane through a point is a plane tangential to the level surface at that
point.
a) True
b) False
4. The elevations of points or near the surface of the earth is its vertical distance above
or below an arbitrary assumed level surface or datum.
a) True
b) False
5. Which line is normal to the level line at a point?
a) Datum Line
b) Vertical Line
c) Horizontal Line
d) Plumb Line

Read: Measurement of Vertical Distances

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a= Upper stadia hair reading

b= Lower stadia hair reading
c= Horizontal cross hair reading or rod reading on P
s= Stadia intercept or the difference between the upper stadia hair reading
and the lower stadia hair reading
m= Mean of the three- hair readings
HD= Horizontal distance from the level to the rod held at P
K= Stadia interval factor
C= Instrument constant
HI= Height of line of sight above datum or mean sea level

The following equations are used in Three- Wire Leveling:

s= a- b
m= (a+b+c)/3
HD= Ks+ C
Elev of P= HI- m

An engineer’s level with stadia constant of 0.30m was set up on the line between A and
B. The following crosshair readings were observed:
HAIR READINGS
ROD POSITION
UPPER MIDDLE LOWER

A 1.330 1.175 1.020

B 1.972 1.854 1.736

If the stadia interval factor of the level is 100, determine the length of line AB.

Solutions:

HD= Ks+ C

s= 1.330- 1.020
s= 0.31 m
HD= 100(0.31)+ 0.30
HD= 31.30m (from A to instrument)

s= 1.972- 1.736
s= 0.236 m
HD= 100(0.236)+ 0.30
HD= 23.90m (from instrument to B)
Therefore HD= 31.30m+ 23.90m= 55.20m (from A to B)

hcr = combined effect of earth’s curvature and atmospheric refraction, measured

from curved line to tangent line in meters.
K= the length of the line of sight (in kilometers)

ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEM-

Disregarding the effect of tides and waves, determine how far out from the sea a boat
will be when light on its mast, 18m above the water disappear from the sight of a man
on a shore whose eye level is 1.5m above the water.

Solutions:

hcr = 0.0675𝐾 2
hcr (man)= 1.5m= 0.0675 K2
K= 4.71 km (man)

hcr (boat)= 18m= 0.0675 K2

K= 16.33 km

therefore the total distance = 4.71km + 16.33km = 21.04 km

Horizontal distance*tangent(vertical angle) = Vertical difference between the two.

A vertical angle of -12 degrees 25 minutes measured to the top of a water tank from an
instrument set up on a hill 585.00 meters away from it. The telescope of the instrument is
1.45m above the ground whose elevation is 462. 73m. Making due allowance for the
earth’s curvature and atmospheric refraction determine the elevation of the base of
the water tank if the tank is 32.0 m high.

Solutions:

V= 128.80m (vertical distance from the horizontal line of sight to top of water tank.)

Hcr = 0.0675 (d/1000)2= 0.02

DEpb = 32.0 + 128.80 – 1.45 +0.02
= 159.33 m (difference in elevation between points P and B making due
allowance for curvature and refraction)
Elev B= 462.73- 159.33
Elev B= 303.40m

a) Find the effect of curvature and refraction between A and B.

b) Determine the effect of curvature and refraction between A and B.
c) What would be the height of tower to be constructed at hill C so that the line of
sight will clear hill B by 2.5m considering the effect of earth’s curvature and
refraction?

A transit with stadia interval factor of 100.8 was set up at point C on the line between
points A and B. The following readings were observed:

HAIR READINGS
ROD VERTICAL ANGLE
UPPER MIDDLE LOWER

A +15-25 1.972 1.854 1.732

B -09-07 1.330 1.175 1.010

If the distance from the instrument to the focus is 0.38m, determine the following:

a) Horizontal distance between A and B.

b) Difference in elevation between A and B.

This module will explain and illustrate how to measure angles and direction,
methods and instruments used in measuring horizontal angles, methods and
instruments used to define direction of lines, the Engineer’s Transit, description,
use and adjustments, bearings and azimuths, magnetic declination.

Pre- assessment: Recall your Precalculus by solving the value of angle x in the figure
below.

Read: Measurement of Angles and Directions

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4 TYPES OF MERIDIAN.
1. True Meridian – also known as astronomic or geographic meridian. This line
passes through the geographic north and south poles of the earth and the
observer’s position.

2. Magnetic Meridian – a fixed line of reference which lies parallel with the
magnetic lines of force of the earth. Its direction is defined by a freely suspended
magnetic needle of a compass held at the observer’s position. Magnetic
meridians are not parallel to the true meridians since they converge at a
magnetic pole which is located some distance away from the true geographic
poles.

3. Grid Meridian – a fixed line of reference parallel to the central meridian of a

system of plane rectangular coordinates. One central meridian, which coincides
with a true meridian, is usually selected and all other meridians are made parallel
to this meridian. The use of grid meridians is applicable only to plane surveys of
limited extent. In such types of survey it is assumed that all measurements are all
projected to a horizontal plane and that all meridians are parallel straight lines.

4. Assumed Meridians – an arbitrarily chosen fixed line of reference which is taken

for convenience. This meridian is usually the direction from a survey station to an
adjoining station or some well-defined and permanent point. It is used only on
plane surveys of limited extent since they are difficult or may be impossible to re-
establish if the original reference points are lost or obliterated.

UNITS OF ANGULAR MEASUREMENTS.

1. 1.The Degree – The sexagesimal system is used in which the circumference of a
circle is divided into 360 parts or degrees. The angle of one degree is defined as
1
the angle which requires 360 of the rotation needed to obtain one complete

2. The Grad – The grad is the unit of measure in the centesimal system. In this system
the circumference of a circle is divided into 400 parts called grads. The grad is
subdivided into 100 centesimal minutes and a centesimal minute is further
subdivided into seconds. The symbol g, c and cc are used to denote grads,
centesimal minutes, and centesimal seconds, respectively. It will be noted that
200 grads is equal to 180 degrees.

3. The Mil – The circumference is divided into 6400 parts called mils, or 1600 mils is
equal to 90 degrees. It is commonly used in military operations as in fire direction
of artillery units.

4. The Radian – The radian is another measure of angle used frequently for a host of
calculations. One radian is defined as the angle subtended at the center of a
circle by an arc length exactly equal to the radius of the circle. One radian
180 𝑝𝑖
equals or approximately 57.2958 degrees and, one degree equals or
𝑝𝑖 180
approximately 0.0174533 radians. The radian is sometimes referred to as the
natural unit of angle because there is no arbitrary number in its definition. It is
used in computations such as determining the length of circular arcs and where
high speed electronic digital computers are used.

DESIGNATION OF NORTH POINTS.

1. True North – north point of the true meridian. In maps and sketches, it is portrayed
in the direction of the actual location of the earth’s north geographic pole and is
always shown along a vertical line. It is symbolized by a star, an asterisk, or the
letter TN.

2. Magnetic North – a north point that is established by means of a magnetized

compass needle when there are no local attractions affecting it. At any point on
the earth’s surface its direction is indicated by the direction of the magnetic lines
of force passing through the point at a particular time. Magnetic north may be
located either east or west of true north. The point is usually symbolized by a half
arrowhead or the letter MN.

3. Grid North – a north point which is established by lines on a map which are
parallel to a selected central meridian. It may coincide with lines directed
towards true north. Grid north may be symbolized by a full arrowhead or the
letter GN or Y.

4. Assumed North – is used to portray the location of any arbitrarily chosen north
point. It may be symbolized by a small blackened circle or the letter AN.

KINDS OF ANGLES-

1. Interior Angles – The angle between adjacent lines in a closed polygon. These
angle may be measured clockwise and counterclockwise.
Sum of Interior angle for closed polygon = (n – 2) 180°
n = number of sides

2. Deflection Angles – The angle between a line and the prolongation of the
preceding line. It may turn to the right (clockwise) or to the left
(counterclockwise) and it is necessary to append the letters R or L to the
numerical value to define the direction in which the angle has been turned.
Right deflections (positive) are considered to have signs opposite to left
deflections (negative).

3. Angles to the Right – Angles to the right are measured clockwise from the
preceding line to the succeeding line.

4. Bearings – The bearing of the line is the acute horizontal angle between the
reference meridian and the line. A quadrantal system is used to specify bearings
such that a line may fall under one of the following quadrants: NE, SE, NW, and
SW.

5. Forward and Back Bearing – Using the quadrantal system any line in the surface
of the earth may be defined by two directions which differ from each other by
exactly 180 degrees. When the bearing of a line is observed in the direction in

6. Azimuths – The azimuth of a line is its direction as given by the angle between the
meridian and the line measured in clockwise direction from either the north or
south branch of the meridian.

7. Forward and Back Azimuth

Rule 1: If the forward azimuth of the line is greater than 180 deg., subtract 180
deg. to obtain the back azimuth.
Rule 2: When the forward azimuth of the line is less than 180 deg., add 180 deg.
to determine the back azimuth.

MAGNETIC DECLINATION. The magnetic poles are not points but oval areas
located about 2,000 km away from the actual location of the geographic poles of the
earth. The horizontal angle and direction by which the needle of a compass deflects
from the true meridian at any particular locality is called the magnetic declination.
Deflection of the needle may be eastward or westward of the true meridian. At any
location on the earth’s surface magnetic bearings (or azimuths) may easily be
converted to true bearings (or azimuths) and vice-versa, if the declination is known.

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES-
1. Azimuth OA = 141°16’ (SE Quad)
B.A. = 180° - 141°16’= 38°84’
Bearing = S38°84’E

Azimuth OB = 217°23’ (SW Quad)

B.A. = 217°23’ - 180° = 37°23’
Bearing = S37°23’W

2. Az AB = 70°42’
Az BA = 250°42’
ABC = 97°18’ Left (CCW)
so Az BC = 250°42’ - 97°18’
= 153°24’
SE Quadrant:
B.A. = 180° - 153°24’
= 26°36’
Bearing = S 26°36’E

3. In an old survey made when the declination was 2°10’ W the magnetic bearing
of the given line was N 35°15’E. The declination in the same locality is now 3°15’E.
What are the true bearing and the present magnetic bearing that would be
used in retracing the line?

Magnetic Bearing (past) N35°15’E

Declination (past) -2°10’
True Bearing= 35°15’-2°10’
True Bearing= N33°05’E
Declination (present)= -3°15’

Therefore, Magnetic Bearing (present)= 33°05’-3°15’= N29°50’E

Convert the following bearings to equivalent azimuths

a. AB, N 25°25’ W
b. BC, Due East

This Module will explain the concepts of Traversing and illustrate how to balance
a traverse using Compass Rule and Transit Rule, Traverse Area by DMD and DPD
Method.

Pre- assessment: Recall your Precalculus by solving the area of the figure below.

25 cm

Read: Traversing and Traverse Computations

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TRAVERSE
 a series of consecutive lines whose ends have been marked in the field and
whose lengths and directions have been determined from observations.

 one of the most basic and widely practiced means of determining the relative
locations of points.

TWO KINDS of TRAVERSE:

1. OPEN TRAVERSE. A traverse is said to be open traverse when the traverse starts at
one point and terminates at another point as shown in the figure. Open traverse
is also called as unclosed traverse. It is suitable for surveying of roads, coastal
lines, etc.

2. CLOSED TRAVERSE. A traverse is said to be closed traverse when the traverse

formed a closed circuit as shown in the figure. In this case, both starting and
terminating points of the traverse coincide with each other. It is suitable for the
survey of boundaries of ponds, sports grounds, forests, etc.

Traverse Lines
Are lines connecting traverse stations and whose lengths and directions are
determined.

METHODS OF TRAVERSING.
The traversing is performed by four different methods and these methods are classified
according to the survey instrument used. The methods are as follows.
1. Chain Traversing
2. Compass Traversing
3. Theodolite Traversing
4. Plane Table Traversing

Chain Traversing
Chain traversing is done by taking linear measurements only. Hence, chain or tape is
enough for chain traversing. The angle between the adjacent traverse lines is measured
using the chain angles concept. Chain traversing is performed in areas such as ponds
etc. where it is difficult to adopt triangulation. The chain angles concept is nothing but
finding the angle between two adjacent sides by establishing the third side using tie
stations. This angle between the sides can also be fixed by establishing a chord of
known length between the sides.

Compass Traversing

In the case of compass traversing, both linear and

angular measurements of traverse lines are taken
by using chain and prismatic compass
respectively. Both fore bearing and back
bearings are measured and required corrections
for local attraction are applied. If any closing
error is obtained while plotting of traverse, then
Bowditch rule is applied for the adjustment of
error.
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means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited.
Theodolite Traversing
In the case of theodolite traversing, the linear measurements are done by using chain
or stadia method and angular measurements are done by theodolite. Using theodolite,
the magnetic bearing of the first traverse line is measured and from that magnetic
bearing of other sides are calculated. This method is very accurate compared to other
methods.

Plane Table Traversing

In the case of plane table traversing, the measuring and plotting of the traverse on the
paper are done simultaneously. The plane table equipment is set up at every traverse
station one by one in a clockwise or anti-clockwise direction. The sides of each traverse
station are drawn on paper to a suitable scale. If there is any closing error, graphical
methods are used for its adjustment.

In traversing, the methods used in observing angles or directions of traverse lines vary
and include :
(1) interior angles,
(2) angles to the right,
(3) deflection angles, and
(4) azimuths

ANGLE MISCLOSURE, ∡𝑬𝑪.

The angular misclosure for an interior-angle traverse is the difference between the sum
of the observed angles and the geometrically correct total for the polygon. The sum, of
the interior angles of a closed polygon should be:

where n is the number of sides, or angles, in the polygon.

Misclosures result from the accumulation of random errors in the angle observations.
What is the angular misclosure of a five-sided polygon traverse with observed
angles of 83°07.23, 105°23.01, 124°56.48, 111°51.31, 114°41.27.

BALANCING ANGLES.
Applying an average correction to each angle where observing conditions were
approximately the same at all stations. The correction for each angle is found by
dividing the total angular misclosure by the number of angles.
∑ 𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒐𝒓 𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒆𝒔 = 𝟓𝟑𝟗°𝟓𝟗′ 𝟏𝟖" OBSERVED SUM
∑ 𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒐𝒓 𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒆𝒔 = (𝒏 − 𝟐)𝟏𝟖𝟎° = 𝟓𝟒𝟎° GEOMETRIC SUM

∡𝑬𝑪 = 𝟓𝟑𝟗°𝟓𝟗′ 𝟏𝟖" − 𝟓𝟒𝟎° = − 𝟎°𝟎′𝟒𝟐"

To balance the observed interior angles,
− 𝟎°𝟎′𝟒𝟐"
𝑪𝒐𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 = = − 𝟎°𝟎′ 𝟖. 𝟒“
𝟓
Correction is to be added to each interior angle.

ADJUSTED ANGLES.

The usual steps followed in making elementary traverse computations are:

(1) adjusting angles or directions to fixed geometric conditions,
(2) determining preliminary azimuths (or bearings) of the traverse lines
(3) Calculating departures and latitudes and adjusting them for misclosure,
(4) Computing rectangular coordinates of the traverse stations, and
(5) calculating the lengths and azimuths (or bearings) of the traverse lines after
adjustment.

After balancing the angles, the next step in traverse computation is calculation of
either preliminary azimuths or preliminary bearings. This requires the direction of at least
one course within the traverse to be either known or assumed.

For some computational purposes an assumed direction is sufficient, and in that case
the
usual procedure is to simply assign north as the direction of one of the traverse lines. On
certain traverse surveys, the magnetic bearing of one line can be determined and
used as a reference for determining the other directions.

After balancing the angles and calculating preliminary azimuths (or bearings), traverse
closure is checked by computing the departure and latitude of each line.

DEPARTURE of a course is its

orthographic projection on the
east-west axis of the survey,

𝑫𝑬𝑷 = 𝑳 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽
(+)eastings &(–)westings

LATITUDE of a course is its

orthographic projection on the
north-south axis of the survey,

𝑳𝑨𝑻 = 𝑳 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽
(+)northing&(–)southing

If one were to begin at point A of a closed-polygon traverse, and progressively follow

each course for its observed distance along its preliminary bearing or azimuth, one
would finally return not to point A, but to some other nearby point. This point would be
removed from A in an east-west direction by the departure misclosure, 𝑪𝑫, and in a
north-south direction by the latitude misclosure, 𝑪𝑳 .The distance between A and A is
termed the linear misclosure of the traverse. It is calculated from the following formula:

𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒂𝒓 𝒎𝒊𝒔𝒄𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆
𝑳𝑬𝑪 = √(𝑪𝑫 )𝟐 + (𝑪𝑳 )𝟐 𝑹𝒆𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝑷𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒊𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏 = 𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒔𝒆 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉

ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEM-
Calculate the departures and latitudes, linear misclosure, and relative precision of
1
the traverse. (0.081m, 30,000)

COURSE AZIMUTHN LENGTH (m)

AB 126°55’17” 647.25
BC 178°18’58” 203.03
CD 15°31’54” 720.35
DE 284°35’20” 610.24
EA 206°09’42” 285.13

Course AzimuthN Bearing DEP LAT

AB 126° 55’ 17” S 53° 04’ 43” E +517.45 -388.82

BC 178° 18’ 58” S 1° 41’ 02” E +5.97 -202.94

CD 15° 31’ 54” N 15° 31’ 54” E +192.89 +694.05

DE 284° 35’ 20” S 75° 24’ 40” W -590.57 +153.70

EA 206° 09’ 42” S 26° 09’ 42” W -125.72 -255.92

(+ )0.03 (+)0.07

TRAVERSE ADJUSTMENT.
 For any closed traverse, the linear misclosure must be adjusted (or distributed)
throughout the traverse to “close” or “balance” the figure.

 There are several elementary methods available for traverse adjustment, but the
most commonly used are:

1. The Compass Rule (Bowditch method) - rule adjusts the departures and latitudes
of traverse courses in proportion to their lengths

2. The Transit Rule - No sound theoretical foundation since it is purely empirical; best
suited for surveys where traverse sides are measured by stadia or subtense bar
method

Compass Rule (Bowditch method)

Each course is adjusted using the following formulas:
𝑪𝑫
𝑪𝒐𝒓𝒓𝑫𝑬𝑷 = (𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒔𝒆)
𝑷
𝑪𝑳
𝑪𝒐𝒓𝒓𝑳𝑨𝑻 = (𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒔𝒆)
𝑷

ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEM-
Using the previous example, balance the departures and latitudes using the compass
rule.
𝑪𝑫 𝑪𝑳
𝑪𝒐𝒓𝒓𝑫𝑬𝑷 = (𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒔𝒆) 𝑪𝒐𝒓𝒓𝑳𝑨𝑻 = (𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒔𝒆)
𝑷 𝑷

Course Azimuth Length DEP LAT CorrDEP CorrLAT ADJ.DEP ADJ.LAT.

AB 126° 55’ 17” 647.25 +517.45 -388.82 - 0.005 + 0.018 +517.45 -388.84

BC 178° 18’ 58” 203.03 +5.97 -202.94 - 0.002 + 0.006 +5.97 -202.95

CD 15° 31’ 54” 720.35 +192.89 +694.05 - 0.006 - 0.020 +192.88 +694.03

DE 284° 35’ 20” 610.24 -590.57 +153.70 + 0.005 - 0.017 -590.57 +153.68

EA 206° 09’ 42” 285.13 -125.72 -255.92 + 0.002 + 0.008 -125.75 -255.93

(+ )0.03 (+)0.07 0.00 0.00

Balance the given traverse using (a) Compass Rule and (b) Transit Rule.

COURSE LENGTH (m) BEARING

AB 495.85 N 05° 30’ E

BC 850.62 N 46° 02’ E

CD 855.45 S 67° 38 E

DE 1020.87 S 12° 25 E

EF 1117.26 S 83° 44’ W

FA 660.08 N 55° 09’ W

This Module will explain the concepts of Traversing and illustrate how to balance
a traverse using Compass Rule and Transit Rule, Traverse Area by DMD and DPD
Method.

Pre- assessment: Make an outline notes for procedures of determining area of irregular
figures and or shapes .

Read: Traversing and Traverse Computations

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A. AREA BY DIVISION INTO SIMPLE FIGURES

B. AREA BY DOUBLE-MERIDIAN DISTANCE METHOD

 requires balanced departures

and latitudes normally
obtained in traverse
computations.

 meridian distance of a traverse

course is the perpendicular
distance from the midpoint of
the course to the reference
meridian.

 a reference meridian usually is

placed through the most
westerly traverse station.

I. The DMD of the first course is its departure.

II. The DMD for any traverse course is equal to the DMD of the preceding course,
plus the departure of the preceding course, plus the departure of the course
itself

The area of each figure equals the meridian distance of a course times its balanced
latitude.

C. AREA BY DOUBLE-PARALLEL DISTANCE METHOD

 requires balanced departures and latitudes normally obtained in traverse

computations

 parallel distance of a traverse course is the perpendicular distance from the

midpoint of the course to the reference parallel.

 a reference parallel usually is placed through the southern most traverse station.

Based on the considerations described, the following general rules can be applied in
calculating DPDs:

I. The DPD of the first course is its latitude.

II. The DPD for any traverse course is equal to the DPD of the preceding course,
plus the latitude of the preceding course, plus the latitude of the course itself

The area of each figure equals the parallel distance of a course times its balanced
departure.

AB 495.85 N05ᵒ30’E

BC 850.62 N46ᵒ02’E

CD 855.45 S67ᵒ38’E

DE 1,020.87 S12ᵒ25’E

EF 1,117.26 S83ᵒ44’W

FA 660.08 N55ᵒ09’W

SUMS 5,000.13

Solutions:
COMPUTED LATITUDE COMPUTED DEPARTURE
LINE DISTANCE BEARING
+N -S +E -W

AB 495.85 N05ᵒ30’E 493.57 47.53

BC 850.62 N46ᵒ02’E 590.53 612.23

CD 855.45 S67ᵒ38’E 325.53 791.09

DE 1,020.87 S12ᵒ25’E 996.99 219.51

EF 1,117.26 S83ᵒ44’W 121.96 1,110.58

FA 660.08 N55ᵒ09’W 377.19 541.70

SUMS 5,000.13 +1,461.29 -1,444.48 +1,670.36 -1,652.28

AB 1.67 1.79 491.90 45.74 494.02 N 05° 19’ E

BC 2.86 3.08 587.67 609.15 846.42 N 46° 02’ E

CD 2.88 3.09 - 328.41 788.00 853.70 S 67° 23’ E

DE 3.43 3.69 - 1,000.42 215.82 1,023.43 S 12° 10’ E

EF 3.75 4.04 - 125.71 - 1,114.62 1,121.69 S 83° 34’ W

FA 2.22 2.39 374.97 - 544.09 660.78 N 55° 26’ W

SUMS 16.81 18.08 0.00 0.00

ADJUSTED ADJUSTED
COURSE DMD 2A DPD 2A
LATITUDE DEPARTURE

AB 491.90 45.74 45.74 22,499.5060 491.90 22,499.5060

BC 587.67 609.15 700.63 411,739.2321 1,571.47 957,260.9505

CD - 328.41 788.00 2,097.78 - 688,931.9298 1,830.73 1,442,615.2400

DE - 215.82 3,101.60 - 501.90 108,320.0580

1,000.4 3,102,902.6720
2

EF - 125.71 - 1,114.62 2,202.80 - 276,913.9880 -624.23 695,779.2426

FA 374.97 - 544.09 544.09 204,017.4273 -374.97 204,017.4273

SUMS 0.00 0.00 - 3,430.492.4240

3,430,492.4240

Compute the area of the given traverse using DPD and DMD method.

COURSE LENGTH (m) BEARING

AB 495.85 N 05° 30’ E

BC 850.62 N 46° 02’ E

CD 855.45 S 67° 38 E

DE 1020.87 S 12° 25 E

EF 1117.26 S 83° 44’ W

FA 660.08 N 55° 09’ W

This module will explain and illustrate the methods and uses of tacheometry;
stadia leveling, stadia interval factor, measurement by stadia for horizontal
distance, vertical distance and inclined distance.

Reading Assignment: Read an article pertaining to Tacheometry Survey, and higlights

every important information that you obtain.

Read: Tacheometry

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THE STADIA METHOD.

The equipment for stadia measurements consists of a telescope with two horizontal
hairs called stadia hair and a graduated rod called a stadia rod. The stadia method is
especially well adapted to mapping requirements and is widely used for locating
details and contour points in topographic surveys. It is far more rapid than taping, and
under certain conditions could be made as precise. This method also requires the
employment of fewer survey personnel.

STANDARD SYMBOLS USED IN STADIA MEASUREMENTS-

Where:
f = focal length of the lens
f1 = image distance or length from the center of the objective lens to the plane of the
cross wires when the telescope is focused on some definite points.
f2 = object distance or length from the center of the objective lens to a definite point
when the telescope is focused on that point.
i = distance or spacing between stadia hairs
c = distance from the center of the instrument to the center of the objective lens.
C = stadia constant or the distance from the center of the instrument to the principal
focus. C = c + f
d = distance from the focal point in front of the telescope to the face of the rod.
D = distance from the instrument center to the face of the rod.
K = stadia interval factor or K = f / i
s = stadia or rod intercept. The difference between the upper stadia hair reading and
the lower stadia hair reading.

𝒇 𝒅
𝒊
= 𝒔
and d = (f/i)s

D= d + (f + c)
D= (f/i)s + C
D= Ks + C

The equation D = Ks + C is employed in computing horizontal distances from stadia

intervals when sights are horizontal.

STADIA INTERVAL FACTOR.The ratio f/i is called the stadia interval factor and is
designated by the letter K. For any given instrument, this value remains constant and
depends only on the spacing between the stadia hairs. The manufacturer of the
instrument can space the stadia hairs with relation to the focal length so as to obtain
any convenient value of K desired. The most common value of K, however, is 100.

DETERMINATION OF STADIA CONSTANT. For an instrument with an external focusing

telescope, the stadia constant C is readily determined by setting up the instrument,
focusing on any distant point at least 300 m away, and measuring precisely the
distance between the reticule and the objective lens. This measured quantity is the
focal length f. The telescope is next pointed and focused on another object about 90
meters away, and the distance from the objective lens to the center of the instrument is
measured. This distance is called, c, and the stadia constant C is equal to the sum of
these two measured quantities. The stadia constant represents the distance from the
center of the instrument to the principal focus. Most instrument of recent design have
internal focusing telescopes; and for such telescopes the stadia constant is nearly zero
and can be disregarded under all conditions.

DETERMINATION OF STADIA INTERVAL FACTOR. The stadia interval factor K of surveying

instruments is usually 100. Should there be a need, however, to determine the stadia
interval factor, a straight line about 100 to 120 m long is laid off on the ground. The
selected site should preferably be nearly level as practicable. The instrument is set up
on one end of this line. For an externally focusing telescope, a point A is located on the
line at a distance C (or f + c) from the center of, and in front of, the instrument.
However, if the instrument is internally focusing, then the position A is set directly under
the center of the instrument. Points are next set on the line using stakes at intervals of
about 15 to 20 m, then the distances d1, d2, d3, and so on are measured from point A to
the successive points in their order of placement. The stadia rod is then held on each of
the stakes, and the stadia interval s is read. The stadia interval factor K is computed for
each sight by dividing the distance from the principal focus to the stake by the
corresponding observed stadia intercept. The mean of the successive values of K this
determined is taken as the stadia interval factor of the instrument. It is to be expected
that the values of K for the several distances will not agree exactly owing to errors in
observation and errors from natural sources.

INCLINED STADIA SIGHTS.

Most stadia measurements are inclined because of varying topography, but the
interval is still read on a vertically held rod. The inclined measurement, which is also

ID = K(a’b’) + C (eq. 1)

If the line a’b’ is drawn perpendicular to the line of sight, the angle aPa’ (or bPb’) will
be equal to the vertical angle of inclination of the telescope ∝. Since the angle
between the line passing through the principal focus and intercepting the points a’b’ is
quite small, the angles at a’ and b’ may be considered to be equal to 90 degrees. Also,
since ab is equal to the stadia interval s; then a’b’ is equal to sCos(∝). Substituting the
value of a’b’ to eq. 1, the inclined distance is

ID = KsCos(∝) + C (eq. 2)

The horizontal component of the inclined distance may be determined as follows

HD = (ID) Cos (∝)

= [KsCos(∝) +C] Cos(∝)
= KsCos2 (∝) + CCos(∝) (eq. 3)

Equation 3 is the expression for determining the horizontal distance from center of
instrument at O the rod held at N (distant stadia point), when the line of sight is inclined
from the horizontal through an angle ∝. Similarly, the vertical component of the inclined
distance is determined

VD = (ID) Sin (∝)

= [KsCos (∝) + C] Sin (∝)
= KsCos (∝) Sin (∝) + CSin (∝) (eq. 4)

Equation 4 is the expression for determining the vertical distance from the center of the
instrument at O to the reading P on the rod held at the distant stadia point at N. For
instruments with internal focusing telescopes, the second term in all of the above
equations is omitted, its resulting value being equal to zero. In most stadia surveys this is
done because the required precision does not warrant its use. For vertical angles less
than 3 degrees, stadia distances may be computed just as for horizontal sights without
any appreciable error introduced.

Summary:
ID or S = KsCos (∝) + C
(The inclined or slope distance from the center of instrument at O to the horizontal
cross hair reading at P)

H = KsCos2 (∝) + CCos(∝)

(The horizontal distance between the instrument and the rod)

V = KsCos (∝) Sin (∝) + CSin (∝)

(The vertical distance between the telescope axis at O and the horizontal cross hair
reading at P)

Sample Problem.
Complete the stadia level notes shown Complete the stadia level notes shown below
and perform arithmetic check. Assume that K Assume that K 100 = and C 0= 0.

Given:
K= 95.5m
S= 2.2m
C = 0.3m
Vertical Angle = 30°23’

1. Horizontal distances are measured by direct methods, i.e. laying of chains or

tapes on the ground.
a) true
b) false
2. If the ground is undulating, rough, difficult and inaccessible. Under these
circumstances _________ methods are used to obtain distances.
a) Direct method
b) Indirect method
c) Chain surveying
d) Tacheometry
3. Which of the following is an indirect method of surveying?
a) Chain surveying
b) Tacheometry
c) Contouring
d) All of the above
4. Using tacheometric methods, elevations can also be determined.
a) true
b) false
5. Tacheometer has ______ number of horizontal hairs.
a) 1
b) 2
c) 3
d) 4

This module will explain and illustrate how to compute for omitted measurement:
one side completely missing, two adjacent sides missing, two non-adjacent
sides missing.

Pre- assessment: Determine the actual area of the irregular figure and its individual
interior angle.

Read: MISSING DATA on TRAVERSE ANALYSIS

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The following are some of the more common types of omitted measurements:

1. Omitted Measurements are in One Side

1st Case: Length and Bearing of One Side Unknown

2. Omitted Measurements involving Two Adjoining Sides

1st Case: Length of One Side and Bearing of another Side Unknown
2nd Case: Lengths of Two Sides Unknown
3rd Case: Bearing of Two Sides Unknown

3. Omitted Measurements Involving Two Non-Adjoining Sides

1st Case: Length of One Side and Bearing of another Side Unknown
2nd Case: Lengths of Two Sides Unknown
3rd Case: Bearings of Two Sides Unknown

MISSING DATA ARE IN ONE SIDE

L = √𝑪𝒅𝟐 + 𝑪𝒍𝟐

−𝑪𝒅
Tan𝜶 = −𝑪𝒍

OMITTED MEASUREMENTS INVOLVING TWO NON-ADJOINING SIDES.

For the different cases of omitted measurements involving non-adjoining sides the
following principles are adapted;

1ST PRINCIPLE: A line may be moved from one location to a second location parallel
with the first, and its latitude and departure will remain unchanged.

1st Case: Length of One Side and Bearing of another Side Omitted
In Figure 1 – 1 are given the directions and lengths of sides AB, CD, EF, and FA; length of
side BC; and direction side DE. The unknown quantities are the bearing of side BC, and
length of side DE which are non-adjoining. The traverse is first plotted to scale based on
given data; with the sides shown in the order a, b, c, d, e, and f. The sides with unknown
quantities are shown in dashed lines and sides with known quantities in solid lines.

Figure 1 – 1 Figure 1 - 2

By rearranging the order of the sides into c, e, f, a, b, and d the figure is transformed as
shown in Figure 1 – 2. A closing line divides the figure into two parts and its length and
bearing are determined from the algebraic sum of the departures and latitudes of the
known sides. The first part is formed by the known sides (a, c, e, and f) and the closing
line; the second part by the unknown sides (b and d) and closing line.

Simple geometrical constructions are involve in plotting out the transformed figure. In
the process of rearranging the sides to arrive at the desired figure all the sides are
drawn parallel to the corresponding sides of the previously plotted traverse. In this
example the locations of sides c and d have been interchanged.

2nd Case: Lengths of Two Sides Omitted

Given the Figure 2 – 1 are the lengths and directions of sides AB, CD, DE, and direction
of the non-adjoining sides BC and EA are the unknown quantities.

As in the previous case, the traverse is first plotted to scale based on the given data;
with the sides shown in the order a, b, c, d, and e. The transformed Figure 2 – 2 is formed
by rearranging the order of the sides into c, d, a, e, and b.

The closing line divides the figure into two parts. The first part is formed by the known
sides (c, d, and a) and the closing line, and the second part b, the unknown sides (b
and e) and the closing line.

The transformed figure now shows that the sides with unknown quantities are maid
adjoining.

For the particular case, it must be noted that as the angle between the unknown sides
approaches 90 degrees, the solution becomes strong, and as the angle approaches 0
degrees or 180 degrees, the solution becomes weak. The problem becomes
indeterminate when the lines are parallel.

3rd Case: Bearings of Two Sides Omitted

Given the Figure 3 – 1 are the lengths and directions of sides BC, DE, and EA; and the
lengths of sides AB and CD are the unknown quantities. Following the same procedure
outlined in the first two cases, the traverse is plotted to scale based on the given data
and with the sides drawn in the order a, b, c, d and e. The transformed figure is arrived
at by rearranging the order of the sides into b, d, e, a, band c as shown in Figure 3 – 2.

Again, the closing line divides the figure into two parts. The first part is formed by the
known sides (b, d, and e) and the closing line; the second part by the unknown sides (a
and c) and the closing line.

It will be noted that when the unknown sides are parallel but are not of the same
length, their direction is that of the closing line. However, when the unknown sides are
parallel and are also of the same length, the solution for the problem becomes
indeterminate since the length of the closing line becomes a point.

ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS-

1. Given the following sketch and tabulated data for a closed traverse. Determine the
length and bearing of the unknown side FA.

LATITUDES DEPARTURE
LINE LENGTH BEARING
N S E W

AB 733.75 m N 76°18’ E

BC 598.23 N 23° 20’ W

CD 415.05 S 61° 35’ W

DE 511.38 N 57° 00’ W

EF 395.06 S 32° 45’ W

FA Unknown Unknown

SUMS

LATITUDES DEPARTURE
LINE LENGTH BEARING
N S E W

AB 733.75 m N 76°18’ E 173.78 712.87

BC 598.23 N 23° 20’ W 549.30 236.95

CD 415.05 S 61° 35’ W 197.51 365.04

DE 511.38 N 57° 00’ W 278.52 428.88

EF 395.06 S 32° 45’ W 332.26 213.72

FA Unknown Unknown

SUMS 1001.60 -529.77 712.87 -1244.59

CL = 100.60+ (-529.77) = 471.83m

CD = 712.87+ (-1244.59)= -531.72

LFA = √(471.83)2 + (−531.72)2

LFA = 710.88 m

FA = -(-531.72)/ -(471.83)

FA = 48°25’

2. Given the following tabulated data for a closed traverse in which the length of DE
and the bearing of EA have not been observed in the field. Determine these
unknown quantities.
LATITUDES DEPARTURES
LINE LENGTH BEARING
N S E W

AB 1,084.32 m S 75° 48’ E

BC 1,590.51 S 15° 18’ W

CD 1,294.74 S 68° 06’ W

DE UNKNOWN N 28° 39’ W

EA 1,738.96 UNKNOWN

SUMS

LATITUDES DEPARTURES
LINE LENGTH BEARING
N S E W

AB 1,084.32 m S 75° 48’ E 265.99 1051.19

BC 1,590.51 S 15° 18’ W 1534.14 419.69

CD 1,294.74 S 68° 06’ W 482.92 1201.31

DE UNKNOWN N 28° 39’ W

EA 1,738.96 UNKNOWN

SUMS 0.00 -2283.05 1051.19 -1621.00

a) Determining the Length and Bearing of the closing line

CL = 0.00+ (-2283.05)= -2283.05m
CD = 1051.19+ (-1621)= -569.81m
LDA = √(−2283.05)2 + (−569.81)2 = 2353.08m
DA = -(569.81)/ -(-2283.05)

DA = 14°01’

Angle D= 28°39’+14°01’= 42°40’

By sine law
Sin E= (DA)SinD/ EA
Angle E= 66°30’

Since the sum of the interior angles EAD should be equal to 180 degrees, thus
Angle A= 180- angle D- angle E
Angle A= 70°50’

About station E
θ= 180- angle E-28°39’
θ= 84°51’ (therefore the bearing of line EA is N 84°51’E)

By sine law
DE= (EA)sinA/ sinD
DE= 2423.62m

3. Given the following data for a closed traverse for which the lengths of the non-
adjoining sides BC and EF have not been measured in the field. Determine the
unknown quantities.

LATITUDES DEPARTURES
COURSE BEARING DISTANCE
N S E W
AB S 87° 30’ E 620.06 m
BC N 30° 30’ E UNKNOWN
CD S 42° 45’ E 691.56
DE S 60° 40’ W 688.48
EF N 74° 05’ W UNKNOWN
FA N 07° 02’ E 412.35
SUMS

Solutions:
LATITUDES DEPARTURES
COURSE BEARING DISTANCE
N S E W
AB S 87° 30’ E 620.06 m 27.05 619.47
BC N 30° 30’ E UNKNOWN
CD S 42° 45’ E 691.56 507.83 469.43
DE S 60° 40’ W 688.48 337.28 600.21
EF N 74° 05’ W UNKNOWN
FA N 07° 02’ E 412.35 409.25 50.49
SUMS 409.25 -872.16 1139.39 -600.21

Determining the length and bearing of the closing line.

CL = 409.25+ (-872.16)= -462.91m

CD = 1139.39+ (-600.21)= 539.18m
LCL = √(−462.91)2 + (539.18)2 = 710.63
CL = -(539.18)/-(-462.91)
CL = 49°21’ (therefore the bearing of the closing line is N49°21’W

Determining the lengths of sides BC and EF

angle1= 30°30’+49°21’= 79°51’
angle2= 74°05’-49°21’= 24°44’
angle3= 180- 30°30’-74°05’= 75°25’

BC= 710.63SinAngle2/ SinAngle3= 307.22m

EF= 710.63SinAngle1/ SinAngle3= 722.80m

LATITUDES DEPARTURES
LINE LENGTH BEARING
N S E W

AB 639.32 m N 09° 30’ W

BC UNKNOWN N 56° 55’ W

CD UNKNOWN S 56° 13’ W

DE 570.53 S 02° 02’ E

EA 1,082.71 S 89° 31’ E

SUMS

Determine the actual area of the given traverse above using any method that you
prefer.

This module will explain and illustrate the uses of topographic map, methods of
plotting contour lines, characteristics of contours, types of contours, and
topographic map symbols.

Reading Assignment: Read an article about Topographic Surveying, and list all
important details or informations that it seems helpful to the topic.

Read: Topographic Surveying and Mapping

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 determining the relative locations of points (places) on the earth's surface by

measuring horizontal distances, differences in elevation and directions.

 topos (Gr.): place; topographic maps give the locations of places (observable
features); they serve as base maps.

USE OF TOPOGRAPHIC SURVEYING IN GEOGRAPHY:

 producing topographic maps

 establishing vertical and horizontal control for accurately defining locations

REPRESENTATION OF RELIEF. In geography, "relief" refers to the highest and lowest

elevation points in an area. Mountains and ridges are typically the highest elevation
points, while valleys and other low-lying areas are the lowest.

 HACHURES- Hachures are an older mode of representing relief. They show

orientation of slope, and by their thickness and overall density they provide a
general sense of steepness. Being non-numeric, they are less useful to a scientific
survey than contours, but can successfully communicate quite specific shapes of
terrain.

 FORM LINES- Lines resembling contours, but representing no actual elevations,

that have been sketched from visual observation, or from inadequate or
unreliable map sources, to show collectively the configuration of the terrain.
Usually represented as dashed lines and do not portray any actual elevations.

 LAYER TINTING- A method of showing relief on maps and charts by coloring

different levels in different shades. ... The darker the shade, the higher is the
height above sea level. The altitudes represented by each tint are indicated on
the maps and charts. Sometimes referred to as elevation tint or layer tint.

 SHADING- Relief shading involves the use of shadows to emphasize the

topography of a terrain.

 HILL SHADING- Hill shading is a technique for creating relief maps, showing the
topographical shape of hills and mountains using shading (levels of gray) on a
map, just to indicate relative slopes, mountain ridges, not absolute height.

 RIDGE AND STREAM LINING- Used to emphasize the location of low and high
ground. This method is used on aerial photographs. When streams are lined, the
main streams and their tributaries are first selected and are drawn in blue solid
lines. Between the streams is higher ground. To emphasize this, brown dashed
lines are drawn along the main ridges.

 SUBAQUEOUS CONTOUR

FIGURE 19-16 TYPICAL CONTOUR FORMATIONS

 Large scale: 1 inch= 100 ft. or less

 Intermediate scale: any scale from 1 inch= 100 ft. to 1 inch= 1000 ft.
 Small scale: 1 inch= 1000 ft. or more

The designated contour interval varies with purpose and scale of the map and the
character of the terrain. Table down below shows the recommended contour intervals
used to prepare a topographic map.

INTERPOLATING CONTOUR LINES.

Solutions:

a) percent
b) degrees
c) gradient
d) mils
e) grads

Solutions:

 What kind of topographic landform is represented in the following illustration?

 What are the bold contours called?
 What is the contour interval?

Site a brief explanation or description on your answers to the above questions.

This module will gives you an introduction to control surveying. Explain and
illustrate how to compute triangulation and trilateralization.

Pre-assessment: Make an outline notes to the different equations and or formulas in

determining the area of a triangle, and list down and illustrate the different types and
kinds of triangle.

Read: Control Survey

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There was a time when geodetic control points consisted of triangulation

networksmarked by observation pillars. In the Philippines, many triangulation stations
havebeen located on top of towers which had been placed on mountain summits to
answerthe problem of intervisibility. But because of the ease with which positions can
beestablished by satellite systems, which eliminated the intervisibility requirement,
therehas been less need for establishing so many points. Gradually, as the scope of
thesurvey becomes smaller, the use of non-satellite systems to provide control
becomesmore prominent.Control underground, in urban streets and inside buildings is
predominantlycarried out by terrestrial methods. Apart from their use with further
ground surveyoperations, control points are also required to augment photogrammetric
and remotesensing methods of mapping. Plan coordinates and heights of points
identifiable onimagery are needed by all but the most sophisticated systems.

HORIZONTAL CONTROL POINTS TECHNIQUES.

A. TRIANGULATION (TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY)
 In the past it was difficult to accurately measure very long distances, but it was
possible to accurately measure the angles between points many kilometres
apart, limited only by being able to see the distant beacon. This could be
anywhere from a few kilometres, to 50 kilometres or more.

 Each of the calculated distances is then used as one side in another triangle to
calculate the distances to another point, which in turn can start another triangle.
This is done as often as necessary to form a chain of triangles connecting the
origin point to the Survey Control in the place needed. The angles and distances
are then used with the initial known position, and complex formulae, to calculate
the position (Latitude and Longitude) of all other points in the triangulation
network.

 Although the calculations used are similar to the trigonometry taught in high
school, because the distance between the survey points is generally long
(typically about 30 kilometres) the calculations also allow for the curvature of the
Earth.

 The measured distance in the first triangle is known as the ‘Baseline’ and is the
only distance measured; all the rest are calculated from it and the measured
angles. Prior to the 1950s, this initial baseline distance would have to be very
carefully measured with successive lengths of rods whose length were
accurately known. This meant that the distance would be relatively short
(maybe a kilometre or so) and it would be in a reasonably flat area, such as a
valley or plain. The triangles measured from it gradually increased in size, and up
onto the hilltops where distant points could be seen easily.

FIGURE 1: TRIANGULATION NETWORK

STEPS IN TRIANGULATION WORK:

a) Reconnaissance
b) Measurement of Base Lines
c) Erection of Signals and Towers
d) Measurement of Angles
e) Astronomic Checks
f) Office Computations

B. TRILATERATION
 In the 1950s, accurate methods of measuring long distances (typically 30 to 50
km) were developed. They used the known speed of light (299,792.458 km per
second) and the timed reflection of a microwave or light wave along the
measured line. Known as Electromagnetic Distance Measurement (EDM), the
two initial types of instrument were the ‘Tellurometer’, which used a microwave,
and ‘Geodimeter’, which used a light wave.

 The distances in a triangle could then be measured directly instead of

calculating them from the observed angles. If needed the angles could be
calculated. The process of calculating positions through the chain of triangles is
then the same as for triangulation.

 Sometimes both angles and distances were measured in some triangles to check
on the observations and improve the accuracy of the calculations.

FIGURE 2: TRILATERATION NETWORK

LINE AZIMUTH DISTANCE

158°30’50” 4.50 m
Ecc. A- True A
216°43’20.5” 18642.00 m
Ecc. A-B

Find the azimuth of line thru A to B.

Solutions:

Using Cosine Law:

(AB)2 = (4.50)2 +(18642)2 -2(4.50)(18642) cos 58°12’30.5”)
AB= 18639.63m

Using Sine Law:

sinØ/ 18642 = sin58°12’30.5”/ 18639.63
Ø= 58°13’12.82”

Azimuth= 338°30’50”- (180°-58°13’12.82”)

Azimuth= 216°44’02.82” (azimuth of AB)

2. The lengths of the sides of triangle ABC, as measured with an EDM instrument are
AB= 923.245m, BC= 517.328m, and CA= 896.126m. The azimuth from the south of
side CB is 340degrees 15mins 20secs and the coordinates of station B are Xb=
10150.022m and Yb= 9450.085m. Assuming that the lengths are free from
systematic errors, determine the following preliminary data which are to be used
in subsequent adjustment by trilateration.
a) Interior angles of each side of the triangle
b) Azimuth from the south of sides AB and CA
c) Coordinates for points A and C

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Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any
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Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited.
Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any
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A triangular lot ABC has a bearing and distance of line AB to be N 40deg E and 800m
and CA equal to 960m long. The lot is to be divided such that the area of APO is only ¼
of the area of ABC. Point O is along the line AB and point P is along the line CA.
Compute the distance AO and the dividing line PO. The area of triangle ABC is 300, 000
sq. m. AP is equal to 600m long.

Research the following:

a) Reconnaissance
b) Baselines measurement
c) Signals and Towers Erection
d) Angle Measurement
e) Astronomic Checks

This module will gives you an introduction to hydrographic surveying in relation

to hydraulics in computing the cross sectional area of a channel and or reservoir
and computing hydraulic discharges.

Pre-assessment: Familiarize the following by providing the meaning of its term.

a) Sounding
b) Leadline
c) Signals
d) Sextant
e) Tide Gage

Read: Hydrographic Survey

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PURPOSE:
 Hydrographic maps and Nautical charts
 Flood control, water supply, and Hydro- electric power development, Irrigations
 Elevations for design of Bridges, Drainages, Sewages, Culverts
 Volume of impound water
 Tidal datum
 Hazards such as submerged obstruction, sunken vessels, sand bars, rocks, shoals,
coral reefs.

HYDROGRAPHIC SURVEYING IN RELATION WITH HYDRAULICS

Hydraulics is a branch of science and engineering focusing on the properties of

water and other fluids and analyze as a moving fluids. Also known as Dynamics of Fluids.

Discharge (Q) known as volumetric flow rate, thus

Discharge (Q) = volume⁄ time (m3⁄sec)

Measurements of stream discharge are usually made in connection with design of

water supply systems, flood protection works, hydroelectric power development,
irrigation systems, and fish farming structures. In the construction of a bridge, stream
discharge data is also needed in order to position the structure safely above flood
levels. It is also important to determine maximum discharge of a stream when
estimating size of culverts and waterway areas needed under some structures.

The principal information sought in a discharge measurement is the volume of water

flowing past a measuring section of a stream in a given period of time. The discharge of
streams, ditches, flumes, canals, and other waterways is expressed in cubic meters per
second (cu.m./sec). Discharge measurements are made on several occasions at times
of low, average, and flood stages. A single discharge figure is seldom useful. In the
analysis of an engineering problem a discharge measurement only becomes effective
after it is combined with several other measurements made at the same section at
various other stages. Accurate knowledge of stream flow can only be obtained if
regular observations are made, and these observations often extend over a period of
years.

METHODS OF DETERMINING STREAM DISCHARGE.

A. VELOCITY-AREA METHOD

The velocity-area method of measuring discharge is commonly employed in channels

and rivers. It consists essentially of making observations of velocity at selected depths
on several verticals or subsections along a line transverse to the direction of flow. The
result is quite accurate since the cross-section of the entire flowing body of water is
divided into several smaller subsections. The velocity at each subsection is determined
separately and multiplied by its area, and the sum of these products gives the total
discharge of the whole cross-section.

The current meter is used in the velocity measurements. The usual procedure involves
making the sounding along a vertical and observing the velocity by the two-point
method. The process is repeated at the other verticals that divide the stream’s cross-
section into a series of measuring subsections. The selected size of each subsection
depends upon the irregularity of the stream bed and the distribution of flow through the
cross-section. The total discharge (Q) is computed from the field observations by a
summation of the partial dischrages (q1, q2, q3, and etc.) determined for each
subsection. In this method of determining discharge, unless the sides of the channels
are vertical, it is assumed that the partial discharge in the two small end zones (near the
left and right water edges) are equal to zero. There is actually a small amount of
discharge in th two end zones, but if the verticals in these zones are taken fairly close to
the water’s edge, n significant error will be introduced in the computation of total
discharge.

The slope-area method of determining discharge is used primarily for obtaining the
peak flow of a stream after the stage has receded. A straight stretch of river of uniform
slope and cross-section is required. The fall and the distance between the points at
which it is measured should be sufficiently great that the inclination can be determined
without serious error. The survey work involved includes the determination of areas of
cross-sections at each end of the reach and the slope of the water surface in the
selected reach during the peak stage. It will also call for the selection of a coefficient of
roughness based on the physical characteristics of the channel.

The results obtained by this method are only approximate and are inferior in precision to
those in which the velocity is actually observed. The limitations of the method lie in the
difficulty of selecting a correct value of the roughness coefficient (n) and in measuring
flat slopes with precision. However, this method is useful in making tough estimates of
flood discharge in streams and open channels.

METHODS OF DETERMINING THE VELOCITY of APPROACH (V)

Chezy formula for open channels with Kutter’s coefficient is generally used. The Chezy
formula is expressed as follows:
V = C √RS

Thus substituting to the Discharge equation,

Q = A (C√𝑹𝑺 )

Where:
Q = the discharge of the stream (cu.m./sec)
V = mean velocity of the stream (m/sec)
A = the mean cross-sectional area in the reach (sq.m.)
C = Kutter’s variable coefficient
R = the hydraulic mean depth, or hydraulic radius (m)
S = longitudinal slope of the water surface (m/m)

Kutter’s coefficient (C) is a variable coefficient whose value depends principally upon
the roughness of the bed and also upon the inclination, and the hydraulic mean depth.
In practice, the value of C is commonly derived tables or diagrams based upon the
formula of Kutter and Ganguillet which is expressed as follows:
𝟏 𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟏𝟓𝟓
+𝟐𝟑+
C= 𝒏
𝒏
𝑺
𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟏𝟓𝟓
𝟏+( )(𝟐𝟑+ 𝑺
)
√𝑹

The roughness coefficient (n) in the above formula is a retardation factor that will
depend on the character and shape of the stream bed.

The hydraulic radius (R) is determined by dividing the cross-sectional area of the stream
by the wetted perimeter or length of the bed under water. The wetted perimeter is the
actual length of the line in the water cross-section when the water and the ground are
in contact.

In the formulas of Chezy and Kutter, S is the longitudinal slope or inclination of the water
surface. It is determined by dividing the fall in a measured distance by the horizontal
distance. Both the fall and the length should be expressed in the same units. The slope is
measured by careful leveling and should be determined on each side of the stream
and at the center. Since the center slope is usually steeper than the sides, the average
slope is used. In shallow streams a graduate rod is held at about 30 m intervals along
the middle of the stream, and rod readings are taken from the shore with the level. The
observed elevations are plotted on paper and the mean slope is determined from the
plotted elevations. In large streams the slope of the stream bed is approximated by
measuring the slope of the stream’s surface.

CAPACITY OF LAKES ND RESERVOIRS

In the design of water supply systems, irrigation projects, structures for aquaculture
development, and hydroelectric power generating stations, it is necessary to determine
the volume of water which could be contained and generated by a supporting
reservoir or lake. The capacity of the body of water is always determined prior to any
constructions and subsequent filling. When the streams emptying into a reservoir or lake
is silt-laden, periodic resurveys are necessary to determine the remaining effective
capacity for water storage.

METHODS IN DETERMINING THE CAPACITY OF LAKES AND RESERVOIRS.

1. CROSS-SECTION METHOD

The cross-section method is commonly used when a moderate degree of precision is

required in determining the effective capacity of a body of water. It is well suited in the
survey of lakes and reservoirs with a uniformly defined cross-section and where a
reference base line could easily be established along the shore and parallel to the
center of the length of the body of water.

In this method, the following steps are performed:

a) Lay out parallel ranges across the body of water at selected points. The range
lines should be established as nearly perpendicular as possible to the reference
base line. Take soundings at various points on each of these ranges. Where the
bottom of the lake or reservoir is fairly regular, the spacing of the soundings on
each range may be uniform. Sounding, however, may have to be taken as
nearly as possible at significant changes in the slope of the bottom. In shallow
areas soundings may be performed with the use of soundings rods and by
wading through the water. A sounding line released from a small boat is used in
deeper sections of the lake. When the length of a range line is significantly long,
the process of locating soundings by stretching a rope may no longer be
feasible. Other methods of locating soundings should be employed.

b) Determine the area of the cross-section on each of several parallel ranges from
the soundings and the horizontal distances between the soundings.

For a typical cross section, the area of each partial section is determined as follows:
a1 = (1/2)(d1) I1
a2 = (1/2) (d1 + d2) I2
a3 = (1/2) (d2 + d3) I3
a4 = (1/2) (d3 + d4) I4
a5 = (1/2) (d4 + d5) I5
a6 = (1/2) (d5 + d6) I6
a7 = (1/2) (d6) I7

The total area of the range cross-section is then

A = a1 + a2 + a3 + a4 + a5 + a6 + a7

Note:
The same process of computation is performed in determining the areas of the
remaining cross sections.

a) Compute the volume of the prismoids between these sections. The volume of
water between successive ranges is determined by averaging the areas of the
two cross-sections and multiplying by the distance between ranges. The volume
of the prismoids between successive cross-sections are then computed as
follows:

𝐴𝑎+𝐴𝑏
vab = D1 ( 2
) (volume of water contained between ranges A and B)
𝐴𝑏+𝐴𝑐
vbc = D2 ( 2 ) (volume of water contained between ranges B and C)
𝐴𝑐+𝐴𝑑
vcd = D3 ( 2 ) (volume of water contained between ranges C and D)
𝐴𝑑+𝐴𝑒
vde = D4 ( 2 ) (volume of water contained between ranges D and E)

The horizontal distance (D) between the cross-sections must be known or specified.
These distances are defined by the markers set up along the reference base line.

b) The volume (V) of the entire body of water can then be determined by adding
the partial volumes of the general of the general prismoids into which the body is
assumed to be divided by the cross sections or

V = vab + vbc + vcd + vde

2. CONTOUR METHOD
The elevation of the water surface is determined by leveling from a bench mark. On a
prepared map of the reservoir or lake, the subaqueous contour are then plotted from
the sounding elevations covering the area below the water surface. The area enclosed
by the water line and by each contour is determined by the use of a planimeter or, by

The volume of water contained between consecutive contours is determined by using

the following formula:

𝑨𝒍+𝑨𝒉
v=h( )
𝟐

Where:
v = volume of the prismoid or volume between any two consecutive contours (cu.m.)
h = contour interval or vertical distance between two consecutive contours (m)
Al = area enclosed by the lower contour (sq.m.)
Ah = area enclosed by the higher contour (sq.m.)

The total volume of water contained in the reservoir or lake is the sum of the volumes of
the prismoids. In general the approximate volume can be computed by using the
formula.

𝑨𝒐 𝑨𝒉
V=h( + Ai + )
𝟐 𝟐

Where:
V = total volume (cu.m.)
h = contour interval (m)
Ao = area enclosed by boundary at water surface (sq.m.)
Ai = sum of areas enclosed by all intermediate contours considered (sq.m.)
An = area enclosed by contour at lowest level (sq.m.)

ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS-

1. The right and left water edges of a stream are 3.0 and 32.0 m respectively from an
initial reference point. Verticals are located at distances 5.5, 8.5, 11.5, 14.5, 17.5,
20.5, 23.5, 26.5, and 29.5 m from the reference point. Depths of verticals are 0.6, 1.2,
1.4, 2.4, 2.6, 2.7, 2.5, 2.0, and 0.9 m. Mean velocities in the verticals are 0.2, 0.5, 0.7,
0.9, 0.9, 1.0, 1.1, 0.6, and 0.2 m/sec, respectively. Assuming that the discharge in the
end sections of the stream to be zero, determine the following:

a. Cross-sectional area of the stream (sq.m.)

Where:
IRP = Initial reference point
LWE = left water edge
RWE = right water edge
d = Depth of vertical (m)
L = Distance of left water edge from initial reference point (m)
lo = Distance of right water edge from initial reference point (m)
v = Mean velocity in the vertical (m/sec)
q = Discharge in the section (cu.m./sec)

a) Determining the area of each section and the cross sectional area of the stream.
a1= (1/2)(2.5+3.0)(0.6)= 1.7 sq.m
a2= (1/2)(3.0+3.0)(1.2)= 3.6
a3= (1/2)(3.0+3.0)(1.4)= 4.2
a4= (1/2)(3.0+3.0)(2.4)= 7.2
a5= (1/2)(3.0+3.0)(2.6)= 7.8
a6= (1/2)(3.0+3.0)(2.7)= 8.1
a7= (1/2)(3.0+3.0)(2.5)= 7.5
a8= (1/2)(3.0+3.0)(2.0)= 6.0
a9= (1/2)(3.0+2.5)(0.9)= 2.5

Atotal= 48. 6 sq.m

b) Determining the partial discharge in each section and the total discharge of the
stream.
q1= 1.7(0.2)= 0.3 cu.m/sec q6= 8.1(1.0)= 8.1
q2= 3.6(0.5)= 1.8 q7= 7.5(1.1)= 8.3
q3= 4.2(0.7)= 2.9 q8= 6.0(0.6)= 3.6
q4= 7.2(0.9)= 6.5 q9= 2.5(0.2)= 0.5

Qtotal= 39.0 cu.m/sec

c) Determining the average velocity of the stream

V(ave)= 39.0/48.6 = 0.8 m/sec

2. Given the following data for a stream of uniform flow:

A = 6.97 sq.m. (average stream cross section)

P = 9.76 m (wetted perimeter)
S = 0.007 (slope of stream bed)
n = 0.025 (roughness coefficient)

Assuming a constant stream bed slope and little variation in the cross section and
condition of the bed, determine the following:

a) Hydraulic radius
b) Average velocity of the stream using Manning’s coefficient, and the
corresponding discharge.
c) Average velocity of the stream using Kutter’s coefficient, and the corresponding
discharge.

Solutions:

a) R= 6.97/9.76
R= 0.714 m

b) C= (0.714)1/6/ 0.025
C= 37.816

V=(37.816) √(0.714)(0.007)
V= 2.67 m/sec

Q= 6.97(2.67)
Q= 18.61 cu.m/sec

1 0.00155
+23+
0.025 0.007
c) C= 0.025 0.00155
1+( )(23+ 0.007 )
√0.714
C= 37.48
V= (37.48) √(0.714)(0.007)
V= 2.65 m/sec

Q= 6.97(2.65)
Q= 18.47 cu.m/sec

Aa = 1240.71 sq.m. (area enclosed by the boundary of the water surface)

Ab = 752.79 sq.m. (area enclosed by contour B)

Ac = 397.77 sq.m. (area enclosed by contour C)

Ad = 178.44 sq.m. (area enclosed by contour D)

Ae = 48.33 sq.m. (area enclosed by contour E)

If the vertical distance (h) between contour levels is 1.50 m, determine the total volume
of water in the lake above the level of contour E.

Resolve the above problem if the vertical distance between contour levels is 2.0m.
Which has a larger value of volume? Make a conclusion on your answers.

This module will explain the concepts of Engineering Surveys and identify the
operation/ stages in locating a railroad or highway.

Pre-assessment: Review on the different methods in elementary and higher surveying in

measuring horizontal and vertical distances.

Read: Introduction to Engineering Surveys

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Operation and Stages in Locating a Railroad or Highway

 Reconnaissance Survey

 Preliminary Survey

 Location Survey

 Construction Survey

A. RECONNAISSANCE SURVEY

1. Scope

 The reconnaissance survey is an extensive study of an entire area that

might be used for a road or airfield. Its purpose is to eliminate those routes
or sites which are impractical or unfeasible and to identify the more
promising routes or sites.
 Existing maps and aerial photographs may be of great help. Contour
maps show the terrain features and the relief of an area. Aerial
photographs show up-to-date planimetric details.
 The reconnaissance survey must include all possible routes and sites. The
reconnaissance survey report should summarize all the collected
information, including a description of each route or site, a conclusion on
the economy of its use, and, where possible, appropriate maps and aerial
photographs.
2. Design

Design and military characteristics should be considered during the

reconnaissance survey. Keep in mind that future operations may require
an expanded road net. A study of the route plans and specifications is
necessary. If these are unavailable, use the following as guides.

 Locate portions of the new road along or over existing roads,

railroads, or trails, whenever possible
 Locate the road on high-bearing-strength soil that is stable and
easily drained, avoiding swamps, marshes, and organic soil.
 Locate the road along ridges and streamlines, keeping drainage
structures to a minimum. Keep the grade well above the high
waterline when following a stream.

3. Roadway Criteria

To insure satisfactory results, study the built. If these are not available, use
the engineering specifications of the road to be information provided in
the following table.

Upon completion, the reconnaissance survey should support the routes

surveyed and provide a basis of study showing the advantages and
disadvantages of all routes reconnoitered. Typical data collected in a
reconnaissance survey are—
 Sketches of all routes reconnoitered.
 Reports of feasible routes. Data on clearing and grubbing.
 The number of stream crossings involving bridge spans exceeding
20 feet or 6 meters.
 The approximate number of culverts and spans less than 20 feet or
6 meters.
 Descriptions and sizes of marsh areas and other natural obstacles.
Unusual grade and alignment problems encountered.
 Anticipated effects of landslides, melting snow, and rainfall. Soil
conditions and stream and substrata conditions at proposed
bridge sites.
 Discrepancies noted in maps or aerial photographs.
 Availability of local materials, equipment, transportation facilities,
and labor. Photographs or sketches of reference points, control
points, structure sites.
5. Use of Maps
 The procurement of maps is a very important phase of the
reconnaissance. The surveyor should locate and use all existing maps,
including up-to-date aerial photographs of the area to be reconnoitered.
Large scale topographic maps are desirable because they depict the
terrain in the greatest detail. The maps, with overlays, serve as worksheets
for plotting trial alignments and approximate grades and distances.
 The surveyor begins a map study by marking the limiting boundaries and
specified terminals directly on the map. Between boundaries and
specified terminals, the surveyor observes the existing routes, ridge lines,
water courses, mountain gaps, and similar control features. The surveyor
must also look for terrain which will allow moderate grades, simplicity of
alignment, and a balance between cut and fill.
 After closer inspection, the routes that appear to fit the situation are
classified. As further study shows disadvantages of each route, the
surveyor lowers the classification. The routes to be further reconnoitered in
the field are marked using pencils of different colors to denote priority or
preference. Taking advantage of the existing terrain conditions to keep
excavation to a minimum, the surveyor determines grades, estimates the
amount of clearing to be done on each route, and marks stream
crossings and marsh areas for possible fords, bridges, or culvert crossings.

Scope
 The preliminary survey is a detailed study of a route tentatively selected
on the basis of reconnaissance survey information and recommendations.
It runs a traverse along a proposed route, establishes levels, records
topography, and plots results. It also determines the final location from this
plot or preliminary map. The size and scope of the project will determine
the nature and depth of the preliminary survey for most military
construction.

Personnel

 The survey effort establishes a traverse with control and reference points,
or it may expand to include leveling and topographic detail. Normally,
obtaining the traverse, leveling, and topographic data are separate
survey efforts, but this does not preclude combining them to make the
most efficient use of personnel and equipment

a. Traverse Party

 The traverse party establishes the traverse line along the proposed route
by setting and referencing control points, measuring distances, numbering
stations, and establishing points of intersection. The party also makes the
necessary ties to an existing control, if available or required. When no
control is available, the party may assign a starting value for control
purposes which can later be tied to a control point established by
geodetic surveyors.

b. Level Party

 The level party establishes benchmarks and determines the elevation of

selected points along the route to provide control for future surveys, such
as the preparation of a topographic map or profile and cross-section
leveling. The level party takes rod readings and records elevations to the
nearest 0.01 foot or 0.001 meter. It sets the benchmarks in a place well out
of the area of construction and marks them in such a way that they will
remain in place throughout the whole project. If there is no established
vertical control point available, establish an arbitrary elevation that may
be tied to a vertical control point later. An assigned value for an arbitrary
elevation must be large enough to avoid negative elevations at any point
on the project.

c. Topographic Party

 The topographic party secures enough relief and planimetric detail within
the prescribed area to locate any obstacles and allow preparation of
rough profiles and cross sections. Computations made from the data

d. Transit-Stadia Party.

 The transit stadia party is effective in open country where comparatively

long, clear sights can be obtained without excessive brush cutting.

e. Plane Table Party.

 The plane table party is used where terrain is irregular. For short route
surveys, the procedure is much the same as in the transit-stadia method,
except that the fieldwork and the drawing of the map are carried on
simultaneously.

C. LOCATION SURVEY

1. Scope

 Prior to the final location survey, office studies consisting of the

preparation of a map from preliminary survey data, projection of a
tentative alignment and profile, and preliminary estimates of quantities
and costs are made and used as guidance for the final location phase.
The instrument party carefully establishes the final location in the field
using the paper location prepared from the preliminary survey. The
surveyor should not make any changes without the authority of the
officer-in-charge.

2. Running the Centerline

 The centerline may vary from the paper location due to objects or
conditions that were not previously considered. The final centerline
determines all the construction lines. The surveyor marks the stations, runs
the levels, and sets the grades. The centerline starts at station 0+00. The
surveyor numbers the stations consecutively and sets them at the full 100-
foot or 30-meter stations. The surveyor also sets stakes at important points
along the centerline. These may be culvert locations, road intersections,
beginnings and ends of curves, or breaks in the grade. When
measurements are made in feet, these stations are numbered from the
last full station (+00). They are called plus stations. A station numbered
4+44.75 would be 44.75 feet away from station 4+00 and 444.75 feet from
the beginning of the project. When using the metric system, the total
distance from the beginning of the project would be 135.56 meters and
would be numbered 135.56

 The centerline starts at station 0+00. The surveyor numbers the stations
consecutively and sets them at the full 100-foot or 30-meter stations. The
surveyor also sets stakes at important points along the centerline. These
may be culvert locations, road intersections, beginnings and ends of
curves, or breaks in the grade. When measurements are made in feet,
these stations are numbered from the last full station (+00). They are called
plus stations. A station numbered 4+44.75 would be 44.75 feet away from
station 4+00 and 444.75 feet from the beginning of the project. When
using the metric system, the total distance from the beginning of the
project would be 135.56 meters and would be numbered 135.56.

4. Profile and Cross Sections

 After the centerline of the road, including the horizontal curves, has been
staked, the next step in the road layout is the determination of elevations
along the centerline and laterally across the road.
 The surveyor performs these operations, known as profile leveling and
cross-section leveling, as separate operations but at the same time as the
elevation of points along a centerline or other fixed lines.
 The interval usually coincides with the station interval, but shorter intervals
may be necessary due to abrupt changes in terrain. The plotting of
centerline elevations is known as a profile.
 From this profile, the design engineer determines the grade of the road.
The cross-section elevations make it possible to plot views of the road
across the road at right angles. These plotted cross sections determine the
volume of earthwork to be moved. The surveyor establishes the
crosssection lines at regular stations, at any plus station, and at
intermediate breaks in the ground and lays out the short crosslines by eye
and long crosslines at a 90-degree angle to the centerline with an
instrument.
 All elevations at abrupt changes or breaks in the ground are measured
with a rod and level, and distances from the centerline are measured with
a tape. In rough country, the surveyor uses the hand level to obtain cross
sections if the centerline elevations have been determined using the
engineer level.

D. CONSTRUCTION SURVEY

1. Scope

 The construction layout is an instrument survey. It provides the alignment,

grades, and locations which guide the construction operations. The
construction operations include clearing, grubbing, stripping, drainage,
rough grading, finish grading, and surfacing. The command must keep

2. Alignment

 The surveyor must place the alignment markers ahead of the crews
engaged in the various phases of construction. The surveyor may do a
hasty alignment, marked by flags and rods, suitable for guiding the
clearing and grubbing operations. However, a deliberate location of the
centerline is necessary for the final grading and surfacing operations.
 The surveyor marks the curves and minor structures concurrently with the
layout of the centerline. Major structures such as tunnels and bridges
involve a site survey. The general demarcation of the site boundaries is
carried on with the establishment of the route alignment. The layout of the
site proper is a separate survey.

3. Setting Grade Stakes

 Grade stakes indicate the exact grade elevation to the construction

force. The surveyor consults the construction plans to determine the exact
elevation of the subgrade and the distance from the centerline to the
edges of the shoulder

4. Setting Slope Stakes

 Slope stakes indicate the intersection of cut or fill slopes with the natural
groundline. They indicate the earthwork limits on each side of the
centerline.

5. Culvert Location

 To establish the layout of a site such as a culvert, the surveyor locates the
intersection of the roadway centerline and a line defining the direction of
the culvert. Generally, culverts are designed to conform with natural
drainage lines. The surveyor places stakes to mark the inlet and outlet
points, and any cut or fill, if needed, is marked on them. The construction
plans for the site are carefully followed, and the alignment and grade
stakes are set on the centerlines beyond the work area. Thus, any line
stake which is disturbed or destroyed during the work can be replaced
easily.

My thoughts on the challenges in locating a railroad or highway.

My opinion about my classmates’ response.

This module will explain, analyze, compute and lay out Horizontal Curves.

Pre-assessment: Discuss the importance of highway curves designs.

Read: Horizontal Alignment

Uploaded Module

(You have a PDF File of the Module in your USB packet)

 Horizontal Curves are one of the two

important transition elements in geometric
design for highways (along with
Vertical Curves)

 A horizontal curve provides a transition

between two tangent strips of roadway,
allowing a vehicle to negotiate a turn at a
gradual rate rather than a sharp cut.

 The design of the curve is dependent on

the intended design speed for the
roadway, as well as other factors including
drainage and friction. These curves are
semicircles as to provide the driver with a
constant turning rate with radii determined
by the laws of physics surrounding
centripetal force.

 The principal consideration in the design of a curve is the selection of the length of
the radius or the degree of curvature. This selection is based on such considerations
as the design speed of the highway and the sight distance as limited by headlights
or obstructions. Some typical radii you may encounter are 12,000 feet or longer on
an interstate highway, 1,000 feet on a major thoroughfare in a city, 500 feet on an
industrial access road, and 150 feet on a minor residential street.

TYPES OF HORIZONTAL CURVE

1. SIMPLE CURVES

 The simple curve is an arc of a circle (View A). The radius of the circle
determines the sharpness or flatness of the curve.

2. COMPOUND CURVES

 Frequently, the terrain will require the use of the compound curve. This
curve normally consists of two simple curves joined together and curving
in the same direction (View B)

 A reverse curve consists of two simple curves joined together, but curving
in opposite direction. For safety reasons, the use of this curve should be
avoided when possible (View C).

4. SPIRAL CURVES

 The spiral is a curve that has a varying radius. It is used on railroads and
most modern highways. It provides a transition from the tangent to a
simple curve or between simple curves in a compound curve (View D)

ELEMENTS OF HORIZONTAL CURVE

 POINT OF INTERSECTION (PI) The point of intersection is the point where the back and
forward tangents intersect. Sometimes the point of intersection is designated as V
(vertex).

 INTERSECTING ANGLE (I) The intersecting angle is the deflection angle at the PI. Its
value is either computed from the preliminary traverse angles or measured in the
field.

 POINT OF CURVATURE (PC) The point of curvature is the point on the back tangent
where the circular curve begins. It is sometimes designated as BC (beginning of
curve) or TC (tangent to curve).

 POINT OF TANGENCY (PT) The point of tangency is the point on the forward tangent
where the curve ends. It is sometimes designated as EC (end of curve) or CT (curve
to tangent).

 CENTRAL ANGLE (Δ) The central angle is the angle formed by two radii drawn from
the center of the circle (O) to the PC and PT. The value of the central angle is equal
to the I angle. Some authorities call both the intersecting angle and central angle
either I or A.

 POINT OF CURVE (POC) The point of curve is any point along the curve.

 LENGTH OF CURVE (L) The length of curve is the distance from the PC to the PT,
measured along the curve.

 TANGENT DISTANCE (T) The tangent distance is the distance along the tangents from
the PI to the PC or the PT. These distances are equal on a simple curve.

 EXTERNAL DISTANCE (E) The external distance (also called the external secant) is the
distance from the PI to the midpoint of the curve. The external distance bisects the
interior angle at the PI.

 MIDDLE ORDINATE (M) The middle ordinate is the distance from the midpoint of the
curve to the midpoint of the long chord. The extension of the middle ordinate
bisects the central angle.

 DEGREE OF CURVE (D) The degree of curve defines the sharpness or flatness of the
curve.

DEGREE OF CURVATURE
The last of the elements listed above (degree of curve) deserves special attention.
Curvature may be expressed by simply stating the length of the radius of the curve. This
was done earlier in this chapter when typical radii for various roads were cited. Stating
the radius is a common practice in land surveying and in the design of urban roads. For
highway and railway work, however, curvature is expressed by the degree of curve.

Two definitions are used for the degree of curve. These definitions are discussed in the
following sections.

1. Degree of Curve (Arc Definition)

 The arc definition is most frequently used in highway design. This definition,
illustrated the following Figure, states that the degree of curve is the
central angle formed by two radii that extend from the center of a circle
to the ends of an arc measuring 100 feet long (or 100 meters long if you
are using metric units).

 Therefore, if you take a sharp curve, mark off a portion so that the
distance along the arc is exactly 100 feet, and determine that the central
angle is 12°, the degree of curvature is 12°. It is referred to as a 12° curve.

That may be expressed as follows (in English units):

Since the circumference of a circle equals 2πR, the above expression can be written as

Solving this expression for R (in english units):

Solving this expression for R (in english units, with 20 meter of arc.
𝟏𝟏𝟒𝟓. 𝟗𝟏𝟔
𝑹=
𝑫
2. Degree of Curve (Chord Definition)

 The chord definition shown in the Figure is used in railway practice and in
some highway work. This definition states that the degree of curve is the
central angle formed by two radii drawn from the center of the circle to the
ends of a chord 100 feet (or 100 meters) long.

 From observation of Figure, you can see the following trigonometric

relationship:

Then, solving for R (in English units):

Then, solving for R (in Metric units):

𝟏𝟎
𝑹=
𝑫
𝐬𝐢𝐧
𝟐
CURVE FORMULAS
∆
1. TANGENT DISTANCE, 𝑇 = 𝑅 tan 2

𝑳 𝟐𝝅𝑹
3. LENGTH OF CURVE, =
∆ 𝟑𝟔𝟎

4. MIDDLE ORDINATE AND EXTERNAL DISTANCE

ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS
1. The bearings of the tangents has an angle of intersection of 141⁰23’. If the
degree of curve is 20⁰ for a chord distance of 20 m. Find the tangent distance.

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Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited.
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means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited.
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COMPOUND CURVE.
A compound curve consists of two or more circular curves between two main tangents
joined at point of compound curve (PCC). Curve at PC is designated as 1 (R1, L1, T1,
etc.) and curve at PT is designated as 2 (R2, L2, T2, etc.).

Elements of compound curve

1. PC = point of curvature
2. PT = point of tangency
3. PI = point of intersection
4. PCC = point of compound curve
5. T1 = length of tangent of the first curve
6. T2 = length of tangent of the second curve
7. V1 = vertex of the first curve
8. V2 = vertex of the second curve
9. I1 = central angle of the first curve

10. I2 = central angle of the second curve

11. I = angle of intersection = I1 + I2
12. Lc1 = length of first curve
13. Lc2 = length of second curve
14. L1 = length of first chord
15. L2 = length of second chord

ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS
1. A compound curve laid on their tangents have the following data: I 1= 31°, I2= 36°,
D1= 3°, D5= 5°. Find the length of the common tangent passing thru the PCC.

REVERSED CURVE.
Reversed curve, though pleasing to the eye, would bring discomfort to motorist running
at design speed. The instant change in direction at the PRC brought some safety
problems. Despite this fact, reversed curves are being used with great success on park
roads, formal paths, waterway channels, and the like.

PC = point of curvature
PT = point of tangency
PRC = point of reversed curvature
T1 = length of tangent of the first curve
T2 = length of tangent of the second curve
V1 = vertex of the first curve
V2 = vertex of the second curve
I1 = central angle of the first curve
I2 = central angle of the second curve
Lc1 = length of first curve
Lc2 = length of second curve
L1 = length of first chord
L2 = length of second chord
T1 + T2 = length of common tangent measured from V1 to V2

Sta PT= Sta PC+ Lc1+ Lc2

Sta PT= Sta V1-T1+ Lc1+ Lc2

ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS
Given the lines and direction as follows: AB= 57.6 m due east, BC= 91.5 m., N68°E, CD=
102.6m., azimuth of 312°. A reverse curve is to connect these three lines thus forming the
center line of a new road. Compute the length of the common radius of the reverse
curves.

1. The radius of a simple curve is twice its tangent distance, if the degree of curve is 4°.
a) What is the angle of intersection of the curve?
b) Compute the length of curve.
c) Determine the area enclosed by the curve.

2. A compound curve has the following data: I 1 = 28°, I2 = 31°, D1 = 3°, D2 = 4°; Find the
stationing of P.C.C. if P.I. is at station (30 + 120.50). Use arc basis.

3. The perpendicular distance between two parallel tangents of a reverse curve is 35

m. The azimuth of the back tangent of the curve is 270°00’ and the azimuth of the
common tangent is 300°00’. If the radius of the back curve is 150.00 meters and the
stationing of P.R.C. is 10 + 140, find the station of the P.T. Use arc definition.

Discuss your point of view of the 3 kinds of horizontal curve, which is the easiest to
analyze and which is dangerous curve of them all in actual roadway?

This module will explain, analyze and compute Vertical Parabolic Curves.

Pre-assessment: Review on the different methods in elementary and higher surveying in

measuring horizontal and vertical distances.

Read: Vertical Alignment

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SYMMETRICAL PARABOLIC CURVES.

In highway practice, abrupt change in the vertical direction of moving vehicles should
be avoided. In order to provide gradual change in its vertical direction, a parabolic
vertical curve is adapted on account of its slope which varies at constant rate with
respect to horizontal distances.

 The vertical offsets from the tangent to the curve are proportional to the squares of
the distances from the point of tangency.
 The curve bisects the distance between the vertex and the midpoint of the long
chord.
 If the algebraic difference in the rate of grade of the two slopes is positive, that is
(g1–g2, we have a “summit curve”, but if it is negative, we have a “sag curve”.
 The length of curve of a parabolic vertical curve, refers to the horizontal distance
from the P.C. to the P.T.
 The stationing of vertical parabolic curves is measured not along the curve but
along a horizontal line.
 For a symmetrical parabolic curve, the number of stations to the left must be equal
to the number of stations to the right, of the intersection of the slopes or forward and
backward tangent.
 The slope of the parabola varies uniformly along the curve, as shown by
differentiating the equation of the parabolic curve.

 The maximum offset H = 1/8 the product of the algebraic difference between the
two rates of grade and the length of curve.

𝟏
H= 𝑳 (𝒈𝟏 − 𝒈𝟐)
𝟖

Location of highest or lowest point of the curve

a. From P.C. b. From P.T.

𝒈𝟏𝑳 𝒈𝟐𝑳
S1 = S2 =
𝒈𝟏−𝒈𝟐 𝒈𝟐−𝒈𝟏

(𝒈𝟏−𝒈𝟐)𝑳𝟐
H=
𝟐(𝑳𝟏+𝑳𝟐)

h1= H/4
h2= H/4

𝟐𝑯𝑳𝟐
L1=
𝑳𝟐(𝒈𝟏−𝒈𝟐)−𝟐𝑯

1. A grade of -4.2% grade intersects a grade of +3.0% at Station 11 + 488.00 of

elevations 20.80 meters. These two center gradelines are to be connected by a 260
meter vertical parabolic curve.

a) At what station is the cross-drainage pipes be situated?

b) If the overall outside dimensions of the reinforced concrete pipe to be installed is
95 cm, and the top of the culvert is 30 cm below the subgrade, what will be the
invert elevation at the center?

Determine L1 by squared property of parabola (points X and V). Point X is on the

right side of the vertex, thereby its vertical tangent offset shall be reckoned from the
forward tangent.

Discuss, how you derive your answer on the question above.

This module will explain and analyze earthwork computations and solve
earthwork problems including volume computations.

Pre-assessment: Review on the different formula equations for volume of different solids.

Read: Earthworks and Volumes.

Uploaded Module

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One important aspect of roadway design is determining the amount of earthwork

necessary on a project. Earthwork includes the excavation of existing earth material
and any placement of fill material required for constructing the embankment. The
manual method for determining earth excavation and embankment amounts involves
three steps: cross sections of the proposed highway are placed on the original ground
cross sections, the areas in cut and the areas in fill are calculated, and the volumes
between the sections are computed. Cut and fill are the terms that are usually used for
the areas of the section; the terms excavation and embankment generally refer to
volumes.

AREA of CROSS- SECTION

1. LEVEL CROSS- SECTION

VOLUME COMPUTATIONS

ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS
1. At station 10+ 020, a rectangular trench was measured and found to be 4.20 m wide
by 1.20 m deep. At station 10+ 040, it was found to be 4.80 m wide by 2.70 m deep.
a) Volume by End Area
b) Volume by Prismoidal

2.84 2.84 2.84

Sta 1+ 020
7.55m 0m 3.65m

y 1.85m y

3. Find the value of x if the width of the roadway for cut is 6m and 4.8m in fill. Side slope
is 1:1

x 0.60m 0m 5.46m

-2.64m 0m 0.39m 2.46m

width is 10m. Find the volume of cutting using prismoidal rule having a side slope of

1horizontal to that of 1vertical.

Discuss, how you derive your answer on the question above.

This module will explain the different concepts of profile diagram. Discuss and
solve problems involving mass haul diagram.

Pre-assessment: Describe and illustrate different kinds of equipments/ machines uses in

Earthworks.

Read: Profile Diagram

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OVERHAUL
 Is the number of cubic meters (yards) of overhauled material multiplied by the
overhaul distance, this distance is measured between the center of gravity of
cut and fill (i.e. m3*station or yd3*mile).

Haul= volume of earthwork x distance moved

LEH= Limit of the Economic Haul
LEH= FHD+ OHD
FHD= Freehaul Distance
OHD= Economic Overhaul Distance (Limit)
OHD= Cost of Borrow/ Cost of Overhaul

FREEHAUL
 Distance with which there is a fixed price for excavating, hauling, and dumping
regardless of the distance moved.

MASS HAUL DIAGRAM

 It is a diagram provides a suitable means for studying haul and overhaul to
compute the total payment. It’s x-axis represents the distance in stations, while
the y-axis represents the cumulative volume (the algebraic sum of excavations
and embankment between any selected points) after correction due to soil
condition.

BORROW
 It is the location away from the Right of Way (R.O.W.) and it is chosen by the
Engineer. The borrow pits soil should be comply with the followed specification
(preferably out of R.O.W.).

WASTE
 It is the unwanted excavation material which should be disposed out of R.O.W.

CHARACTERISTICS OF MASS CURVE

1. Rising sections of the mass curve indicates areas where excavating exceeds fill,
whereas falling sections indicate where fill exceeds excavation.
2. Steep slopes reflect heavy cuts & Fills, while flat slopes indicate areas fro small
amount of earthwork.
3. The difference in ordinates between any two points indicate net excess of
excavation over embankment or vise versa.
4. Any horizontal line dawn to intersect two points within the same curve indicates
a balance of excavation (cut) and embankment (fill) quantities between the
two points.
5. Points of zero slope represent points where roadway goes from cut to fill or from
fill to cut.
6. The highest or the lowest points of the mass haul diagram represents the crossing
points between the grade line (roadway level) and natural ground level.

CALCULATION OF TOTAL COST OF EARTHWORKS:

 Cost of freehaul = cost of freehaul per m3 * Volume of freehaul.

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE

Compare your answer to the illustrative problem, what do you observe if shrinking
factor is quite higher?

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