UNIT- I INTRODUCTION TO ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

MULTIDISCIPLINARY NATURE OF ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

Definition:
The word Environment is derived from the French word “Environ” which means
“surrounding”. It can be defined as the circumstances or conditions that surround an
organism or group of organisms. In other words, environment is the combination of social
or cultural conditions that affect an individual or community.
Environmental studies is the systematic understanding of our environment and our
existence in it.
MULTIDISCIPLINARY NATURE OF ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES
The multidisciplinary nature of Environmental Studies lies in its integration of various fields
like biology, sociology, economics, and more. This approach combines scientific
understanding of the natural world with insights into human behaviour, economic impacts,
and ethical considerations. It's essential for comprehensively addressing complex
environmental issues; ensuring solutions are well-rounded and effective.
Environmental Studies are multidisciplinary, involving:
1. Biology: Studying living things and their environment.
2. Geography: Looking at the Earth's surfaces and human impact.
3. Economics: Understanding how money affects environmental choices.
4. Sociology: Exploring how societies interact with the environment.
5. Politics: Examining laws and decisions about the environment.
6. Ethics: Thinking about right and wrong in environmental issues.
7. History: Learning from past environmental events.
8. Physics: Investigating energy and climate.
9. Chemistry: Researching chemicals and their effects on nature.
Components of Environmental Studies:
Environmental studies delve into understanding the complex interactions within our
environment by examining both living (biotic) and non-living (abiotic) components. This
field is multidisciplinary, blending knowledge from natural sciences, social sciences, and
humanities to address environmental issues comprehensively.
Key Components of Environmental Studies:
• Biotic Factors: These include all living organisms, such as plants, animals, and
microorganisms, which interact within their environments and with each other.
• Abiotic Factors: Non-living elements like air, water, soil, and climate play a crucial
role in shaping the environment and influencing biotic interactions.
Major Themes within Environmental Studies:
• Environmental Science: Focuses on the study of natural environments and how they
interact with each other and with human activities, aiming to find sustainable
solutions to environmental challenges.
 • Environmental Ethics: Examines the moral values guiding human interactions with
the environment, promoting responsible and sustainable actions and policies.
• Environmental Policy and Law: Addresses the governance aspects, including
regulations and legal frameworks, essential for environmental management and
conservation.
• Environmental Education: Seeks to increase awareness and understanding among
individuals about environmental issues, encouraging informed decision-making and
actions towards sustainability.
Importance of Multidisciplinary Nature of Environmental Studies:
The multidisciplinary nature of environmental studies is key because it:
• Combines various fields like science and humanities for a full picture of
environmental issues.
• Brings diverse viewpoints to understand and solve these issues creatively.
• Encourages teamwork across different areas of expertise for better solutions.
Environmental studies give a great importance to the environmental impacts (alteration of
natural environment) cased due to human activities. There are basically two different types
of environmental impacts;
(a) resource depletion, and
(b) pollution.
For assessing the gravity of these problems and finding their solutions, environmental
science study is the way out.
The world around us is changing at a very rapid pace. Some changes are beneficial, but many
of the changes are causing damage to our planet. The field of environmental science is a
valuable resource for learning more about these changes. Finding solutions to
environmental problems involves collecting the data as well as finding a scientific, social and
logical solution to the problem.
According to UNESCO (1971), the objectives of environmental studies are:
(a) To impart basic knowledge about the environment and its allied problems.
(b) To create the awareness about environmental problems among people.
(c) To develop an attitude of concern for the environment.
(d) Motivate public to participate in environment protection and environment
improvement.
(e) Help acquiring skills to assist the concerned individuals in identifying and solving
environmental problems.
(f) To suggest the pathways to attain harmony with nature.
The multidisciplinary nature of environmental studies, merging insights from the natural
sciences, humanities, and social sciences, is crucial for a holistic approach to environmental
challenges. This integrated perspective not only enriches our understanding but also drives
innovative, collaborative solutions essential for sustainable environmental practices and
policies.
 COMPONENTS OF ENVIRONMENT:
The human environment encompasses all physical, chemical, biological and social processes
which exert a significant influence directly or indirectly on human beings. In turn, human
beings also exert influence on quality of environment. Thus, the subject environmental
science has its roots in ecology which is the study of how living and non-living things in
nature relate to one another.
The environment is not a simple distribution of gases but is highly complex and structured.
It comprises of following four segments:
1. Lithosphere
2. Hydrosphere
3. Atmosphere
4. Biosphere
The names of the four spheres are derived from the Greek words for stone (litho), air (atom),
water (hydro) and life (bio).
1. Lithosphere:
The solid component of earth is called lithosphere. It is multilayered and includes following
three main layers: crust, mantle and core (outer and inner). The core is the central fluid or
vapourized sphere having diameter of about 2500 km from the centre and is possibly
composed of nickel-iron. The mantle extends about 2900 km above the core. This is in a
molten state.
The crust is the outermost solid zone of the earth and it is about 8 to 40 km above mantle.
The crust is very complex and its surface is covered with the soil supporting rich and varied
Cross section of earth showing different layers, biotic communities. The soil provides food,
shelter, anchorage and concealment from predators to living organisms.
The soil is the most characteristic feature of terrestrial environment. It is the top layer of
earth’s crust and is the mixture of weathered rock materials (i.e., minerals) and organic
detritus, both of which are formed through the physical, chemical and biological processes
occurring slowly and slowly for a long period at the earth’s surface.
Besides being the source for the entry of nutrients and water in plants, the soil is the medium
for the detritus food chain: nutrients released in detritus are decomposed by various soil
microbes like bacteria, algae, fungi, protozoa, etc., bound in or on soil particles and taken
back into plants through their roots.
Soil (mud) is also the main source of nutrients for all aquatic plants; rooted, submerged or
free-floating. In addition, soil is the means to support for all terrestrial organisms: plants are
anchored to the soil by their root systems; animals walk upon it and are supported by it, as
many animals like nematodes, polychaetes, arachnids, insects, rodents, etc., live under the
soil.
However, the chemical composition of earth’s crust has been shown in Table 12.2. In
addition, soil also contains organic matters like humus, etc.

2. Hydrosphere
It includes water in the oceans, lakes, ponds, etc., and covers about 73% area of the earth’s
surface. Water is the major inorganic nutrient needed by all living organisms; hence, water
is essential to all life. First life originated in water.
The means of obtaining and conserving water have shaped the nature of terrestrial life;
means of living within the water have the overwhelming influence on aquatic life. Water is
one of the main agents in pedogenesis and is also the medium for several different
ecosystems.
Water continuously circulates between atmosphere and the earth’s surface; this cycle is
referred to as the water cycle. The energy for driving the cycle and, thus, ensuring a constant
supply of fresh water on land comes from the sun. Solar heat evaporates water from the
ocean which is the great reservoir of water.
A lesser amount of water is also evaporated from the surface of the land from plants, a
process known as evapo-transpiration. All this vaporized water forms clouds which moved
by winds, may pass over land where they are cooled enough to precipitate the water as rain
or snow. Some of the precipitated water soaks into ground, some runs off the surface into
stream and goes directly back to the seas.
The ground water is returned to the surface by springs, by pumps and the transpiration- the
movement of water in plants from roots to leaves. Water inevitably ends up back in the sea,
but it may become incorporated into the bodies of several different organisms, one after
another, en route.
3. Atmosphere
The atmosphere refers to the air that surrounds the earth. The atmosphere is always in
motion and constantly changing. It’s believed that there are about 14 different gases that
make up the atmosphere. The atmosphere is also responsible for the weather as the weather
occurs within the lower atmosphere.
The bottom layer of the atmosphere is known as the troposphere. The troposphere is where
the weather happens. It is the warmest near the Earth because of the heat rising from the
earth’s surface but it becomes colder with altitude. This layer is separated from the next by
what is known as tropopause. The tropopause is the point in which temperatures will begin
to change due to the increase of altitude.
Above the tropopause is the stratosphere. The stratosphere is where their large
concentration of ozone gas is found. The ozone gasses are essential as they absorb a large
percent of radiant solar energy, protecting the earth from harmful ultra violet rays also
known as UV.
The coldest of spheres is known as the mesosphere this is where the water vapor often
freezes to create clouds that are purely made of ice. The mesosphere is separated from the
thermosphere by the mesopause.
The topmost layer is known as the thermosphere, this is where many satellites circle the
earth. Due to the thin air and proximity of the sun, the temperatures in the thermosphere
tend to rapidly increase and decrease.
 4. Biosphere
The biosphere, which includes the ground and the air, is characterized as the region of the
planet where organisms live. The biosphere is defined as the region on, above, and below the
Earth’s surface where life exists.
The biosphere is a narrow zone on the surface of the earth where soil, water, and air combine
to sustain life. Life can only occur in this zone. From fungi and bacteria to large animals, there
are several different types of life.
The biosphere is characterized as an area that contains all living organisms and the products
of their activities. As a result, it plays a critical role in the maintenance of ecosystems, i.e., the
existence of species and their reciprocal interactions. And the biosphere is critical for climate
regulation.
Biosphere Resources: The biosphere provides important resources. Many people rely on the
biosphere for basic necessities including food, medicine, construction materials, and fuel.
Indigenous peoples, in particular. Except for salt, all food comes from the biosphere, but
established societies prefer to farm rather than forage.

The biosphere is a relatively thin layer of the Earth’s surface that supports life, reaching from
a few kilometers into the atmosphere to deep-sea vents. The biosphere is a global ecosystem
made up of living organisms (biota) and the nonliving (abiotic) factors that provide them
with energy and nutrients.
The biosphere is a narrow zone on the surface of the earth where soil, water, and air combine
to sustain life. Life can only occur in this zone. From fungi and bacteria to large animals, there
are several different types of life.
Importance of Biosphere:
The biosphere provides the ecosystem that is needed for survival. Adaptation to the
biosphere’s climate is expected for living organisms. Biodiversity thrives within ecosystems,
and the biosphere is a reliable source of food on Earth. Biodiversity is just what it sounds like
biological variety.
Safe areas for the protection of plants and animals are known as biosphere reserves. It also
helps to restore the tribals’ traditional way of life in the region. They protect the region’s
biodiversity. The biosphere is the ecological organization’s highest level. It covers all types
of life as well as any biome on the earth.
The biosphere functions as the planet’s life support system, assisting in the control of
atmospheric composition, soil health, and the hydrological (water) cycle. A indicator of a
biome’s contribution to the earth. The biosphere is a narrow zone on the surface of the earth
where soil, water, and air combine to sustain life. Life can only occur in this zone.
Biosphere Facts:
• The biosphere is related to the lithosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere, which are
all spheres of the physical world. The lithosphere is the Earth’s solid outer layer,
which contains rocks, sand, and soil.
• The biosphere is characterized as an environment that contains all living organisms
and the products of their activities. As a result, it plays a vital role in the conservation
of ecosystems, i.e., the life of species and their reciprocal interactions. And the
biosphere is critical for climate regulation.
• Any of the main greenhouse gases, such as methane, carbon dioxide, and nitrous
oxide, are affected by the biosphere.
• Various environmental conditions, such as favorable temperature and moisture, are
needed for organisms to live on Earth. Energy and nutrients are also needed by the
species. The biosphere of the Earth contains all of the mineral and animal nutrients
needed for life.
Biosphere Examples
The biosphere, which includes the ground and the air, is characterized as the region of the
planet where organisms live. The biosphere is defined as the region on, above, and below the
Earth’s surface where life exists. The part of the world where life naturally exists, spreading
from the deep crust to the lower atmosphere.
The biosphere, also known as the ecosphere, is the Earth’s dynamic biological epidermis of
unknown dimensions. It is the natural habitat of living organisms. It is made up of the
lithosphere’s surface, a lower portion of the atmosphere, and the hydrosphere.
The biosphere is the world’s ecological system as a whole. It encompasses all forms of life on
Earth as well as all habitats capable of sustaining life. There are many biomes that make up
the biosphere. These areas have unique climates, vegetation, wildlife, and adaptations that
must be met in order to live.
Photosynthesis is the main source of energy for ecosystem processes. Processes in the
biosphere are intertwined with those in the atmosphere, hydrosphere, and geosphere. Via
the balance of photosynthesis and respiration, biological processes play a significant role in
controlling atmospheric CO2 concentrations.

SCOPE OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE

The multidisciplinary nature of environmental studies offers a broad and dynamic scope for
careers, addressing the interactions between humans and the natural environment through
a blend of natural sciences, humanities, and social sciences. Here are some career paths
highlighted in environmental studies:
• Environmental Scientist: Focuses on research to solve environmental problems like
climate change and pollution.
• Environmental Engineer: Designs sustainable technologies and practices for
efficient resource use and reduced human impact.
• Environmental Educator: Raises awareness and imparts knowledge about
environmental issues and sustainability.
• Environmental Communicator: Engages in disseminating environmental
information across various platforms and audiences.

IMPORTANCE OF ENVIRONMENT SCIENCE

The importance of environmental studies is described as follows:
1. Clarification of modern environmental concept like how to conserve biodiversity.
2. Helping people know the more sustainable way of living.
3. Making masses understand how to use natural resources more efficiently.
4. Developing awareness about the behavior of organism under natural conditions.
5. Creating knowledge about the inter-relationship between organisms in populations
and communities.
6. Creating awareness and educating people regarding environmental issues and
problems at local, national and international levels.

CONCEPT OF SUSTAINABILITY
Sustainability consists of fulfilling the needs of current generations without compromising
the needs of future generations, while ensuring a balance between economic growth,
environmental care and social well-being.
To achieve sustainability we must balance economic, environmental and social factors in
equal harmony. This is also known as the three pillars of sustainability. So, to achieve true
sustainability we need to balance economic, social and environmental sustainability factors
in equal harmony. These may be defined as:
• Environmental Sustainability: Environmental sustainability means that we are
living within the means of our natural resources. To live in true environmental
sustainability, we need to ensure that we are consuming our natural resources, such
as materials, energy fuels, land, water…etc, at a sustainable rate. Some resources are
more abundant than others and therefore we need to consider material scarcity, the
 damage to environment from extraction of these materials and if the resource can be
kept within Circular Economy principles. We need to aspire to net zero carbon and
then move beyond to ultimately achieve climate positive principles. Environmental
sustainability should not be confused with full sustainability, which also need to
balance economic and social factors.
• Economic Sustainability: Economic sustainability requires that a business or
country uses its resources efficiently and responsibly so that it can operate in a
sustainable manner to consistently produce an operational profit. Without an
operational profit a business cannot sustain its activities. Without acting responsibly
and using its resources efficiently a company will not be able to sustain its activities
in the long term.
• Social Sustainability: Social sustainability is the ability of society, or any social
system, to persistently achieve a good social well being. Achieving social
sustainability ensures that the social well being of a country, an organization, or a
community can be maintained in the long term.
Taking these three pillars of sustainability further if we only achieve two out of three pillars
then we end up with:

• Social + Economic Sustainability = Equitable

• Social + Environmental Sustainability = Bearable
• Economic + Environmental Sustainability = Viable
Only through balancing economic + social + environmental can we achieve true
sustainability and a truly circular economy.

CONCEPT OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

Sustainable development is defined as the development that meets the present needs
without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. The
statement is reliable and provides a goal to which many people desire, though it provides no
guidance or no assurance on how to assess progress towards sustainable development. The
term sustainability is often referred to as “sustainable development”. Development may be
regarded as the defined growth and hence sustainable development means refining the
problem caused by, but not challenging, continuous economic growth.

The term “sustainable development'' gained wide popularity in the international scientific
community after the renowned report “Our Common Future” was published by the World
Commission on Environment and Development in 1987. Read the article below to know
more about sustainable development.
Scope of Sustainable Development:
Sustainable development is observed as the mutually beneficial interaction between the
legal interest of a business and the economy, government and politics, and civil society, and
culture. However, these social interactions do not exist alone. On the physical and material
side, the society is bound by the carrying capacity of several ecosystems, landscape ecology,
and eventually the biosphere of the Earth or Nature. On the spiritual and psychological side,
the three-fold functional differentiation of society is inspected by the caring capacity of an
individual. Therefore, we can say that sustainable development is a multidimensional
concept, involving not less than four dimensions.

Basic Characteristics of Sustainable Development:

The basic characteristics of sustainable development can be observed in the following
points:
• There should be an uninterrupted rise in real per capita income and economic welfare
on a long-term basis.
• Sustainable development simply means that resources should be naturally used in
such a way that they are not over-exploited.
• Sustainable development aims at making use of natural resources and the
environment for improving the standard of people in such a way that the ability of
future generations to meet their own needs is not minimized.
• Sustainable development aims at promoting environment-friendly and
biodegradable products, while also making sustainable planning for replacement or
replenishment of resource usage.
• Sustainable development emphasis on eco-friendly building and developmental
practices like green architecture.

Three Core Elements of Sustainable Development

1. Environmental Conservation:
The primary focus of sustainable development is to protect the environment so that the
resources provided by it do not get destroyed.
2. Social Development:
It aims to attain the well-being of an individual and society at large. It entails the availability
of necessary resources, proper healthcare, and good quality of life for people.
3. Economic Progress:
It encourages people to invest in sustainable efforts by persuading them through its long-
term benefits and supporting both the environmental and social elements of the cause.

Three Primary Goals of Sustainable Development:

The three primary goals of sustainable development are:
 • To minimize the expenditure of natural resources while creating new developments.
• To create an environment that can be maintained and sustained without destroying
the environment.
• To provide a method for rebuilding existing developments to make them eco-friendly
facilities and projects.

International organizations such as NGOs, United Nations, aid organizations, and even
governments are making continuous sponsoring efforts to ensure that the goal of sustainable
development is achieved for every individual across the globe. Some other goals of
sustainable development set by these bodies are:
• Elimination of poverty across the world
• Ensure good health and well being
• Provision for clear water and sanitation
• Provision of quality education for all
• Achieving Gender Equality
• Allowing access to economical and clean energy
• Building up strong infrastructure, Supporting Inclusive and Sustainable
Industrialization and encouraging innovation

Principles/Premises of Sustainable Development:

The following principles/premises underlying the concept of sustainable development:
• Sustainable development is the alternative method for development, which by
definition is eco-friendly and resource-efficient.
• There is a symbiotic relationship between consumer and producer’s natural systems.
• The present generation should meet its needs without compromising the ability of
future generations to meet their own needs i.e to ensure that productive assets
available to future generations are not unfairly minimized.
• Those who enjoy the fruits of economic development must not make the resources of
future generations worse by excessively degrading the Earth’s exhaustible resources
and polluting its ecology and environment.
• The development should not focus only on growth, instead it should aim for broader
goals of social transformation.
• Internally and externally sustainable developments are two major aspects of
sustainable development. With both, no real sustainable development would emerge.
• In the long term, sustainable development has to maintain relations with ecology,
resources, and people along with their service agencies, institutions, and other
aspects of their social organizations.
• The economic progress which destroys natural capital is not often successful.
 • Sustainable development is largely responsible for the poor, and hence it should
ensure that the poor have adequate access to sustainable and secure living.
• The past environmental mistakes should not be repeated as past patterns of
environmental degradations are unavoidable.
• The environment and development are not mutually incompatible. Both a healthy
environment and a healthy economy are essential for economic development.

Sustainable Development Examples

Listed below are some sustainable development examples, few of which do not just have
minimal effect on the environment, but are also economical over an extended period of
usage.
• Hydro energy as used in turbines.
• Wind energy is often employed in wind mills.
• Solar energy is finding wider implementation with innovations in solar cells and
allied technologies.
• Efficient and recycled use of water.
• Green architecture and other sustainable constructions.
• Crop rotation and similar agricultural methods.
• Maintenance and growth of sustainable green spaces.

Importance of Sustainable Development: Battling the Environmental Crisis

Importance of sustainable development lies in its attempt to battle the environmental crisis
which can be traced to unchallenged economic growth. Environmental crisis refers to a
situation where nature is unable to sustain life forms or perform basic functions which are
essential for the sustenance of life.
As per sustainable development definition, it attempts to contain resource extraction so that
it does not exceed resource generation rates. Furthermore, it also tries to restrict waste
generation to ensure that it remains below natural absorption capacities of the environment.

Reasons Leading to the Environmental Crisis:

Understandably, noting the reasons leading to environmental crisis is vital in formulating a
sustainable development project. Some of these reasons are discussed below in detail.

1. Continuous Growth of Economic Activities:

It has a two-pronged effect on this planet’s environment. While on one hand, there is
greater consumption of natural resources, on the other this is also accompanied with
greater volume of waste. Consequently, taming this issue can reduce depletion along
with increased processing of waste materials.

2. Increasing Rate of Population Growth:

 Rise in population leads to higher use of natural resources for their sustenance. It
includes natural resources like oxygen, water, etc. along with artificial products which
are also dependent on environmental resources. Another common issue with an ever-
increasing population is that of misuse of these natural resources.

3. Fast-paced Urbanization:
Economic and industrial development leads to fast-paced urbanization, which often
compels large populaces to relocate to urban spaces. This often leads to excess
burden on existing infrastructures. Furthermore, such a populace is often forced to
relocate to slum areas that are congested and unhealthy.

4. Industrialization:
Industrialization has had a rippling effect on this planet’s environment in one of the
most drastic fashions. It is responsible for numerous environmental issues, among
which foremost is the depletion of resources along with deforestation. Additionally,
industrial waste often contains toxic materials. These, in turn, have also been greatly
responsible for pollution with effects like water contamination, air pollution and even
noise pollution.

5. Reduction in Greenery:
Deforestation to support economic development has been rampant on this planet for
decades now. It has led to unparalleled reduction of greenery on the face of this planet
which has led to environmental changes and degradations. Among its major effects,
the most prominent has been global warming since purification of greenhouse gasses
has been hindered with deforestation.

6. Rising Use of Chemical and Artificial Products:

Use of chemicals like pesticides, chemically developed fertilizers, etc., has led to a
poisonous effect on the crops. While a number of crops have been found to contain
traces of these chemicals, these have also directly led to the development of health
issues for farmers and other users. This too has adverse effects on this planet’s
environment, including soil contamination and other issues.

Subsequently, the nature and scope of sustainable development primarily focuses to curb
these issues which are a major drain on the environmental conditions. As students of
commerce, it is vital to keep these reasons in mind while planning for economic
development.
In short, Sustainable development (SD) refers to the human development model in which the
resources that are presently used preserve the environment so that these needs can be met
not only in the present but also for future generations.
 EMERGENCE OF ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES
A. CLIMATE CHANGE
Climate change refers to long-term shifts and alterations in temperature and weather
patterns, primarily driven by human activities such as burning fossil fuels, deforestation, and
industrial processes. The accumulation of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere—especially
carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), and nitrous oxide (N2O)—enhances the natural
greenhouse effect, leading to global warming.

Causes of Climate Change:

a. Greenhouse Gas Emissions: The principal cause of contemporary climate
change is the increase in greenhouse gases (GHGs) in the atmosphere. These
gases trap heat and lead to a warming effect known as the greenhouse effect.
Major GHGs include:
• Carbon Dioxide (CO2): Produced by the burning of fossil fuels (coal, oil, and
natural gas), deforestation, and various industrial processes. CO2 is the most
significant GHG, contributing extensively to global warming.
• Methane (CH4): Emitted during the production and transport of coal, oil, and
natural gas. Additionally, methane is released from livestock digestion and
manure management, as well as from landfills.
• Nitrous Oxide (N2O): Arises from agricultural activities, such as the use of
synthetic fertilizers, and from industrial processes.
• Fluorinated Gases: Synthetic gases used in industrial applications, including
refrigerants and solvents, which have a high global warming potential but are
present in lower concentrations compared to CO2, CH4, and N2O.

b. Deforestation: The clearing of forests for agriculture, urban development, and

logging reduces the number of trees that can absorb CO2 from the atmosphere.
This not only increases CO2 levels but also disrupts ecosystems and
biodiversity.
c. Industrial and Agricultural Practices: Industrial processes and agricultural
practices contribute to climate change through:
• Energy Production: Fossil fuel-based power generation releases large quantities of
CO2 and other GHGs.
• Agriculture: Practices such as rice paddies (which produce methane) and the use of
nitrogen-based fertilizers (which release nitrous oxide) contribute significantly to
GHG emissions.
• Waste Management: Landfills produce methane as organic waste decomposes, and
improper waste disposal can exacerbate GHG emissions.

d. Urbanization: The growth of cities and urban areas often leads to increased
energy consumption, greater transportation needs, and higher emissions of
 GHGs. Urbanization also contributes to heat island effects, where urban areas
become significantly warmer than their rural surroundings.

Effects of Climate Change:

1. Rising Global Temperatures
• Heat waves: Increased frequency and intensity of heatwaves can lead to heat-related
health issues and affect ecosystems.
• Melting Ice: Accelerated melting of glaciers and ice caps contributes to rising sea
levels and affects freshwater availability.
2. Sea Level Rise
• Coastal Erosion and Flooding: Higher Sea levels lead to increased coastal erosion and
more frequent and severe flooding, threatening coastal communities and
infrastructure.
• Saltwater Intrusion: Rising sea levels can cause saltwater to enter freshwater
aquifers, affecting agriculture and drinking water supplies.
3. Extreme Weather Events
• Hurricanes and Storms: Warmer Ocean temperatures intensify hurricanes and
storms, leading to increased damage and disruption.
• Droughts: Changes in precipitation patterns can lead to prolonged droughts,
impacting water availability and agriculture.
• Heavy Rainfall and Flooding: Increased frequency of heavy rainfall can cause
widespread flooding, affecting communities and infrastructure.
4. Ecosystem Disruption
• Species Migration: Altered temperature and habitat conditions force many species to
migrate, disrupting ecosystems and leading to potential biodiversity loss.
• Coral Reef Degradation: Ocean warming and acidification cause coral bleaching,
leading to the loss of vital marine habitats.
• Habitat Loss: Shifts in climate zones result in habitat loss for numerous species,
contributing to higher extinction rates.
5. Impacts on Agriculture and Food Security
• Reduced Crop Yields: Changes in temperature and precipitation can negatively affect
crop yields and food production, threatening global food security.
• Pests and Diseases: Warmer conditions can expand the range and activity of
agricultural pests and diseases, further threatening food supplies.
6. Human Health
• Heat-Related Illnesses: Increased temperatures can lead to heat exhaustion and
heatstroke, particularly in vulnerable populations.
• Vector-Borne Diseases: Altered climate conditions can expand the range of vectors
like mosquitoes, increasing the prevalence of diseases such as malaria and dengue
fever.
 • Mental Health: The stress and trauma associated with extreme weather events and
environmental changes can affect mental well-being.
7. Economic Impacts
• Infrastructure Damage: Extreme weather events and rising sea levels can damage
infrastructure, leading to significant repair and adaptation costs.
• Insurance Costs: Higher risk of damage from climate-related events can result in
increased insurance premiums and financial burdens for businesses and individuals.

Preventive Measures:
a. Reducing Greenhouse Gas Emissions
• Transition to Renewable Energy: Shift from fossil fuels to renewable energy
sources such as wind, solar, and hydroelectric power.
• Energy Efficiency: Improve energy efficiency in buildings, transportation, and
industrial processes to reduce overall energy consumption.
• Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS): Develop and implement technologies to
capture and store CO2 emissions from industrial sources.
b. Enhancing Forest Conservation and Reforestation
• Protecting Existing Forests: Implement policies and practices to prevent
deforestation and protect existing forests.
• Reforestation Projects: Engage in large-scale reforestation and afforestation
efforts to restore degraded lands and increase carbon sequestration.
c. Sustainable Agricultural Practices
• Climate-Smart Agriculture: Adopt agricultural practices that improve
productivity while reducing greenhouse gas emissions, such as no-till farming and
precision agriculture.
• Methane Reduction: Implement strategies to reduce methane emissions from
livestock and rice paddies.
d. Improving Waste Management
• Waste Reduction and Recycling: Reduce waste generation, enhance recycling
programs, and promote composting to minimize methane emissions from
landfills.
• Waste-to-Energy Technologies: Invest in technologies that convert waste into
energy, reducing the volume of waste sent to landfills.
e. Promoting Sustainable Urban Development
• Green Building Practices: Encourage the construction of energy-efficient
buildings and the use of sustainable materials.
• Public Transportation and Green Spaces: Develop efficient public transportation
systems and increase green spaces to reduce urban heat island effects.
f. Adaptation Strategies
• Climate-Resilient Infrastructure: Design and build infrastructure that can
withstand extreme weather events and rising sea levels.
 • Disaster Preparedness: Develop and implement disaster preparedness plans and
early warning systems to reduce the impact of extreme weather events.
g. International Cooperation and Policy Development
• Global Agreements: Support and adhere to international agreements such as the
Paris Agreement, which aims to limit global warming and promote climate action.
• Climate Policy: Advocate for and support policies that promote climate mitigation
and adaptation at local, national, and international levels.
Climate change is driven primarily by human activities that increase greenhouse gas
concentrations in the atmosphere. The effects are far-reaching, impacting temperatures, sea
levels, weather patterns, ecosystems, agriculture, and human health. Addressing climate
change requires global efforts to reduce GHG emissions, adapt to changing conditions, and
build resilience against its impacts. Collective action, informed by scientific research and
policy development, is essential for mitigating the risks and ensuring a sustainable future for
all.

B. Global Warming
Global warming refers to the long-term increase in Earth’s average surface
temperature due to human activities. It is a major aspect of climate change and has far-
reaching consequences for the environment and human societies. This note outlines the
primary causes of global warming, its effects, and the preventive measures that can be taken
to address this issue.

Causes of Global Warming

a. Greenhouse Gas Emissions: The main drivers of global warming are the emissions of
greenhouse gases (GHGs), which trap heat in the Earth’s atmosphere. Major GHGs
include:
• Carbon Dioxide (CO2): The most significant GHG, primarily produced by the burning
of fossil fuels (such as coal, oil, and natural gas), deforestation, and various industrial
processes. CO2 is responsible for about three-quarters of global warming.
• Methane (CH4): A potent GHG released during the production and transport of fossil
fuels, livestock digestion, and the decay of organic waste in landfills. Methane has a
much higher heat-trapping ability than CO2 but is present in smaller quantities.
• Nitrous Oxide (N2O): Emitted from agricultural practices, especially the use of
nitrogen-based fertilizers, and from industrial processes. It has a significant warming
potential and contributes to ozone layer depletion.
• Fluorinated Gases: Synthetic gases used in industrial applications, such as
refrigerants and solvents, with a high global warming potential. Although present in
small amounts, they have a substantial warming effect due to their potency.

b. Deforestation: Forests play a crucial role in absorbing CO2 from the atmosphere.
Deforestation for agriculture, urban development, and logging reduces the number of
 trees available to sequester carbon, increasing atmospheric CO2 levels and contributing
to global warming.

c. Industrial and Agricultural Practices: Industrial processes and agricultural activities

contribute to global warming through:
• Energy Production: Fossil fuel-based energy generation is a major source of CO2 and
other GHGs.
• Agricultural Practices: Practices such as rice cultivation and livestock farming
produce significant quantities of methane and nitrous oxide.
• Waste Management: Landfills generate methane as organic waste decomposes,
contributing to global warming.

d. Urbanization
The expansion of urban areas increases energy consumption, primarily for heating, cooling,
and transportation, which leads to higher GHG emissions. Urbanization also results in the
heat island effect, where cities become significantly warmer than surrounding rural areas
due to increased absorption and retention of heat.

Effects of Global Warming:

1. Rising Temperatures
• Increased Heat waves: More frequent and severe heatwaves can lead to health issues
such as heat exhaustion and heatstroke, and stress ecosystems.
• Melting Ice and Snow: Accelerated melting of glaciers and polar ice caps contributes
to rising sea levels and affects freshwater resources.
2. Sea Level Rise
• Coastal Erosion: Rising sea levels increase coastal erosion, threatening coastal
communities and infrastructure.
• Flooding: Higher sea levels lead to more frequent and severe flooding in coastal areas,
displacing populations and damaging property.
• Saltwater Intrusion: Increased sea levels can cause saltwater to infiltrate freshwater
aquifers, impacting agriculture and drinking water supplies.
3. Extreme Weather Events
• Intensified Hurricanes and Storms: Warmer Ocean temperatures can lead to stronger
and more destructive hurricanes and storms.
• Droughts: Changes in precipitation patterns can cause prolonged droughts, affecting
water supply and agriculture.
• Heavy Rainfall and Flooding: Increased heavy rainfall events can lead to widespread
flooding and damage to infrastructure.
4. Ecosystem Disruption
• Species Migration: Shifts in temperature and habitat conditions force species to
migrate, which can disrupt ecosystems and lead to biodiversity loss.
 • Coral Bleaching: Ocean warming and acidification cause coral bleaching, leading to
the degradation of coral reefs, which are critical marine ecosystems.
• Habitat Loss: Altered climate zones result in habitat loss for many species,
contributing to higher extinction rates.
5. Impacts on Agriculture and Food Security
• Reduced Crop Yields: Changes in temperature and precipitation can decrease crop
yields and threaten food security.
• Increased Pests and Diseases: Warmer temperatures can expand the range of
agricultural pests and diseases, further affecting food production.
6. Human Health
• Heat-Related Illnesses: Increased temperatures can lead to heat-related health issues,
particularly for vulnerable populations.
• Vector-Borne Diseases: Changes in climate can expand the range of vectors like
mosquitoes, increasing the prevalence of diseases such as malaria and dengue fever.
• Mental Health: The stress and trauma from extreme weather events and
environmental changes can affect mental health and well-being.
7. Economic Impacts
• Damage to Infrastructure: Extreme weather events and rising sea levels can damage
infrastructure, resulting in costly repairs and adaptations.
• Insurance Costs: Increased risk from climate-related events can lead to higher
insurance premiums and financial burdens.

Preventive Measures:
1. Reducing Greenhouse Gas Emissions
• Transition to Renewable Energy: Shift from fossil fuels to renewable energy sources
such as wind, solar, and hydropower to reduce CO2 emissions.
• Energy Efficiency: Enhance energy efficiency in buildings, vehicles, and industries to
lower overall energy consumption and emissions.
• Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS): Implement technologies to capture and store CO2
emissions from industrial sources and power plants.
2. Promoting Reforestation and Afforestation
• Protect Existing Forests: Implement policies and practices to prevent deforestation
and protect existing forests.
• Reforestation Projects: Engage in reforestation and afforestation efforts to restore
degraded lands and increase carbon sequestration.
3. Sustainable Agricultural Practices
• Climate-Smart Agriculture: Adopt agricultural practices that enhance productivity
while minimizing GHG emissions, such as precision farming and improved livestock
management.
 • Methane Reduction: Implement strategies to reduce methane emissions from
livestock and rice paddies, such as improved feed and manure management.
4. Waste Management Improvements
• Reduce, Reuse, Recycle: Promote waste reduction, enhance recycling programs, and
support composting to minimize methane emissions from landfills.
• Waste-to-Energy Technologies: Invest in technologies that convert waste into energy,
reducing landfill use and associated GHG emissions.
5. Sustainable Urban Development
• Green Building Standards: Promote the construction of energy-efficient buildings and
use sustainable materials.
• Public Transportation and Green Spaces: Develop efficient public transportation
systems and increase green spaces to mitigate the urban heat island effect and reduce
energy consumption.
6. Adaptation Strategies
• Climate-Resilient Infrastructure: Design and build infrastructure that can withstand
extreme weather events and rising sea levels.
• Disaster Preparedness: Develop and implement disaster preparedness plans and
early warning systems to reduce the impact of extreme weather events.
7. International Cooperation and Policy Development
• Global Agreements: Support and adhere to international agreements such as the Paris
Agreement, which aims to limit global warming and promote climate action.
• Climate Policy: Advocate for and support policies that promote climate mitigation and
adaptation at local, national, and international levels.

Global warming is driven by human activities that increase greenhouse gas

concentrations in the atmosphere. Its effects are extensive, impacting temperatures, sea
levels, weather patterns, ecosystems, agriculture, and human health. Addressing global
warming requires a combination of reducing GHG emissions, adopting sustainable practices,
and implementing adaptation strategies. Collective action, supported by scientific research
and effective policy development, is essential for mitigating the risks and ensuring a
sustainable future for all.

C. Acid Rain
Acid rain is a widespread term used to describe all forms of acid precipitation (rain,
snow, hail and fog). Atmospheric pollutants, particularly oxides of sulphur and nitrogen, can
cause precipitation to become more acidic when converted to sulphuric and nitric acids,
hence the term acid rain.
Acid deposition, acid rain and acid precipitation all relate to the chemistry of air
pollution and moisture in the atmosphere. UK scientists generally use the term acid
deposition but all three terms relate to the same issue.
 The term acid rain was first used by Robert Angus Smith, a scientist working in
Manchester in the 1870s. The problem of acid rain is hence not a new one but the nature of
the problem has changed from being a local problem for towns and cities to being an
international problem.
In Smith’s time, acid rain fell both in towns and cities whilst today pollutants can be
transported thousands of kilometers due to the introduction of tall chimneys dispersing
pollutants high into the atmosphere.

Sources of Acidic Pollutants:

Precipitation is naturally acidic because of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. The
burning of fossil fuels (coal, oil and gas) produces sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides which
can increase the acidity of ram or other precipitation. Sources of sulphur dioxide and oxides
of nitrogen may be natural such as volcanoes, oceans, biological decay and forest fires, or
may arise from combustion sources.
The increasing demand for electricity and the rise in the number of motor vehicles in
recent decades has meant that emissions of acidifying pollutants have increased
dramatically from human sources, particularly since the 1950s. Emissions of such pollutants
are heavily concentrated in the northern hemisphere, especially in Europe and North
America. As a result, precipitation is generally acidic in these countries.
In the 1970s and 1980s, Scandinavian countries began to notice the effects of acid
deposition on trees and freshwaters. Much of the pollution causing this damage was
identified as being transported from other more polluting countries. Acid rain became an
international concern.

Measuring Acidity of Acid Rain:

The pH (not PH) scale is used to measure the acidity or alkalinity of an aqueous
solution and is determined by the hydrogen ion content (H+). This scale was invented by a
Danish scientist called Sorenson in 1909. The pH scale ranges from 0, which is strongly acid,
to 14 which is strongly alkaline, the scale point 7 being neutral.

The pH scale is logarithmic rather than linear and so there is a tenfold increase in
acidity with each pH unit, such that rainfall with pH 5 is ten times more acidic than pH 6,
rainfall with pH 4 is 100 times more acidic than pH 6 and rainfall with pH 3 is 1000 times
more acidic than pH 6.
Rainfall acidity is measured in pH units. The individual pH readings may be converted
to hydrogen ions to give a linear rather than a logarithmic representation of acidity. To
convert the pH values to hydrogen ions, the following formula applies:
H+ µeql-1 = antilog (6.0 – pH)
Where, H+ µeql-1 is the hydrogen ion content in micro equivalents per litre (a unit which
measures the concentration of hydrogen ions in a litre of water).
For example, the H+ ion content of rainwater with pH 4.54 is:
H+ µeql-1 = antilog (6.0 – 4.54) = 29
The hydrogen ion content of a number of pH values are given in the following table and are
illustrated on Fig. 16.1.

‘Normal’ or ‘unpolluted’ rainfall has a pH of 5.6 (3 µeql-1 H+). This is slightly acidic due
to the presence of carbon dioxide in die atmosphere winch forms weak carbonic acid in
water. The rainwater pH for the example given above (pH 4.54) is almost 10 times more
acidic than ‘unpolluted’ ram.

Effects of Acid Rain:

Acid rain produces complex problems and their effects are:
(a) Effect on Fishes:
Due to acid rain many water bodies in Germany and other European countries have a
pH of less than 5. This acidity level is considered to be lethal for many fish species. Acidic
water can also leach aluminium from the soil and carry this dissolved aluminium to lakes
and streams.
In alkaline or new-neutral lakes aluminium concentrations present in rocks, soil and
sediments are very low. As the pH decreases, the previously insoluble aluminium goes into
solution. This dissolved aluminium clogs the gills of fish and deprives them of oxygen.

(b) Effect on Lake Ecosystem:

 Thousand of lakes in USA, Canada, and Norway etc. have become unproductive due to
acidity. It has low levels of phytoplankton. Snails, clams and other animals with shells
(calcium carbonate) gets readily dissolved by acid water (as given below) and are among the
first animals to die and are followed by fishes:
CaCO3 + H2SO4 → CaSO4 + CO2 + H2O
Some insects like dragon fly larvae, water boatman etc. replace fishes at the top of the
food chain in acidic lakes. Aquatic plants (broad-leafed pondweeds etc.) die and the lake
becomes covered with moss mats. Bacteria and other microscopic animals are also reduced.

(c) Effect on Terrestrial Ecosystem:

In terrestrial plants acid rain causes:
a. Reduced rate of photosynthesis and growth.
b. Becomes sensitive to drought and diseases.
c. Retarded growth in a variety of crops like beans, radish, spinach etc.
d. Activity of nitrogen fixing bacteria are severely affected which ultimately hampers
the nitrogen cycle.
e. Trees like spruce, pine ashes, birch etc. appears to be highly vulnerable to acid depo-
sition (in Germany nearly 8 percent of forest trees died due to acid rain).

(d) Effect on Materials:

Acid rain causes extensive damage to paints steel, plastic, building and sculptured
materials of marble, limestone, slate, mortar etc. The Taj Mahal of India faces a grave
situation due to acid rain.

(e) Effect on Human Health:

Atmospheric acidity causes chronic respiratory problems. Heavy metals such as
copper, cadmium, zinc, mercury etc., are liberated from soil and bedrock by acid rain which
eventually reaches the human body via plants and animals in the food chair or through
drinking water supplies.

Control Strategy of Acid Rain:

There are two major control strategies which are adopted viz., vehicular emission control
and industrial emission control. Most of these strategies are already applied in Europe.

1. Vehicle Emission Control:

In 2000 there were 24.8 million passenger cars and light goods vehicles licensed in
the UK. In 1950 there were 2.4 million, over a tenfold increase in licensed UK cars and light
goods vehicles in just 50 years. World car populations have increased at a similar rate from
around 50 million in 1950 to an estimated 630 million in the early 1990s and predicted
escalation to 1,000 million by the 2020s.
 UK consumption of energy during 2000 accounted for 160.1 million tonnes of oil
equivalent. Motor vehicles accounted for over a third of this, and are consequently a major
contributor to gaseous air pollution, in particular from nitrogen oxides, hydrocarbons and
carbon monoxide. In 1999, road transport contributed considerable air pollutants.

A motor vehicle produces air pollutants when fuel is burnt to give mechanical power.
In a totally efficient combustion process, hydrocarbons and oxygen will react to form carbon
dioxide and water. However, the combustion process is never perfect; some of the
hydrocarbon fuel is only partially burnt forming carbon monoxide and water, whilst some of
the hydrocarbons are not combusted at all.
These can, and often are, emitted from the exhaust as unburned hydrocarbons. Dur-
ing the combustion process the temperature can reach 250°C. At these temperatures
nitrogen and oxygen from the air in the combustion chamber react to form nitrogen oxides.
Vehicle pollution can be significantly reduced by fitting a catalytic converter to the
exhaust system. This is a relatively low-cost method of pollution control (around £350)
which has little effect on vehicle performance and fuel consumption. All new cars sold in
Britain from January 1993 onwards have catalytic converters but most cars bought before
1993 will not have one fitted.
The most widely used catalytic converter consists of a cylindrical ceramic body with
a honeycomb structure, chemically treated and coated with platinum group metals. The
honeycomb structure enables a high surface area (equivalent to three football pitches) to be
incorporated within a relatively small space.
This is critical to the durability and reliability of performance. The catalyst is usually
incorporated into the car exhaust system.
 There are three basic types of catalyst, an oxidation catalyst which controls the
emission of hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide by oxidising the pollutants to water and
carbon dioxide, a three-way catalyst which provides efficient removal of nitrogen oxides,
carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons, and a diesel catalyst which controls the emissions of
hydrocarbons (the characteristic diesel smell) and carbon monoxide.
The catalyst will also substantially reduce smoke emissions.
The United States of America and Japan first introduced tough standards for
controlling emissions from motor vehicles in the early 1970s. The US standards can only be
met by the use of catalytic converters. Many European countries including Switzerland,
Austria, Sweden and Norway also adopted US standards during the 1980s.
In 1990, a European Community Directive stated that all petrol engine cars sold in EC
countries from January 1993 must be fitted with a three-way catalytic converter. Europe has
been slow to act on the link between vehicle emissions and acid rain and air quality.
Directly and indirectly vehicle emissions make a significant contribution to the cause
of acid deposition, the formation of photochemical smog and are a potential risk to human
health.
The major gases leading to the formation of acid. deposition arc sulphur dioxide (SO2)
and nitrogen oxides NOX. Vehicles do not produce much sulphur dioxide as petroleum
contains very little sulphur. In 1999, vehicles contributed only 1% of the UK SO2 emissions
whilst power stations being the major source of the total UK SO2 emissions contributed 65%.
Nitrogen oxides from vehicles are however, a major contributor to acid deposition in
the UK.
In 1999, road transport accounted for 44% of NOx emissions. The atmospheric
chemistry of nitrogen oxides is complex but generally speaking, the nitrogen oxides arising
from motor vehicles may either be oxidized to nitric acid or react with hydrocarbons to form
ozone.
Photochemical smog, sometimes called summertime smog is the result of the
sunlight-stimulated reaction between hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxides leading to the
formation of low-level atmospheric ozone and other chemical oxidants.
Such smogs and hazes are typical of warmer cities, a particularly well known example
being Los Angeles. However, many instances of photochemical smog’s have occurred in the
UK in recent years which may be due to the growth of vehicle ownership.
 Winter time smogs also occur when atmospheric pollutants, mainly those found in
car exhausts, arc trapped at ground level by a layer of colder air above towns and cities.
During high pressure conditions warm air rises during the daytime but if this is followed by
a cloudless night, ground level temperatures fall and cold air rises but is trapped by warmer
air above. The cold air forms a lid if conditions are calm, trapping pollutants from vehicles
and other sources.
Health risks associated with car exhaust emissions are usually connected with carbon
monoxide which reduces the oxygen carrying capacity of the blood. However, nitrogen
oxides can cause breathing problems at high concentrations and therefore sufferers from
emphysema and chronic bronchitis are likely to be most at risk.
Some of the hydrocarbons found in vehicle exhaust fumes are known to be
carcinogenic. Indirect effects of vehicle emissions on health may arise when air pollution
episodes occur such as summertime or wintertime smogs. At such times, those suffering
from heart or lung diseases may find that their symptoms worsen.
The increase in use of catalytic converters on vehicles should in the long-term help to
reduce emissions of pollutants from vehicles although the continued growth in car
ownership may impede this improvement.

2. Industrial Emission Control:

Acidic emissions of sulphur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOX) arise from many
industrial sources as a result of combustion processes. In the UK in 1999, power stations
contributed 65% of all SO2 emitted in the UK. Other industries were responsible for 21%.
Industries also emit nitrogen oxides which can also cause rainfall to become more
acidic. While road transport is the major source of NOx in the UK (44% in 1999), power
stations accounted for 21% and other industries 13% in 1999. There are many technologies
which can be used in industry to reduce the emissions of pollutants to the atmosphere and
these can be applied before, during or after combustion.

3. Pre-Combustion and During Combustion Technology:

Examples of pre-combustion technology include coal scrubbing and oil
desulphurization. Another removal process is to change the design of the boiler and to install
pressurized fluidized bed combustors (FBC) which removes sulphur from coal during coal
during combustion.
Another process which removes sulphur dioxide from coal during combustion is the
Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle. Coal is gasified under pressure with a mixture of air
and steam which results in the formation of gas which can then be burned to produce
electricity.
4. Post-Combustion Technology:
One of the post-combustion controls is Flue Gas Desulphurization (FGD). In FGD
processes, waste gases are scrubbed with a chemical absorbent such as limestone to remove
sulphur dioxide. There are many different FGD processes, the main ones being the limestone-
gypsum process and the Wellman-Lord regenerative process.
The limestone-gypsum FGD is installed at Drax in Yorkshire, the largest UK power
station. This technology involves mixing limestone and water with the flue gases to produce
slurry which absorbs the sulphur dioxide.
The slurry is then oxidized to calcium sulphate (gypsum) which can then be used in
the building trade. However, whilst the benefits of FGD are known, the costs of installing FGD
are very high. To install a 2GW power station with FGD costs around £300 million.

5. Fuel Efficiency:
Some fuels are naturally less polluting in terms of acidic emissions (e.g., gas), whilst
the traditional coal power generation in the UK is more polluting, depending on the amount
of sulphur there is in the coal being burnt.
To help reduce atmospheric emissions of SO2 and NOx in the UK, many of the more
recent power stations have been built to operate on gas rather than coal.

The current trend in the UK is a move from gas to coal due to the low levels of sulphur
dioxide, nitrogen oxides, dust and carbon dioxide emitted when gas is burned. However,
whilst gas is currently plentiful, availability in the long-term is unknown.
Hence, research is being carried out into techniques for reducing sulphur dioxide
emissions from coal such as FBC and IGCC. Such techniques are unlikely to be used on a
commercial scale until well after the year 2000.

Legislative Control of Acid Rain:

 The UK, as a member country of the European Union, is under obligation to comply
with the Large Combustion Plant Directive of 1988 which concerns reductions in emissions
of SO2 and NOx from plants over 50MW in size. The UK is, under this Directive, required to
reduce SO2 by 60% by 2003 and NOx by 30% by 1998 (from 1980 levels).
The UK is also a Party to the Gothenburg Protocol, designed to Abate Acidification,
Eutrophication and Ground-level Ozone. The UK is committed to reducing 1990 emissions of
sulphur dioxide by 75% by 2010 and nitrogen oxide by 50% over the same period.
In addition, the UK National Air Quality Strategy sets out standards and objectives for
reducing key air pollutants to be achieved by the year 2005. To meet the objectives for the
acid deposition pollutants (largely SO2 and NOx), industry will have a significant part to play
in reducing emissions.
As most of the SO2 emitted in the UK is from industry and power generation,
reduction in annual emissions will be necessary from industrial sources. The use of cleaner
fuels and the use of control technologies will be required at all new industrial plants if
SO2 levels are to continue in a downward trend.
There can be no quick solution to the control of acid rain. However, certain actions
can be taken as fundamental requirements, such as-
(i) The recognition that acid rain is a serious problem.
(ii) The knowledge that reduction of emissions is the best solution.
(iii) Need for regular monitoring to provide warning about acidification of our
environment.
Short term control measures of acid rain can be achieved by the use of lime, so as to
provide the lakes with an alkaline pH. Some ecologists have suggested applying lime to entire
water-sheds, including forests rather than just to individual lakes. However, such actions
require the involvement of a large sum of money.

D. Ozone Layer Depletion

The lower most atmospheric layer is troposphere extending up to 8 to 10 km at poles
and 16 to 18 km at equator. The next layer is stratosphere extending from troposphere upto
a height of 50 to 55 km. Ozone (O3) is present in stratosphere and, therefore, stratosphere is
also called as ozonosphere. It is rich layer of ozone that absorbs 9990 harmful ultraviolet
radiations from the sun.
Thickness of ozone is measured in Dobson units (D.U.). The concentration of ozone is
0.3 ppm or 300 D.U. in stratosphere. Protection against UV radiation is proportional to
thickness of ozone layer. In stratosphere ozone is formed and dissociated reversibly.
Depletion of ozone refers to thinning of ozone shield or depletion in concentration of
ozone. Drastic depletion in concentration of ozone over a restricted area is called ozone hole
(example-over antarctica). Under such circumstances, more and more UV radiation would
reach earth-surface. This radiation has mutagenic property.
 It causes dimer formation by pairing thymine with thymine during DNA replication.
It adversely affects human health with increasing severe sunburns, skin cancer and catract
of the eyes. The earth would become uninhabitable for most of flora and fauna. UV radiations
have three forms, viz., UV-A (wave length 320 to 400 nm); UV-B (280-320 nm) and UV-C
(200-280 nm).

Lesser the wave length, greater is the lethal effect. Thus UV-C is most dangerous
which is completely absorbed by ozone umbrella. UV-B radiation is likely to cause immune
system suppression in animals, lower crop yields a decline in productivity of forests and
surface-dwelling planktons.

Causes of Ozone Depletion:

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), methane and nitrogen oxides are responsible for ozone layer
depletion in stratosphere. Excessive use of fossil fuels, burning of biomass, use of biogas
plants, paddy cultivation, use of air conditioners and refrigerators using CFCs are the
important man-made sources. Volcanoes, lightning and thunder and anaerobic
decomposition of organic matter are the natural causes of ozone depletion.
The Ozone Hole
In the year 1980 scientists reported the depletion of the ozone layer in the region of
Antarctica which is commonly known as the ozone hole. Ozone layer depletion occurs due to
unique sets of climatic conditions. In the summer, nitrogen dioxide and methane react with
chlorine monoxide and chlorine atoms which results in a shrinkage of chlorine and hence
prevents ozone layer depletion.
ClO (g) + NO2 (g) → ClONO2 (g)
Cl (g) + CH4 (g) → CH3 (g) + HCl (g)

During winter, special types of clouds are formed over the Antarctic region. These
clouds provide the surface for the hydrolysis of chlorine nitrate to form hypochlorous acid.
Chlorine nitrate also reacts with hydrogen chloride thereby producing molecular chlorine.
ClONO2 (g) + H2O (g) → HOCl (g) + HNO3 (g)
ClONO2 (g) + HCl (g) → Cl2 (g) + HNO3 (g)
During spring, sunlight enters Antarctica and breaks up the clouds. Photolysis of HOCl
and Cl2 occurs which forms chlorine radicals and this reaction initiates the ozone layer
depletion.

Prevention and Measures

Many plants and animals find it difficult to survive in areas having a high temperature. In
such cases, the changes in climatic conditions are the main reason for their extinction. The
following measures should be taken to prevent the ozone layer depletion:
 • Private vehicle driving should be limited – Vehicular emission results in
smog, which harms the ozone layer. Carpooling, using public modes of
transportation, walking, cycling etc should be promoted.
• Avoid using pesticides – Pesticides are used for get ting rid of weeds but are
very harmful to the ozone layer. Natural remedies should be used instead of
pesticides.
• Using eco-friendly products – We can use eco-friendly cleaning products for
domestic purposes and save the ozone from further deterioration.
• Replacing CFCs used in air conditioners and refrigerators
– Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) have been identified as potential replacements
for CFCs (which is the major cause of Ozone Layer Depletion) as they have an
Ozone Depletion Potential of 0. The use of HFCs in place of CFCs will go a long
way in protecting our Ozone layer from getting depleted.
• Proper Waste disposal techniques – Avoid burning waste materials like
plastic and other materials. Give non-decomposable products for recycling or
try and reuse them for other purposes.

International Effect to Reduce Ozone Depletion:

United Nations Environment Program has taken steps to find solution for ozone
depletion.
1. Montreal Protocol (Kith Sept. 1987) 27 industrialized countries agreed to limit production
of chlorofluorocarbons to half the level of 1986.
2. Helsinki Declaration (May ’89) 82 nations pledged to phase out CFCs by 2000 A.D.
3. In June 1990, 93 nations agreed to phase out CFCs and other ozone depleting compounds
by the end of 20th century. Till now 175 nations have signed it.

Degradation by Improper Resource Utilization and Maintenance:

Nature and environment around us provide variety of materials which are
collectively called as natural resources. These are air, water, soil, minerals along with climate
and solar energy that are abiotic factors and the other part is biotic components such as
plants, animals and microorganisms. Pollution is not the only cause of degradation of natural
resources. Improper utilization practices can also lead to degradation of natural resources.

The following two mis-utilization of soil resources have been studied:

1. Soil Erosion and Desertification:
Soil is the upper most layer of earth crust ranging in thickness from a few cm to
several meters. Fertile top soil takes hundreds of years to develop. But faulty utilization
practices can destroy it within a few years and may be converted to an arid patch. This
happens due to human activities like deforestation, overgrazing, over-cultivation leaving
Borren soil without seedling and improper irrigation. Soil without vegetation cover is eroded
by both wind and water being converted into a sandy patch.

2. Waterlogging and Soil Salinity:

Excessive irrigation, ‘Kutcha’ irrigation channels, impermeable underground soil
patches and poor drainage system result in water logging of soil. Waterlogged soil is unfit for
plant growth because such soil has poor aeration.
Evaporation of water from surface causes salt deposition on the soil. A crust of salt on the
surface of soil makes it saline and unfit for growth of crops.

International agreements and programs

a. Earth Summit
The Rio Summit was one of the first instances when the international community joined
hands to deliberate about human development and the environment. The Earth Summit
paved the way for more serious environmental discourse in the public sphere. Governments
decided to consider environmental impact in all their policies and developmental projects
after the Earth Summit. Although the summit was for two weeks, the preparations for the
summit began by 1989. It outlined the steps to achieve sustainable development in the
future. It was also a momentous event as NGOs were deeply involved in the consultative and
drafting process.
(i) The UN Conference on Environment and Development that took place in Rio de
Janeiro (Brazil) in June 1992 is referred to as the Rio Summit or the Earth Summit
(1992).
(ii) It was convened to discuss issues related to development and the environment.
Representatives from over 178 countries were in attendance.
(iii) Maurice Strong served as the Conference’s Secretary General. He was also the
Secretary General of the UN Conference on Human Environment, Stockholm
(1972). He was a Canadian businessman and Under Secretary General of the UN.
He referred to the Rio Summit as a “historic moment for humanity”.
 (iv) The Earth Summit was not centered around a single issue, rather it focused on
delving out a broad plan on how to approach the environment in a fast developing
world.
(v) The following legally binding documents were opened for signature at the Rio
Summit- Convention on Biological Diversity, Framework Convention on Climate
Change, United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification
(vi) The key documents that came out of the Rio Summit are: Rio Declaration, Agenda
21 and the Forest Principles

Features of Rio Earth Summit 1992

(a) The Rio Earth Summit was officially known as the United Nations Conference on
Environment and Development (UNCED). It was held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, from
June 3 to 14, 1992.
(b) The summit brought together representatives from 178 countries. These included
heads of state, government officials, and delegates from various organizations.
(c) The main agenda of the summit was to address pressing global environmental issues
and promote sustainable development.
(d) The Rio Earth Summit resulted in the adoption of several important environmental
treaties. This included the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
(UNFCCC) and the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD).
(e) The summit produced Agenda 21, a comprehensive action plan for sustainable
development. It outlined strategies for addressing environmental, social, and
economic challenges.
(f) The principle of common but differentiated responsibilities, recognizing the differing
responsibilities of developed and developing countries in environmental protection
and sustainable development, was reaffirmed at the summit.
(g) The Rio Earth Summit emphasized the importance of involving non-governmental
organizations (NGOs) and other stakeholders in environmental decision-making
processes.
(h) The summit highlighted the need for integrating economic development, social
equity, and environmental protection to achieve sustainable development.

Major Outcomes of the Rio Summit 1992

A. Rio Declaration on Environment and Development
o It reaffirmed the Stockholm Convention of 1972 and vowed to build upon it.
o More than 175 countries were signatories to the Rio Declaration.
o The stated goal was to establish new and equitable international partnerships to
reach global agreements on the issues of development and environment.
o Humans were seen as central to any new initiative. They deserve a productive life in
harmony with nature. (Principle 1)
o It affirmed the sovereignty of states to act on issues of environment and urged them
to take steps to reduce harmful practices. (Principle 2)
o The goal is to make sure that there are enough resources left for the future
generations for leading a peaceful life. (Principle 3)
o The Declaration as part of the Rio Summit called for placing environmental protection
at the centre of sustainable development. (Principle 4)
o Global Poverty has to be addressed and regional disparities should be accounted for
while drawing up policies. (Principle 5)
o Special Priority should be accorded to developing and most vulnerable countries. The
developed countries should take a lead in creating global partnerships and providing
support to other nations. (Principle 6 & 7)
o Scientific and technical knowledge should be utilized in the production and
consumption process to minimize the damage to the environment. (Principle 8 & 9)
o The states should ensure that all relevant information regarding environmental
protection is passed on to the citizens at appropriate times. They should also come up
with legislations and regulations keeping in mind the local developmental context.
The Rio Declaration also asks states to restrain from unfair trade restrictions and
arbitrary policies that might harm other countries (Principle 10, 11, 12).
o The concept of loss and damage should be applied to pollution and adequate
compensation provided. They should also ensure that countries don’t transfer
hazardous materials to other countries (Principles 13,14).
o The Rio Declaration also called for more active participation of women and youth in
driving change towards sustainable development (Principle 20 &21).
o It also calls on states to integrate knowledge systems of indigenous communities for
environment protection (Principle 22).

B. Agenda 21
o The Brundtland Commission resulted in the creation of Agenda 21, a non-binding
action plan.
o It was the outcome of the United Nations Conference on Environment and
Development, commonly known as the Rio Summit, held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
(1992).
o The number ‘21′ represented the goal of attaining long-term progress in the twenty-
first century. It emphasized the importance of local governments in accomplishing
long-term goals.
o ‘No nation alone can, Together We Can’- These words from the Preamble of Agenda
21 underline the entire spirit of the Earth Summit.
o It is divided into 4 sections- Social and Economic Dimensions, Conservation and
Management of Resources for Development, Strengthening the Role of Major Groups,
Means of Implementation.
 o The Rio 5+ conference held during the UN General Assembly and Rio 10+ held in
Johannesburg evaluated the progress achieved post Agenda 21.

C. Forest Principles
o It is officially referred to as the “Non-legally Binding Authoritative Statement Of
Principles For A Global Consensus On The Management, Conservation And
Sustainable Development Of All Types Of Forests”
o The principles were drafted to the conservation and management of forests
worldwide. Issues related to forest management should be dealt with in a holistic and
balanced manner.
o The final draft of the forest principles was a compromise between the developing and
developed nations.
o It grants states the sovereign right to exploit their natural resources.
o The conversions of forest areas for developmental activities are the sole concern of
individual states depending on their economic circumstances.
b. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
(UNFCCC)
UNFCCC is the primary multilateral treaty governing actions to combat climate
change through adaptation and mitigation efforts directed at control of emission of Green
House Gases (GHGs) that cause global warming. Even though climate change is a global
concern some of the countries are majorly responsible for greenhouse gas emissions into the
atmosphere. Many island nations are facing the major brunt of this Climate Change in the
form of sea-level rise, cyclones, erratic weather conditions, etc. UNFCCC is a major step in the
direction to control the downward spiral of climate change.
It is called the Rio Convention along with its sister conventions:
1. UN Convention on Biological Diversity and
2. UN Convention to Combat Desertification.

About UNFCCC:
• The first global conference on climate change was held in 1972 in Stockholm,
Sweden.
• This conference ushered in numerous global negotiations and international
agreements on the environment.
• All of these culminated in the establishment of the United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) in Rio de Janeiro in Brazil, in 1992.
• The treaty sets limits on GHG emissions in countries, but these are not binding and
there are no enforcement mechanisms either.
• However, there are provisions for updates or protocols that can be used to set legally
binding emission limits on countries.
 • The parties to the convention meet annually in the Conference of the Parties or COP
to review the progress under the convention.

Categories of Parties (Countries) associated with UNFCCC

The categories of countries that are signatories to UNFCCC are given in the table below:
Category of Parties Meaning
Annex I 43 parties (countries) come under this category. The countries
that come under this category are developed countries.
Annex II 24 countries of Annex I also come under Annex II countries. The
countries in this category are expected to provide technical and
financial assistance to countries coming under the category of
developing countries.
Annex B The countries in this category are Annex I countries, who have
first or second-round Kyoto greenhouse gas emissions targets.
Least-developed 47 Parties (countries) come under the category of LDCs. These
countries (LDCs) countries are given special status under the treaty taking into
consideration their limitations adapting to the effects of climate
change.
Non-Annex I Parties (countries) that are not listed in Annex I that come under
the category of low-income developing countries.

The Kyoto Protocol was adopted at the third session of the UNFCCC. This protocol is
based on the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities, keeping in mind the
socio-economic development of the concerned countries and the polluter pays principle.
Another important agreement within the UNFCCC is the Paris Agreement (COP 21)
which aims to reduce and mitigate GHG emissions.

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and India

• India ratified the UNFCCC in 1993.
• The nodal agency for the UNFCCC in India is the Ministry of Environment, Forests and
Climate Change (MoEFCC).
• Since India is a developing country, it is not required to adhere to GHG mitigation
commitments because of its relatively smaller emissions and also because of lesser
technical and financial capacities.
• India has been a big champion of the principles of Equity and Common But
Differentiated Responsibilities and Respective Capability (CBDR-RC) at the
Convention.
 • This is primarily based on the belief that developed countries have largely been
responsible for the huge emission levels, owing to their being industrialized decades
before the other countries.
• A scientific study carried on greenhouse gas emissions from the time period
1850 to 2012 estimated that the US, China and the European Union would
contribute to 50 per cent of temperature increase by 2100.
• The total emissions’ share in the given time period of the US, European Union,
and China is 20%, 17%, 12% respectively.
• On the other hand, India is responsible for only 5%.
• Another reason is that developing countries and LDCs would have to accord
eradicating poverty and other developmental activities more priority as compared to
environmental concerns. So, they should be allowed leeway in assessing capabilities
in addressing climate change.
• India has played an active role in taking steps to mitigate climate change, as the
country is exposed to risks associated with climate change like erratic monsoons and
natural calamities like floods, droughts, landslides, etc.
• National Environment Policy, 2006 promotes sustainable development along with
respect for ecological constraints and the imperatives of social justice.
• The Government of India launched the National Action Plan on Climate Change in
2008. Read more about it in the linked article.
• At COP 21 (Paris Agreement), India had made various commitments to be achieved
by 2030.
• One commitment was to create an additional carbon sink of 2.5 to 3 billion
tons of CO2 equivalent through additional forest and tree cover by 2030.
• For more on the commitments made by India, check the article on Paris
Agreement.
• India was instrumental in the formation of the Coalition for Disaster Resilient
Infrastructure. Read more about it in PIB dated Nov 14, 2019.
• In the UN Climate talks that were held in Poland, India reiterated that the CBDR
principle must be adhered to even as there were growing concerns that developed
countries were trying to dilute it.
UNFCCC COP
There is a total of 25 COPs to UNFCCC that have met since 1994. The list of UNFCCC
Conference of Parties is given below:
UNFCCC Conference of the Parties
UNFCCC COP1 1985, Berlin
UNFCCC COP2 1996, Geneva
UNFCCC COP3 1997, Kyoto
UNFCCC COP4 1998, Buenos Aires
UNFCCC COP5 1999, Bonn
UNFCCC COP6 2001, The Hague
UNFCCC COP7 2001, Marrakesh
UNFCCC COP8 2002, New Delhi
UNFCCC COP9 2003, Milan
UNFCCC COP10 2004, Buenos Aires
UNFCCC COP11 2005, Montreal
UNFCCC COP12 2006, Nairobi
UNFCCC COP13 2007, Bali
UNFCCC COP14 2008, Poznan
UNFCCC COP15 2009, Copenhagen
UNFCCC COP16 2010, Cancun
UNFCCC COP17 2011, Durban
UNFCCC COP18 2012, Doha
UNFCCC COP19 2013, Warsaw
UNFCCC COP20 2014, Lima
UNFCCC COP21 2015, Paris
UNFCCC COP22 2016, Marrakesh
UNFCCC COP23 2017, Bonn
UNFCCC COP24 2018, Katowice
UNFCCC COP25 2019, Madrid

c. Montreal Protocol
The Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer is an important
Multilateral Agreement regulating the production, consumption, and emissions of ozone-
depleting substances (ODSs). It is an important part of international environmental
conventions and protocols. This article gives background to the Montreal Protocol, shares
some details on the Ozone layer, important points on the Montreal Protocol, successes
associated with the Montreal Protocol, and the association of India with the Montreal
Protocol.
Montreal Protocol is related to the regulation of ozone depleting substances, signed
in 1987 but came into force in 1989.
 By the late 1970s, scientists were able to prove that chemical substances that were
used in air conditioners, refrigerators, and aerosol cans were causing damage to the ozone
layer. In 1985, a huge hole was discovered in the ozone layer over Antarctica. This hole
allowed hazardous levels of ultraviolet (UV) radiation to reach the earth’s surface.
The Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer was signed in 1985
under which UN member countries recognized the importance of curbing damage to the
ozone layer. As per the Convention’s provisions, countries agreed to adopt the Montreal
Protocol to further the goals of the Vienna Convention.

Ozone Layer
1. It is a layer in the earth’s stratosphere that contains high levels of ozone.
2. This layer protects the earth from the Sun’s harmful UV radiation. It absorbs 97 – 99%
of the UV radiation from the Sun.
3. In the absence of the ozone layer, millions of people would be affected by skin
diseases including cancer and weakened immune systems.
4. UV radiation would also affect the environment adversely leading to decreased
productivity.
5. Fauna on earth is also adversely affected by ozone layer depletion.

Ozone Layer Depletion

1. This refers to the thinning of the protective ozone layer in the atmosphere.
2. This happens when certain chemicals come into contact with ozone and destroy it.
3. Chemical compounds that cause ozone layer depletion are called Ozone Depleting
Substances (ODSs).
4. Examples of ODSs are chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), hydrochlorofluorocarbons
(HCFCs), carbon tetrachloride, methyl chloroform, hydrobromofluorocarbons,
halons, etc.
5. Chlorofluorocarbons are the most abundant ODSs.
6. The indiscriminate use of these chemicals causes ozone layer depletion.
7. These ODSs are also powerful greenhouse gases (GHGs) and have a long life as well.
8. There are also a few natural causes which cause ozone depletion such as volcanic
eruptions, sunspots, and stratospheric winds. However, these do not cause more than
1 – 2% of the ozone depletion.
Montreal Protocol – Important Points
The Protocol was signed in 1987 and entered into force in January 1989. The protocol
gives provisions to reduce the production and consumption of ODSs to protect the ozone
layer.
1. It phases down the use of ODSs in a stepwise, time-bound manner.
2. It gives different timetables for developing and developed countries.
3. All member parties have specific responsibilities related to the phasing out of various
groups of ozone-depleting substances, controlling ODS trade, reporting data annually,
controlling export and import of ODs, etc.
4. Developing and developed countries have equal but differentiated
responsibilities.
5. However, both groups of nations have time-bound, binding, and measurable
commitments under the protocol, making it effective.
6. Under the protocol, there is a provision for it to be amended and adjusted according
to the new scientific, economic, and technological advancements made.
7. The Protocol has undergone nine amendments or revisions.
8. The governance body for the protocol is the Meeting of the Parties. Technical support
is given by the Open-ended Working Group. Both meet once every year.
9. The Parties are aided by the Ozone Secretariat, which is based at the headquarters of
the UN Environment Program (UNEP) in Nairobi.
10. It has been ratified by 197 Parties (196 member states of the UN plus the EU) making
it the first United Nations treaty to be ratified by every country in the world.
11. The Montreal Protocol’s provisions relate to the following:
• Article 2: Control measures
• Article 3: Calculation of control levels
• Article 4: Control of trade with non-Parties
• Article 5: Special situation of developing countries
• Article 7: Reporting of data
• Article 8: Non-compliance
• Article 10: Technical assistance
• And, other topics
12. The ODSs regulated by the Protocol are listed in:
• Annex A: CFCs, halons
• Annex B: other fully halogenated CFCs, carbon tetrachloride, methyl
chloroform
• Annex C: HCFCs
• Annex E: Methyl bromide
• Annex F: HFCs
13. Multilateral Fund: The Multilateral Fund for the Implementation of the Montreal
Protocol was set up in 1991 to help developing countries comply with the provision
of the Protocol. This is under Article 10 mentioned above.
• It provides financial and technical assistance to developing member countries
whose yearly per capita consumption and production of ODSs is less than 0.3
kg.
• The activities of the Fund are implemented by four bodies:
• UNEP
 • UN Development Programme (UNDP)
• UN Industrial Development Organisation (UNIDO)
• World Bank
Official site – https://www.unenvironment.org/ozonaction/who-we-are/about-montreal-
protocol

Montreal Protocol – Successes

1. With universal ratification and a time-bound binding framework, the Montreal
Protocol has been largely successful in setting out to achieving its mission of
reversing the damage done to the ozone layer.
2. It has been considered the most successful international environmental action taken
by countries.
3. The Protocol has been successful in levelling off or decreasing the atmospheric
concentrations of the most important chlorofluorocarbons and related chlorinated
hydrocarbons.
4. Although halon concentrations have gone up, their rate of increase has come down,
and their concentration is expected to decline by 2020.
5. The Protocol has successfully sent clear signals to the global market.
6. The full implementation of the Montreal Protocol is expected to help in the avoidance
of over 280 million skin cancer incidents, almost 1.6 million deaths due to skin cancer,
and millions of cases of cataracts.
7. With the Protocol, the ozone layer is expected to recover by the year 2050.
8. Parties to the Protocol have been able to phase out 98% of ODSs compared to levels
in 1990.
9. The Protocol is also helping fight climate change because most of the ODSs are also
greenhouse gases.
10. It is estimated that from 1990 to 2010, the protocol has helped reduce greenhouse
gas emissions by the equivalent of 135 gigatons of carbon dioxide, the equivalent of
11 gigatons a year.
11. The Kigali Amendment, an amendment to the Protocol, has helped reduce HFC
emissions and decrease global temperature rise.
India and the Montreal Protocol
India became a signatory to the Montreal Protocol in 1992.
1. India is an Article 5 country and is entitled to assistance from the Multilateral Fund
in its efforts to phase out ODSs and switch over to non-ODS technologies.
2. India mainly manufactured and utilized 7 of the 20 substances controlled under the
Protocol. These are CFC-11, CFC113, CFC-12, Halon-1301, Halon-1211, Carbon
tetrachloride, Methyl Bromide and Methyl Chloroform.
3. In India, the implementation of the Montreal Protocol comes within the ambit of the
Ministry of Environment, Forests, and Climate Change.
 4. The Ministry has established an Ozone Cell to implement the Protocol.
5. As per the National Strategy for ODS Phaseout, the Ministry has notified the Ozone
Depleting Substances (Regulation and Control) Rules 2000.
• Rules prohibit the use of CFCs in manufacturing various products.
• They provide for the mandatory registration of ODS producers, sellers,
importers, and stockiest.

d. Kyoto Protocol
The Kyoto Protocol was an international treaty which extended the 1992 United
Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change that commits state parties to reduce
greenhouse gas emissions, based on the scientific consensus that global warming is
occurring and that human-made CO₂ emissions are driving it.
The Kyoto Protocol was adopted in Kyoto, Japan, on 11 December 1997 and entered
into force on 16 February 2005. There were 192 parties (Canada withdrew from the
protocol, effective December 2012) to the Protocol in 2020.
This article will elaborate upon the Kyoto Protocol and the impact it will have on the
environment for the years to come. The Kyoto Protocol is an important topic in the Ecology
and Environment segment of the
Kyoto Protocol
The Kyoto Protocol came into effect on 16 February 2005. This international treaty seeks
to implement the objectives of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
Change (UNFCCC) to combat global warming by decreasing greenhouse gas concentrations
in the atmosphere.
The major greenhouse gases that are addressed are:
a. Carbon dioxide (CO2)
b. Methane (CH4)
c. Nitrous oxide (N2O)
d. Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs)
e. Perfluorocarbons (PFCs)
f. Sulphur hexafluoride (SF6)
In December 2012, after the first commitment period of the Protocol ended,
participating countries in the Kyoto Protocol met in Doha, Qatar to adopt an amendment to
the original Kyoto agreement. This was called the Doha Amendment which added new
emission-reduction targets for the second commitment period, 2012–2020, for these
countries. In 2015, at the sustainable development summit held in Paris, all UNFCCC
participants signed yet another pact, the Paris Climate Agreement, which effectively
replaced the Kyoto Protocol.
Kyoto Protocol – Salient Features
• The UNFCCC was an international agreement held in 1992 in which member
countries agreed to reduce greenhouse gas concentrations in the earth’s atmosphere
in order to prevent devastating climate change. This was, however, not binding on the
members, and no specific targets were set.
• By 1995, the countries, understanding the need for a stricter demand on greenhouse
reduction, began negotiating on a protocol that was based on the UNFCCC but would
be a standing agreement in its own.
• The Kyoto Protocol extends the UNFCCC and makes members commit to a specific
reduction target. The text of the protocol was unanimously adopted on 11 December
1997. It entered into force in February 2005. Currently, there are 192 parties to the
protocol.
• The protocol gives specific target cuts in the emission levels of greenhouse gases of
member countries and makes it binding. However, only developed countries have
binding targets based on the (accurate) premise that they have had a historically
larger share in the emission of pollutants due to the antecedence of industrialization
in those countries compared to developing economies. This is based on common but
differentiated responsibility.
• These targets are between -8% and +10% of the countries’ 1990 emission levels.
• In order to make the ‘binding targets’ more acceptable, the protocol provides
flexibility in how countries meet the targets. Countries are allowed to partially
compensate for the emissions by increasing what are called ‘sinks’, i.e., forests. This
is because forests reduce carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.
• Most nations have ratified the treaty. The USA is a notable exception to this. It takes
the stand that having binding targets only for developed countries and not polluting
countries like China and India is potentially harmful for its own economy. Canada
withdrew from the Kyoto Protocol in 2012.
• The targets are for the following greenhouse gases/gas groups: carbon dioxide,
nitrous oxide, methane, sulphur hexafluoride, hydrofluorocarbons and
perfluorocarbons.
• The first commitment period for the agreement was from 2008 to 2012.
• Apart from national measures, the agreement has three mechanisms that are means
to achieve the Kyoto targets:
• International Emissions Trading
• Clean Development Mechanism
• Joint Implementation
• India is a non-Annex I country. India is exempt from the treaty’s framework. The
Indian government ratified the treaty in August 2002. Since the per capita emission
rates are much smaller for developing countries compared to the developed
 countries, India takes the stand that the major responsibility of reducing emissions
lies with the latter.
Kyoto Protocol – Monitoring Emission
The emission monitoring process has to be carried out by various countries and a
proper track record has to be maintained.
The emission monitoring is managed by the following process:
1. Registry systems – These are meant to track the transactions carried out by the
parties as per the Kyoto mechanisms.
2. Reporting- This is an important part of the process as the respective parties have to
submit their information related to annual emission inventories as per the guidelines
in the protocol.
3. Compliance system – This ensures that the commitments are met by the parties and
in case of issue relating to this.
4. Adaptation- This part of the process facilitates the development and deployment of
technologies that can help increase resilience to the impacts of climate change. There
is an adaptation fund to provide financial assistance to parties which take up
adaptation projects and programs.

e. THE CONVENTION ON BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY

The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), known informally as the Biodiversity
Convention, is a multilateral treaty. The Convention has three main goals including: 1. the
conservation of biological diversity (or biodiversity); 2. the sustainable use of its
components; and 3. the fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from genetic resources.
In other words, its objective is to develop national strategies for the conservation and
sustainable use of biological diversity. It is often seen as the key document regarding
sustainable development. The Convention was opened for signature at the Earth Summit in
Rio de Janeiro on 5 June 1992 and entered into force on 29 December 1993.

IMPORTANCE OF CBD:
CBD is a land mark in international law on environment because:
• For the first time it recognized that the conservation of biological diversity is
“a common concern of humankind” and is an integral part of the development
process.
• It covers all ecosystems, species, and genetic resources.
• It links traditional conservation efforts to the economic goal of using biological
resources sustainably.
• It sets principles for the fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising from
the use of genetic resources, notably those destined for commercial use.
• It also covers the rapidly expanding field of biotechnology, addressing
technology development and transfer, benefit-sharing and bio-safety. Since
 the Convention is legally binding; countries that join, it is obliged to implement
its provisions.

National Biodiversity Strategies and Action Plans (NBSAPs) are the principal
instruments for implementing the Convention at the national level (Article 6). The
Convention requires countries to prepare a national biodiversity strategy (or equivalent
instrument) and to ensure that this strategy is mainstreamed into the planning and activities
of all those sectors whose activities can have an impact (positive and negative) on
biodiversity.

IN INDIA:
The National Environment Policy, 2006, seeks to achieve balance and harmony
between conservation of natural resources and development processes and also forms the
basic framework for the National Biodiversity Action Plan.
The objectives of the NBAP are broad-based and relate to current perceptions of key
threats and constraints to biodiversity conservation and are as follows-
a. Strengthening and integration of in situ, on-farm and ex situ conservation
b. Augmentation of natural resource base and its sustainable utilization;
Ensuring inter and intra-generational equity
c. Regulation of introduction of invasive alien species and their management
d. Assessment of vulnerability, and adaptation to climate change and
desertification
e. Integration of biodiversity concerns in economic and social development
f. To prevent, minimize and abate impacts of pollution
g. Development and integration of biodiversity databases
h. Strengthening implementation of policy, legislative and administrative
measures for biodiversity conservation and management
i. Building of national capacities for biodiversity conservation and appropriate
use of new technologies
j. Valuation of goods and services provided by biodiversity and use of economic
instruments in the decision-making processes
k. International cooperation to consolidate and strengthen bilateral, regional
and multilateral cooperation on issues related to biodiversity.

Two protocols to CBD are

1. NAGOYA PROTOCOL
2. CARTAGENA PROTOCOL ON BIOSAFETY
NAGOYA PROTOCOL
The Nagoya Protocol on Access to Genetic Resources and the Fair and Equitable
Sharing of Benefits Arising from their Utilization to the Convention on Biological Diversity is
a supplementary agreement to the Convention on Biological Diversity. It provides a
transparent legal framework for the effective implementation of one of the three objectives
of the CBD: the fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising out of the utilization of genetic
resources. Its objective is the fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from the
utilization of genetic resources, thereby contributing to the conservation and sustainable use
of biodiversity. The Nagoya Protocol was adopted in 2010 and is a legally binding protocol.
It addresses the problem source countries of genetic resources by recognizing their right to
get a share in benefits reaped by foreign bio prospectors.

RIGHT OF PARTIES TO NAGOYA PROTOCOL

A source country has right to benefit from any commercial application of its
bioresources. Such benefits may include:
• Share in Cash profits
• Sample of what was collected
• Participation or training of national researchers.
• Transfer of biotechnology
The Nagoya Protocol reaffirms that a sovereign country has full rights on its genetic
resources and use of its bioresources should be done only by mutual consent. It provides
legal certainty and transparency and also covers Traditional Knowledge.

OBLIGATIONS OF PARTIES TO NAGOYA PROTOCOL

Under the Nagoya Protocol, there are certain requirements or obligations, which each
country is required to fulfill:
o Every country should create clear and unambiguous legal framework around
access of its genetic sources. This framework should have clear laws, rules,
procedures etc.
o Every country should make clear that its consent is taken while accessing its
bioresources and terms on which monetary or non-monetary benefits are to
be shared. The terms should be mutually agreed and both the contracting
parties must have access to justice.

Other Important Notes on Nagoya Protocol

o The protocol is legally binding and open to only CBD ratified countries.
(Excludes US) The protocol is applicable only when a country’s bio-resources
are ‘used’. ‘used’ means to conduct research and development on the genetic
and/or biochemical composition of genetic resources.
 o Covers derivative products of bio resources including drugs, antibodies,
vitamins, enzymes, active compounds and metabolites; however, term
derivatives are not explicitly expressed.
o Does not apply to Human Genetic Material
o Does not make reference to patents or other Intellectual property rights.

CARTAGENA PROTOCOL ON BIOSAFETY

The Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety of the Convention, also known as the Biosafety
Protocol, was adopted in January 2000. The Biosafety Protocol seeks to protect biological
diversity from the potential risks posed by living modified organisms resulting from modern
biotechnology. It is a legally binding protocol as part of CBD and is related to “Biosafety
measures” i.e. Biosafety concerns related to import & export of Living Modified Organisms
(LMOs) and commodities made from them.
There are two major components of Cartagena Protocol viz. Advanced Informed
Agreement (AIA) Procedure and Biosafety Clearing House.
i) Advanced Informed Agreement (AIA) AIA under the Cartagena Protocol
ensures that the countries are provided with the information necessary
to make informed decisions before agreeing to the import of Living
Modified Organisms into their territory.
ii) Biosafety Clearing House Biosafety Clearing-House facilitates the
exchange of information on living modified organisms and to assist
countries in the implementation of the Protocol.
iii) Rights of parties of Cartagena Protocol Every country, which is a party
to Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety as the following rights:
• To be told in advance if they are importing something that contains
LMOs or commodities made of LMOs. This is done via the Advanced
Informed Agreement. If they don’t want to accept such imports, they will
inform the world community via communicating the Biosafety Clearing
House.
• All commodities which may contain LMO elements should be clearly
labeled by exporters.
• The exporter of such commodity must inform the importing country in
advance the shipment will contain LMOs. The importer must authorize
such shipment.
• Importing country has both opportunity and the capacity to assess
risks involving the products of modern biotechnology.
• The protocol allows the countries to ban import of LMOs.

The Biosafety Protocol makes clear that products from new technologies must be
based on the precautionary principle and allow developing nations to balance public health
against economic benefits. It will for example let countries ban imports of a genetically
modified organism if they feel there is not enough scientific evidence the product is safe and
requires exporters to label shipments containing genetically modified commodities such as
corn or cotton.

AICHI TARGETS
The ‘Aichi Target’ adopted by the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) at its
Nagoya conference. In the COP-10 meeting, the parties agreed that previous biodiversity
protection targets are not achieved, So, we need to do come up with new plans and targets
the short-term plan provides a set of ambitious yet achievable targets, collectively known as
the Aichi Targets.
Strategic Goal A: Address the underlying causes of biodiversity loss by mainstreaming
biodiversity across government and society.
Strategic Goal B: Reduce the direct pressures on biodiversity and promote sustainable
use.
Strategic Goal C: To improve the status of biodiversity by safeguarding ecosystems,
species and genetic diversity.
Strategic Goal D: Enhance the benefits to all from biodiversity and ecosystem services.
Strategic Goal E: Enhance implementation through participatory planning,
knowledge management and capacity building.

The IUCN Species Program provides advice to Parties, other governments and
partners on the implementation of the Strategic Plan for Biodiversity and it’s Aichi
Biodiversity Targets (2011 – 2020), and is also heavily involved in work towards the Targets
themselves.

f. Ramsar Convention on Wetlands

The Ramsar Convention on Wetlands establishes the guidelines for the preservation
and judicious use of all wetlands through local, national, and international collaboration as a
means of promoting sustainable development on a global scale. The Ramsar Convention is
the only international environmental agreement that addresses a specific habitat. It
was adopted in the Iranian city of Ramsar in 1971 and entered into force in 1975. World
Wetlands Day is celebrated every year on February 2nd. Currently, there are 172
contracting parties to the convention.

Wetland Ecosystem:
• Wetland ecosystems are transitional zones between terrestrial and aquatic
ecosystems (Ecotone).
• The Ramsar convention on wetlands defines wetlands as:
• as an area of marsh, fen, peatland,
• which is temporary or permanent, formed naturally or artificially,
 • this includes fresh, brackish, or salt water,
• Where the depth of marine water at low tide will not exceed six meters of height.

Ramsar Wetlands:
• The Ramsar Convention promotes the designation of wetlands that are vital for
preserving biological variety or that are representative, rare, or distinctive.
• These locations are listed on the Convention's List of Wetlands of International
Importance and are referred to as Ramsar sites once they have been
recognized (i.e., after meeting the requirements for inclusion).
• Countries agree to construct and oversee a management structure aimed at
protecting the wetland and ensuring its sensible use when they designate a wetland
as a Ramsar site.
• Because of their ecological, botanical, zoological, limnological, or hydrological
significance, wetlands may be listed as wetlands of international importance.

Ramsar Convention on Wetlands:

• The Convention on Wetlands is the first modern global intergovernmental
environmental treaty.
• Countries and non-governmental organizations concerned about the increasing loss
and degradation of migratory waterbird habitats negotiated the treaty throughout
the 1960s.
• Ramsar is not part of the United Nations system of Multilateral Environmental
Agreements (MEAs), but it collaborates closely with the other MEAs and is a full
partner in the "biodiversity-related cluster" of treaties and agreements.
• When a Contracting Party joins the Convention, it designates at least one site for
inclusion in the Ramsar List of Wetlands of International Importance (the "Ramsar
List").
• The addition of a site to the Ramsar List confers the prestige of international
recognition and expresses the government's commitment to take all necessary steps
to ensure the site's ecological character is preserved.
• To achieve its goals, the Convention collaborates with a diverse global network of
partners. Global Conventions and agencies, as well as international and national non-
governmental organizations and prominent private companies, are among them.
• The Cobourg Peninsula in Australia was the world's first Site, designated in 1974.
• Rio Negro in Brazil (120,000 square kilometers), Ngiri-Tumba-Maindombe in the
Democratic Republic of the Congo, and Queen Maud Gulf in Canada are the largest
Sites, each covering more than 60,000 square kilometers.
• The countries with the most Sites are the United Kingdom (175), followed
by Mexico (142).
 • Bolivia has the most area under Convention protection, with 148,000 square
kilometers; Canada, Chad, Congo, and the Russian Federation have each designated
over 100,000 square kilometers.

No. of Contracting Parties 172

No. of Wetlands of International Importance 2455
Total Surface of Designated Sites 255,792,244 ha

Ramsar Convention - Mission & Purpose:

• The Convention’s mission is “the conservation and wise use of all wetlands through
local and national actions and international cooperation, as a contribution towards
achieving sustainable development throughout the world”.
• The Ramsar Convention was created with three pillars as its foundation:
• Wise Use: Work to ensure that all of their wetlands are used wisely through national
land-use planning, appropriate policies and legislation, management actions, and
public education.
• List of Wetlands of International Importance: Designate appropriate wetlands
under the Ramsar List in order to administer those on the List of Wetlands of
International Importance in an efficient manner.
• International Cooperation: Cooperation on a global scale regarding common
species, shared wetland systems, and transboundary wetlands are referred to as
international cooperation.

Ramsar Convention - Structure

• Conference of the Contracting Parties: All of the nations that have ratified the
treaty make up this body, which oversees the convention.
• This highest authority assesses the convention's progress, establishes new priorities,
and assigns work schedules to participants.
• The COP may also alter the convention, establish expert advisory bodies, examine
member-nation progress reports, and work with other international organizations
and agreements.
• The Standing Committee: In accordance with the COP's decisions, the Standing
Committee is the intersessional executive body that represents the COP between its
triennial meetings.
• At each COP summit, the contracting parties that make up the Standing Committee
are chosen to serve terms of three years.
• The Scientific and Technical Review Panel: The Conference of Contracting Parties,
the Standing Committee, and the Ramsar Secretariat receive advice on scientific and
technical matters from the Scientific and Technical Review Panel (STRP).
 • The Secretariat: The day-to-day coordination of the convention's activities is done
by the Secretariat. It is based in Gland, Switzerland, the home of the International
Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) headquarters.
• The Conference of Contracting Parties, the Standing Committee, and the Secretariat
continue to work together to implement the Ramsar Convention with the assistance
of the international organization partners and with the advice of the subsidiary
expert body, the Scientific and Technical Review Panel (STRP) (IOPs).

Ramsar Convention - Criteria for Identification of Wetlands

If a wetland -
• Contains an example of a natural or nearly natural wetland that is representative,
uncommon, or special.
• Supports threatened natural communities or species that are vulnerable, endangered,
or critically endangered.
• Provides habitat for populations of plant and/or animal species vital to preserving
the ecological variety of a certain bio-geographic region.
• Nourishes plant and/or animal species during a crucial period of their life cycles or
offers shelter in dangerous situations.
• Sustains 20,000 or more aquatic birds on a regular basis.
• Regularly sustains 1% of the individuals in a population of one or more water bird
species.
• Supports a large percentage of native fish subspecies.
• Is a crucial spawning ground, nursery, food supply, and/or migration route for fish.
• Is a valuable supply of food and water, and it also provides more opportunities for
recreation.

Significance of Wetlands
Sources of Water:
• A variety of wetlands provide our primary source of freshwater. Aquifer-stored
groundwater makes for over 95 percent of all available freshwater and is the most
important source of drinking water and irrigation.
• Several wetlands aid in the absorption of rainwater and the recharge of groundwater.
• Several wetlands serve as habitats for a variety of endemic and near-endangered
species.
• Chilika is home to a robust population and is one of only two lagoons in the world
where endangered Irrawaddy Dolphins can be found.

Wetland Products
• Wetlands that are well-managed can supply a diverse assortment of plants, animals,
and minerals.
 • Coastal wetlands provide over two-thirds of fish, one of the most important sources
of animal protein.
• Wetlands produce more than three-quarters of Asia's rice. Many mangrove swamps,
like the Sundarbans, produce honey.

Medicinal Characteristics of Wetland

• Medicinal characteristics can be found in a variety of wetland plants.
• Wetlands also provide a source of income for a huge number of people, particularly
those who live along their shorelines.

Wetlands and Climate Change

• These ecosystems can help moderate and adapt to climate change.
• Some wetlands, such as mangroves and salt marshes, operate as carbon sinks,
preventing hazardous greenhouse gas emissions from entering the atmosphere.

Threats to Wetland Ecosystem

• Changes in natural hydrological regimes influence wetlands' biodiversity and
ecosystem functions.
• Reduced water availability, changing hydro-period, loss of linkage with biodiversity
areas, restricted nitrogen exchange, and other factors all contribute to the
degradation of natural hydrological regimes.
• Catchment degradation depletes the water holding capacity in wetlands thus
affecting the wetland ecosystem.
• The majority of India's inland wetlands have been overrun by exotic species, which
have grown to be a nuisance and have had a significant impact on the local biota and
ecological conditions.
• Example: Hyacinth (water hyacinth) is an invasive species introduced in India.
• Other factors like the unsustainable harvest of wetland resources, overgrazing,
unsustainable water abstraction, and mining (e.g. salt, sand, or laterite) also affects
the wetland Ecosystem in India.

India's Wetlands of International Importance

• On February 1, 1982, India became a party to the 'Convention on Wetlands,'
generally known as the Ramsar Convention, and has subsequently identified 64
wetlands totaling 1,250,361 hectares under the List of Wetlands of International
Importance,
• India has a diverse range of wetlands, as well as a large number of them.
• This vast diversity has been supported by a wide range of precipitation patterns,
physiography, geomorphology, and climate.
• Each of these wetlands is a unique ecosystem with enormous potential.
 • In terms of the number of authorized sites, India currently ranks first in South Asia
and third in Asia.

The Montreux Record

• It was adopted by the Conference of the Contracting Parties in Brisbane, in 1996, as
an addendum to the Montreux Record Operating Guidelines.
• The Montreux Record is a database of wetland sites on the List of Wetlands of
International Importance that have experienced, are experiencing, or are projected
to experience changes in ecological character as a result of technological
advancements, pollution, or other human involvement.
• It is the main tool of the Convention and as a part of the Ramsar List, it is kept up to
date.
• Keoladeo National Park in Rajasthan and Loktak Lake in Manipur were both
inducted into the Montreux Record in 1990 and 1993, respectively.

Human survival depends on wetlands. They are among the most productive
environments on the planet, providing the water and productivity on which countless
species of plants and animals rely for survival. Wetlands are essential for the numerous
benefits or "ecosystem services" they provide humanity, which ranges from freshwater
supply, food and building materials, and biodiversity, to flood control, groundwater
recharge, and climate change mitigation.

The Chemical Weapons Convention

The Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC), officially the Convention on the
Prohibition of the Development, Production, Stockpiling and Use of Chemical
Weapons and on their Destruction, is an arms control treaty administered by
the Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW), an intergovernmental
organization based in The Hague, The Netherlands. The treaty entered into force on 29 April
1997. It prohibits the use of chemical weapons, and also prohibits large-scale development,
production, stockpiling, or transfer of chemical weapons or their precursors, except for very
limited purposes (research, medical, pharmaceutical or protective). The main obligation of
member states under the convention is to affect this prohibition, as well as the destruction
of all current chemical weapons. All destruction activities must take place under OPCW
verification.
As of August 2022, 193 states have become parties to the CWC and accept its
obligations. Israel has signed but not ratified the agreement, while three other UN member
states (Egypt, North Korea and South Sudan) have neither signed nor acceded to the
treaty. Most recently, the State of Palestine deposited its instrument of accession to the CWC
on 17 May 2018. In September 2013, Syria acceded to the convention as part of an agreement
for the destruction of Syria's chemical weapons.
As of February 2021, 98.39% of the world's declared chemical weapons stockpiles
had been destroyed. The convention has provisions for systematic evaluation of chemical
production facilities, as well as for investigations of allegations of use and production of
chemical weapons based on the intelligence of other state parties.
Some chemicals which have been used extensively in warfare but have numerous
large-scale industrial uses (such as phosgene) are highly regulated; however, certain notable
exceptions exist. Chlorine gas is highly toxic, but being a pure element and widely used for
peaceful purposes, is not officially listed as a chemical weapon. Certain state powers (e.g.
the Assad regime of Syria) continue to regularly manufacture and implement such chemicals
in combat munitions. Although these chemicals are not specifically listed as controlled by the
CWC, the use of any toxic chemical as a weapon (when used to produce fatalities solely or
mainly through its toxic action) is in-and-of itself forbidden by the treaty. Other chemicals,
such as white phosphorus are highly toxic but are legal under the CWC when they are used
by military forces for reasons other than their toxicity.

Key points of the Convention

• Prohibition of production and use of chemical weapons
• Destruction (or monitored conversion to other functions) of chemical weapons
production facilities
• Destruction of all chemical weapons (including chemical weapons abandoned outside
the state party’s territory)
• Assistance between State Parties and the OPCW in the case of use of chemical weapons
• An OPCW inspection regime for the production of chemicals which might be converted
to chemical weapons
• International cooperation in the peaceful use of chemistry in relevant areas

Controlled substances
The convention distinguishes three classes of controlled substance, chemicals that can either
be used as weapons themselves or used in the manufacture of weapons. The classification is
based on the quantities of the substance produced commercially for legitimate purposes.
Each class is split into Part A, which are chemicals that can be used directly as weapons, and
Part B, which are chemicals useful in the manufacture of chemical weapons. Separate from
the precursors, the convention defines toxic chemicals as "[a]ny chemical which through its
chemical action on life processes can cause death, temporary incapacitation or permanent
harm to humans or animals. This includes all such chemicals, regardless of their origin or of
their method of production, and regardless of whether they are produced in facilities, in
munitions or elsewhere."
• Schedule 1 chemicals have few, or no uses outside chemical weapons. These may be
produced or used for research, medical, pharmaceutical or chemical weapon defense
testing purposes but production at sites producing more than 100 grams per year must
be declared to the OPCW. A country is limited to possessing a maximum of 1 ton of these
materials. Examples are sulfur mustard and nerve agents, and substances which are
solely used as precursor chemicals in their manufacture. A few of these chemicals have
very small-scale non-military applications, for example, milligram quantities of nitrogen
mustard are used to treat certain cancers.
• Schedule 2 chemicals have legitimate small-scale applications. Manufacture must be
declared and there are restrictions on export to countries that are not CWC signatories.
An example is thiodiglycol which can be used in the manufacture of mustard agents, but
is also used as a solvent in inks.
• Schedule 3 chemicals have large-scale uses apart from chemical weapons. Plants which
manufacture more than 30 tons per year must be declared and can be inspected, and
there are restrictions on export to countries which are not CWC signatories. Examples of
these substances are phosgene (the most lethal chemical weapon employed
in WWI), which has been used as a chemical weapon but which is also a precursor in the
manufacture of many legitimate organic compounds (e.g. pharmaceutical agents and
many common pesticides), and triethanolamine, used in the manufacture of nitrogen
mustard but also commonly used in toiletries and detergents.
This approach is also used in controlled drug legislation in many countries and are often
termed "class wide controls" or "generic statements".
 Due to the added complexity these statements bring in identifying regulated chemicals,
many companies choose to carry out these assessments computationally, examining the
chemicals’ structure using in silico tools which compare them to the legislation statements,
either with in house systems maintained a company or by the use commercial compliance
software solutions.
A treaty party may declare a "single small-scale facility" that produces up to 1 ton of
Schedule 1 chemicals for research, medical, pharmaceutical or protective purposes each
year, and also another facility may produce 10 kg per year for protective testing purposes.
An unlimited number of other facilities may produce Schedule 1 chemicals, subject to a total
10 kg annual limit, for research, medical or pharmaceutical purposes, but any facility
producing more than 100 grams must be declared.
The treaty also deals with carbon compounds called in the treaty "discrete organic
chemicals", the majority of which exhibit moderate-high direct toxicity or can be readily
converted into compounds with toxicity sufficient for practical use as a chemical
weapon. These are any carbon compounds apart from long chain polymers, oxides, sulfides
and metal carbonates, such as organophosphates. The OPCW must be informed of, and can
inspect, any plant producing (or expecting to produce) more than 200 tons per year, or 30
tonnes if the chemical contains phosphorus, sulfur or fluorine, unless the plant solely
produces explosives or hydrocarbons.

Category definitions
Chemical weapons are divided into three categories:
• Category 1 - based on Schedule 1 substances
• Category 2 - based on non-Schedule 1 substances
• Category 3 - devices and equipment designed to use chemical weapons, without the
substances themselves

Member states
Before the CWC came into force in 1997, 165 states signed the convention, allowing
them to ratify the agreement after obtaining domestic approval. Following the treaty's entry
into force, it was closed for signature and the only method for non-signatory states to become
a party was through accession. As of March 2021, 193 states, representing over 98 percent
of the world's population, are party to the CWC. Of the four United Nations member
states that are not parties to the treaty, Israel has signed but not ratified the treaty,
while Egypt, North Korea, and South Sudan have neither signed nor acceded to the
convention. Taiwan, though not a member state, has confirmed that it complies with the
treaty.

Key organizations of member states

Member states are represented at the OPCW by their Permanent Representative. This
function is generally combined with the function of Ambassador. For the preparation of
OPCW inspections and preparation of declarations, member states have to constitute a
National Authority.

Treaty deadlines
The treaty set up several steps with deadlines toward complete destruction of chemical
weapons, with a procedure for requesting deadline extensions. No country reached total
elimination by the original treaty date although several have finished under allowed
extensions.
Reduction Phases
Phase % Reduction Deadline Notes
I 1% April 2000
II 20% April 2002 Complete destruction of empty munitions, precursor
chemicals,
filling equipment and weapons systems
III 45% April 2004
IV 100% April 2007 No extensions permitted past April 2012

Progress of destruction
At the end of 2019, 70,545 of 72,304 (97.51%) metric tonnes of chemical agent have
been verifiably destroyed. More than 57% (4.97 million) of chemical munitions and
containers have been destroyed.
Seven state parties have completed the destruction of their declared stockpiles:
Albania, India, Iraq, Libya, Syria, the United States, and an unspecified state party (believed
to be South Korea). Russia also completed the destruction of its declared stockpile. According
to the US Arms Control Association, the poisoning of Sergei and Yulia Skripal in 2018 and
the poisoning of Alexei Navalny in 2020 indicated that Russia maintained an illicit chemical
weapons program.
Japan and China in October 2010 began the destruction of World War II era chemical
weapons abandoned by Japan in China by means of mobile destruction units and reported
destruction of 35,203 chemical weapons (75% of the Nanjing stockpile).

Date of Declared % OPCW-verified

Country and link to accession/ stockpile destroyed Destruction
detail article entry into (Schedule 1) (date of full deadline
force (tons) destruction)
Albania 29 April 1997 17 100% (July 2007)
South Korea 29 April 1997 3,000–3,500 100% (July 2008)
India 29 April 1997 1,044 100% (March 2009)
5 February
Libya 25 100% (January 2014)
2004
Syria (government 14 October
1,040 100% (August 2014)
held) 2013
 5 December 100% (September
Russia 40,000
1997 2017)
United States 29 April 1997 33,600 100% (July 2023)
12 February remnant
Iraq 100% (March 2018)
2009 munitions
66.97% (as of
Japan (in China) 29 April 1997 - 2027
September 2022)

Financial support for destruction

Financial support for the Albanian and Libyan stockpile destruction programmes was
provided by the United States. Russia received support from a number of countries, including
the United States, the United Kingdom, Germany, the Netherlands, Italy and Canada; with
some $2 billion given by 2004. Costs for Albania's program were approximately US$48
million. The United States has spent $20 billion and expected to spend a further $40 billion.

Known chemical weapons production facilities

Fourteen states parties declared chemical weapons production facilities (CWPFs):
Bosnia and
Syria
Herzegovina Iran Libya
United
China Iraq Russia
Kingdom
France Japan Serbia
United States
India
• 1 non-disclosed state party (referred to as "A State Party" in OPCW-communications;
said to be South Korea).
Currently all 97 declared production facilities have been deactivated and certified as
either destroyed (74) or converted (23) to civilian use.

The Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production, Stockpiling and Use
of Chemical Weapons and on their Destruction (the Chemical Weapons Convention or CWC),
is comprised of a Preamble, 24 Articles, and 3 Annexes — the Annex on Chemicals, the
Verification Annex, and the Confidentiality Annex.
The Convention aims to eliminate an entire category of weapons of mass destruction by
prohibiting the development, production, acquisition, stockpiling, retention, transfer or use
of chemical weapons by States Parties. States Parties, in turn, must take the steps necessary
to enforce that prohibition in respect of persons (natural or legal) within their jurisdiction.
All States Parties have agreed to chemically disarm by destroying any stockpiles of
chemical weapons they may hold and any facilities which produced them, as well as any
chemical weapons they abandoned on the territory of other States Parties in the past. States
Parties have also agreed to create a verification regime for certain toxic chemicals and their
precursors (listed in Schedules 1, 2 and 3 in the Annex on Chemicals) in order to ensure that
such chemicals are only used for purposes not prohibited under the Convention.
 A unique feature of the Convention is its incorporation of the ‘challenge inspection’,
whereby any State Party in doubt about another State Party’s compliance can request a
surprise inspection. Under the Convention’s ‘challenge inspection’ procedure, States Parties
have committed themselves to the principle of ‘anytime, anywhere’ inspections with no right
of refusal.
Article I – General Obligations
Article I set out the general obligations of each State Party under the Convention
Article II – Definitions and Criteria
Article II sets out the definitions and criteria to be used in implementing the Convention
Article III – Declarations
Article III requires each State Party to submit declarations to the OPCW within 30 days
after the Convention enters into force for that particular State Party
Article IV – Chemical Weapons
Article IV sets out the requirements for States Parties to destroy their chemical weapons
Article V – Chemical Weapons Production Facilities
Article V relates to the requirement for States Parties to destroy and/or convert their
Chemical Weapons Production Facilities (CWPFs)
Article VI – Activities Not Prohibited under this Convention
Article VI covers “activities not prohibited under this Convention”, otherwise known as
the non-proliferation or industry verification regime
Article VII – National Implementation Measures
Article VII covers national implementation of the Convention and requires each State
Party to enact implementing legislation at the national level
Article VIII – The Organization
Article VIII establishes the OPCW as the implementing body of the Convention
Article IX – Consultations, Cooperation and Fact-Finding
Article IX provides for the consultation and clarification if concerns about possible non-
compliance arise
Article X – Assistance and Protection against Chemical Weapons
Article X provides for assistance and protection to a State Party if it is attacked or
threatened with attack by chemical weapons
Article XI – Economic and Technological Development
Article XI provides international cooperation for the economic and technological
development of States Parties
Article XII – Measures to Redress a Situation and to Ensure Compliance, Including
Sanctions
Article XII deals with measures to ensure compliance, including sanctions against a State
Party that fails to uphold its treaty obligations
Article XIII – Relation to Other International Agreements
Article XIII deals with the relations with other international treaties
Article XIV – Settlement of Disputes
Article XIV deals with the settlement of disputes that may arise concerning the
application or the interpretation of the Convention
Article XV – Amendments
Article XV deals with the amendments to the Convention
Article XVI – Duration and Withdrawal
Article XVI deals with the duration of the Convention and the States Parties’ the right to
withdraw from the Convention
Article XVII – Status of the Annexes
Article XVII relates to the status of the Convention’s annexes
Article XVIII – Signature
Article XVIII deals with the signature of the Convention
Article XIX – Ratification
Article XIX related to the ratification of the Convention
Article XX – Accession
Article XX relates to the accession to the Convention
Article XXI – Entry into Force
Article XXI deals with the entry into force of the Convention
Article XXII – Reservations
Article XXII deals with reservations
Article XXIII – Depositary
Article XXIII relates to the Depositary of the Convention
Article XXIV – Authentic Texts
Article XXIV covers the authenticity of texts
Annex on Chemicals

Delineates the three Schedules and shows lists of Toxic Chemicals and their Precursors
Verification Annex
Sets out all of the detailed procedures to be followed by the States Parties and by OPCW
inspection teams during verification/inspection activities at chemical weapons facilities
or sites and industrial facilities
Confidentiality Annex
Guarantees the protection of sensitive, national security related information and
confidential business information during inspections and when such information is
submitted by States Parties to the OPCW
OPCW by the Numbers
193 States committed to the Chemical Weapons Convention • 98% of the global population
live under the protection of the Convention • 100% of the chemical weapons stockpiles
declared by possessor States have been verifiably destroyed

United Nations Environment Program (UNEP)

The United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) is an important program under
the United Nations. Such international bodies and programs are very relevant for the UPSC
exam. In this article, you can read all about the UNEP, its functioning, mandate, objectives
and India’s relations with it.

United Nations Environment Program (UNEP)

The UNEP is an international environmental authority engaged in establishing a
global environmental agenda and promoting the efficient implementation of the
environmental dimension of the United Nations Sustainable Development Program.
The rising pollution levels of the 1960s and 1970s prompted the international
leadership to think about having laws and regulations in place for environmental concerns,
along the likes of the International Labor Organization (ILO), the world Health Organization
(WHO), etc.
These concerns were addressed at the 1972 United Nations Conference on Human
Environment (also known as the Stockholm Conference). The Conference led to the adoption
of the Stockholm Declaration (Declaration on the Human Environment).
The Conference also resulted in the formation of a management body for these
concerns, which was later called the United Nations Environment Program.
Headquartered in Nairobi, the UNEP is headed by an Executive Director.

UNEP Objectives
The UNEP’s stated mission is to offer leadership and promote partnership in caring
for the environment through informing, inspiring and enabling countries and peoples to
enhance their quality of life without compromising that of future generations.
The UNEP has a few focus areas, in which they prioritize work. They are:
a. Climate change
b. Ecosystem management
c. Disasters and conflicts
d. Environmental governance
e. Resource efficiency
f. Chemicals and waste
g. Environment under review
UNEP Functions:
The major functions of the UNEP are discussed below:
a. The UNEP engages in developing global conventions on the environment and related
issues. It hosts the secretariats of various conventions such as:
➢ Minamata Convention
➢ Convention on Biological Diversity
➢ Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora
(CITES)
➢ Basel Convention
➢ Stockholm Convention
➢ Rotterdam Convention
➢ Montreal Protocol
➢ Vienna Convention
➢ Convention on Migratory Species
➢ Tehran Convention
➢ Bamako Convention
➢ Carpathian Convention
➢ Climate & Clean Air Coalition (CCAC)
b. It promotes environmental science and related information.
c. It finances and implements developmental projects related to the environment.
d. It engages with national governments, NGOs, etc. in relation to environmental policy
and implementation.
e. The UNEP also formulates treaties and guidelines in the domain of international trade
in harmful chemicals, international waterways pollution and transboundary
pollution of air.
f. It also awards and honors individuals as well as institutions that do stellar work in
this field.

Major Programs of the UNEP:

a. Earth Hour
b. Clean up the World
c. Billion Tree Campaign
d. Seal the Deal
e. Pain for the Planet
f. Awareness and Preparedness for Emergencies at Local Level (APELL)
g. TUNZA
h. Faith for Earth
United Nations Environment Assembly (UNEA)
The UNEP’s governing body is called the United Nations Environment Assembly,
which is said to be the world’s highest decision-making body on environment.
a. It meets once in two years to establish priorities for international
environmental policies and develop international environmental law.
b. Formed in 2012, it is headed by a Bureau and its President.
c. The Bureau comprises ten environment ministers of various countries who all
hold two-year terms, based on geographical rotation.
d. Currently, it has 193 member states (all UN member countries).

UNEP and India:

India has had a close relationship with the UNEP since the program’s inception. There
are many projects completed, as well as ongoing projects, of the UNEP in India.
a. The UNEP’s presence in India started in 2016 with an office at New Delhi.
b. The nodal agency for India’s interactions with the UNEP is the GOI’s Ministry for
Environment, Forests and Climate Change.
c. The Permanent Representative of India to UNEP is India’s High Commissioner for
Kenya.
d. India’s annual financial contribution to the UNEP is to the tune of USD 100,000.
e. The UNEP has recognized India’s initiatives in the environment sector.
➢ The UNEP awarded PM Narendra Modi with the ‘Champions of the Earth’
award along with French President Emmanuel Macron in the category ‘policy
leadership’.
➢ This was in recognition of the, among others, the International Solar Alliance,
initiated by India.
f. In 2019, India joined the Climate & Clean Air Coalition (CCAC), whose Secretariat is
hosted by the UNEP.
g. India plans to work with CCAC nations on best practices and experiences for the
effective implementation of the National Clean Air Program (NCAP).
 Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora
(CITES)
The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and
Flora (CITES) is a global treaty between governments. CITES has been in existence since
1975. India joined CITES in 1976 as the 25th party to the Convention. Over the years, CITES
has become a crucial global instrument for biodiversity conservation.
The aim of CITES is to regulate global trade in endangered species of animals and
plants. Its framework has been adopted by 184 member nations, including the European
Union. CITES has helped to prevent the extinction of many species.
o CITES aims to ensure that global trade does not threaten the survival of wild
populations of species.
o CITES Convention is based on the below principle:
o The conservation of wild flora and fauna is a shared responsibility of all
nations.
o The international trade in wildlife must be managed in a sustainable manner.
o The Convention provides a framework for the member nations. The framework
includes
o regulations for the import, export, and re-export of listed species,
o establishment of permits and certificates,
o creation of a list of species that are subject to trade controls, and
o the prohibition of trade in certain species.
o CITES currently has 183 member nations, including the European Union. They work
towards regulating trade in over 35,000 species of plants and animals.
o The Convention has been successful in promoting the conservation of endangered
species. It has helped reduce the negative impacts of international trade on wildlife.
o However, illegal wildlife trade and habitat loss continue to threaten many
species.
o The Secretariat based in Geneva, Switzerland administers CITES.
o Its highest decision-making body is the Conference of the Parties. It meets every three
years to review the implementation of the Convention.

History of CITES
o CITES, or the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna
and Flora, is an international treaty.
o It was adopted on March 3, 1973, in Washington, D.C.
o CITES aims to regulate international trade in wild animals and plants to ensure their
survival.
o The treaty entered into force on July 1, 1975.
o CITES was a response to growing concerns about the impact of international trade on
species.
 o The primary objective is to prevent the exploitation and over-harvesting of
endangered species.
o The treaty currently has 183 member countries, making it one of the world's most
widely accepted conservation agreements.
o CITES operates through a system of permits and certificates for the international
trade of listed species.
o The conference of the parties (COP) is the highest decision-making body of CITES,
meeting every three years to evaluate and adjust the treaty's provisions.
o Over the years, CITES has played a crucial role in the protection and conservation of
countless species threatened by international trade.

CITES Structure
The organizational structure of CITES is a three-tiered one. It consists of the Conference of
the Parties (CoP), the Standing Committee, and the Secretariat.

Conference of the Parties (CoP):

o The CoP is the highest decision-making body of CITES. It meets once every three
years.
o The CoP is made up of representatives from each of the 183 member nations.
o They vote on proposals and resolutions related to the conservation and trade
of listed species.
 o The CoP elects the members of the Standing Committee and the Secretary-General.

Standing Committee
o The Standing Committee is an intermediate body between the CoP meetings. It meets
once a year.
o The Standing Committee is made up of 19 elected members from different regions.
o Its responsibilities include:
o reviewing the progress of the Convention's implementation,
o preparing reports for the CoP, and
o Assisting with the interpretation and application of the Convention.

Animals and Plants Committees

o Animals and Plants Committees solve knowledge gaps in fields pertaining to animal
and plant species.
o These species may be currently (or may in the future) subject to CITES trade
prohibitions.
o Their responsibility is to offer technical assistance for decisions involving these
species.

Secretariat
o The Secretariat is the administrative body of CITES.
o It has the following responsibilities:
o supporting the implementation of the Convention.
o Provide guidance to member nations.
o The Secretariat is based in Geneva, Switzerland. It is led by a Secretary-General who
is appointed by the CoP.
o The Secretariat works closely with the Standing Committee.

Functions of CITES
CITES performs several functions that help achieve its goal of protecting endangered species.
Some of the major functions of CITES are:
o Regulation of international trade: CITES aims to regulate the international trade of
endangered species. It ensures that it does not threaten their survival. The convention
provides a framework for regulating the trade of over 36,000 species.
o Monitoring the trade: CITES has established a system to monitor the trade in listed
species. This is done through the use of permits and certificates. It maintains a
database of trade information that is used to inform policy decisions.
o Listing of species: CITES lists species under its three appendices based on their
conservation status. The listing also takes into account the level of protection they
need. This helps ensure that international trade in these species is sustainable and
legal.
 o Offering technical and scientific support: CITES provides technical and scientific
support to its member nations. It helps them implement the convention effectively.
This includes providing training, guidance, and scientific advice.
o Encouraging cooperation and coordination: CITES promotes cooperation and
coordination between its member nations and other international organizations. This
is done to ensure that trade in endangered species is regulated effectively.

Appendices of CITES
The CITES Appendix is a list of species that are protected by the convention. These species
are subject to certain levels of trade restrictions. Approximately 5,600 animal species and
30,000 plant species are safeguarded from over-exploitation by CITES.
The CITES Appendix is divided into three parts:

CITES Appendix
Appendix I o Includes species that are threatened with extinction.
o Commercial trade of these species on a global scale is generally
prohibited. Exceptions may be made in the case of scientific research
or the conservation of the species.
o Species listed in Appendix I include African elephants, gorillas, tigers,
and pandas.

Appendix II o Consists of species that are not necessarily threatened with

extinction.
o However, this may become extinct unless their trade is closely
regulated.
o International trade in specimens of Appendix II species is permitted.
However, it is subject to certain controls to ensure that it is legal.
o Species listed in Appendix II include several species of reptiles, birds,
mammals, and plants.

Appendix III o Includes species that are protected by at least one nation. This nation
asks other CITES parties for assistance in controlling the species'
international trade.
o International trade in Appendix III species is allowed. Trade can be
done only with appropriate permits or certificates.
o Species listed in Appendix III include various species of orchids, cacti,
and birds.

o Only the Conference of the Parties has the authority to add or remove species from
Appendix I and II or move them between them.
 o However, any party may independently add or remove species from Appendix III at
any point.

Importance of CITES
o CITES helps protect biodiversity by regulating the global trade in endangered species.
It helps reduce the risk of extinction of these species.
o CITES works towards promoting the sustainable use of natural resources.
o It regulates the trade of threatened species.
o It helps to maintain the ecological balance and contributes to sustainable
development.
o CITES helps prevent illegal trade in endangered species.
o It mandates permits for the export and import of listed species. It ensures that
the trade is sustainable.
o Many of the traded animal species are not threatened. However, a sustainable trading
agreement must be in place to safeguard these species over the span of time.
o CITES promotes international cooperation and collaboration among member
countries and international organizations.
o It helps national enforcement agencies and regional organizations fight illegal wildlife
trafficking.

Contributions of CITES
CITES has made significant contributions to the protection of endangered species. Here are
some of the key contributions of CITES:

o Global trade of nearly 35,000 varieties of plants and animals are regulated by the
CITES.
o 3% of these species are prohibited from being traded globally.
o For the remaining 97%, international trade is controlled to ensure that it is
legal and sustainable.
o CITES has been at the forefront of the discussion surrounding the sustainable use of
biodiversity, for the past 42 years.
o Its databases contain more than 12,000,000 international trade records.
o Many of these have benefited local communities, such as the trade with South
American vicuna.
o The global trade of wool fabric made from shearing live vicunas is permitted
by Appendix II of CITES.
o CITES estimates the annual value of illegal trade between $5 billion and $20 billion.
o Illegal trade threatens the extinction of numerous species.
o It denies locals the opportunity to decide on their developments.
o It deprives governments of their potential earnings.
 o CITES has established the below organizations to combat illicit wildlife trade.
o International Consortium on Combating Wildlife Crime (ICCWC) - a CITES
Secretariat,
o INTERPOL (the International Criminal Police Organization),
o UN Office on Drugs and Crime,
o World Bank, and
o World Customs Organization
o CITES has reduced the demand for illegal wildlife products. This has been achieved
by regulating the trade in endangered species. It has helped in the conservation of
these species.
o CITES has raised public awareness about the importance of protecting endangered
species and their habitats. It has helped to mobilize public support for conservation
efforts.

India and CITES

India is a member of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild
Fauna and Flora (CITES). Implementing CITES in India is the duty of the Wildlife Crime
Control Bureau. Being a member of CITES, India has taken various steps to protect its wildlife
and implement its provisions.

o India is home to 4 of the 34 globally recognized biodiversity hotspots.

o Himalaya, Indo-Burma, Western Ghats and Sri Lanka, Sundaland.
o It houses around 7-8% of all the species recorded by CITES on a global scale.
o This includes the Bengal tiger, Indian elephant, Indian rhinoceros, and various
species of tortoise and turtle.
o India is known for its strict regulations on the trade of wildlife and its products. It has
established a number of protected areas.
o This includes national parks and wildlife reserves, to conserve its biodiversity.
o India has played an active role in the work of CITES.
o It has been involved in various initiatives to strengthen the treaty's
provisions.
o It has helped increase international cooperation in the fight against wildlife
trafficking.
o The international community has praised India's efforts to protect its wildlife.
o India has also hosted several important meetings of CITES.
o The 13th Conference of the Parties in 2004 was hosted by India.
o COP 13 was instrumental in strengthening the trade controls for many species,
including elephants and tigers.
o India has largely used Appendix III of CITES when compared with other CITES Parties.
 o India has suggested moving the below species from Appendix II to Appendix I. This is
to provide additional protection to the species.
o Indian Star Tortoise (Geochelone elegans),
o smooth-coated otters (Lutrogale perspicillata), and
o small clawed otters (Aonyx cinereus)
o The proposal also calls for the addition of Wedgefish (Rhinidae) and Gekko gecko to
CITES' Appendix II.
o The Gekko gecko is highly traded for traditional Chinese medicine.

About CITES COP19 2022

The 19th meeting of the CITES was hosted by the scenic city of Panama. It was held from the
14th to the 25th of November 2022.

o The 19th Conference of Parties (COP19) to the CITES arrived at drafting decisions on
reducing the possibility of zoonotic diseases in the future.
o The guidelines were developed in response to the spread of illnesses connected to the
wildlife trade.
o COVID-19, a zoonotic disease, spread from animals to humans and became a
pandemic.
o The goal was to detect potential risks associated with pathogen spread and their
spillover.
o It was decided to use a multi-sectoral strategy under the direction of a single
health expert panel.
o It aimed to lower the hazards of zoonotic disease transmission across the
globe.

India and COP 19

o Two Indian turtle species have been included in CITES' Appendix I.
The red-crowned roofed turtle (Batagur kachuga)
o India, Nepal, and Bangladesh are its natural habitats.
o The National Chambal River Gharial Sanctuary is now the only region in India where
the species may be found in significant numbers.
Leith's soft-shell turtle (Nilssonia leithii)

o This lives mostly in southern peninsular India in rivers and reservoirs.

o The below-mentioned drainages have a significant population of it.
o Cauvery,
o Tungabhadra,
o Ghataprabha,
o Bhavani,
 o Godavari, and
o Moyar

o India's Shisham is included in Appendix II of the agreement. Hence, the species is

subject to CITES regulations for its trading.
o North Indian rosewood is also known as shisham (Dalbergia sissoo).
o CITES eased the regulations on North Indian rosewood handicrafts and
furniture export from India.
o The conference approved the proposal to add sea cucumbers (Thelenota) to Appendix
II.
o As per records, Tamil Nadu had the largest number of marine wildlife seizures
during this period of time.
o Maharashtra, Lakshadweep, and Karnataka followed the state of Tamil Nadu.
o India's efforts to reduce wildlife crime through Operation Turtshield were praised.
o India emphasized that the Wildlife Protection Act of 1972 already included many of
the threatened species. It said that the Act provided the species with a high level of
protection.
o India has opted not to abstain on a vote at the current conference against a proposal
to reopen the worldwide ivory trade.
o India joined CITES in 1976. Since then, this is the first time India has not
abstained on a vote to allow the ivory trade to begin again.

Concerns Related to CITES

o Despite its positive impact, CITES has faced various concerns and criticisms.
o Enforcement of CITES regulations can be challenging, leading to illegal wildlife trade
loopholes.
o Some argue that CITES may disproportionately affect local communities dependent
on sustainable wildlife use.
o The inclusion of certain species in CITES appendices can create economic challenges
for industries dependent on those species.
o There are concerns about the lack of resources and capacity in some countries to
effectively implement and enforce CITES regulations.
o Some criticize CITES for being too bureaucratic, hindering swift responses to
emerging conservation issues.
o Balancing conservation goals with the economic interests of member countries
remains a persistent challenge for CITES.
o The effectiveness of CITES in addressing non-traditional and emerging threats to
wildlife conservation is questioned.
The CITES is a crucial global treaty that provides a framework for the conservation of
threatened and endangered species. CITES has contributed significantly to the conservation
of species over the past decades. Illegal wildlife trade and other threats continue to pose
challenges to wildlife conservation. To address these challenges, it is crucial that member
nations work together. CITES remains an effective tool for the protection of endangered
species. It strives towards preserving biodiversity for future generations.

UNIT II: ECOSYSTEMS AND NATURAL RESOURCES

Concept of an Ecosystem:
Living organisms cannot live isolated from their non-living environment be-cause the
latter provides materials and energy for the survival of the former i.e. there is interaction
between a biotic community and its environment to produce a stable system; a natural self-
sufficient unit which is known as an ecosystem.Ecosystem are the parts of nature where
living organisms interact among themselves and with their physical environment.
The term ‘ecosystem’ was coined by A.G. Tansley, an English botanist, in 1935. An
ecosystem is the structural and functional unit of ecology (nature) encompassing complex
interaction between its biotic (living) and abiotic (non-living) components. For example- a
pond is a good example of ecosystem. A pond, lake, desert, grassland, meadow, forest etc. are
common examples of ecosystems.

Structure and Function of an Ecosystem:

Each ecosystem has two main components:
(1) Abiotic
(2) Biotic
 (1) Abiotic components (Non-living):
The abiotic component can be grouped into following categories: -
(a) Climatic Factors: Which include rain, temperature, light, wind, humidity etc.
(b) Edaphic Factors: Which include soil, pH, topography minerals etc.
The functions of important factors in abiotic components are given below:
Soils are much more complex than simple sediments. They contain a mixture of
weathered rock fragments, highly altered soil mineral particles, organic matter, and living
organisms. Soils provide nutrients, water, a home, and a structural growing medium for
organisms. The vegetation found growing on top of a soil is closely linked to this component
of an ecosystem through nutrient cycling.
The atmosphere provides organisms found within ecosystems with carbon di-oxide
for photosynthesis and oxygen for respiration. The processes of evaporation, transpiration
and precipitation cycle water between the atmosphere and the Earth’s surface.
Solar radiation is used in ecosystems to heat the atmosphere and to evaporate and
transpire water into the atmosphere. Sunlight is also necessary for photosynthesis.
Photosynthesis provides the energy for plant growth and metabolism, and the organic food
for other forms of life.
Most living tissue is composed of a very high percentage of water, up to and even
exceeding 90%. The protoplasm of a very few cells can survive if their water content drops
below 10%, and most are killed if it is less than 30-50%.
 Water is the medium by which mineral nutrients enter and are trans-located in plants.
It is also necessary for the maintenance of leaf turgidity and is required for photosynthetic
chemical reactions. Plants and animals receive their water from the Earth’s surface and soil.
The original source of this water is precipitation from the atmosphere.

(2) Biotic components:

The living organisms including plants, animals and micro-organisms (Bacteria and
Fungi) that are present in an ecosystem form the biotic components.
(A) Producers: The green plants have chlorophyll with the help of which they trap
solar energy and change it into chemical energy of carbohydrates using simple inorganic
compounds namely water and carbon dioxide. This process is known as photo-synthesis. As
the green plants manufacture their own food they are known as Autotrophs (i.e. auto = self,
trophos = feeder) The chemical energy stored by the producers is utilised partly by the
producers for their own growth and survival and the remaining is stored in the plant parts
for their future use.
(B) Consumers: The animals lack chlorophyll and are unable to synthesise their own
food. There-fore, they depend on the producers for their food. They are known as
heterotrophs (i.e. heteros = other, trophos = feeder) 4 The consumers are of four types,
namely:
(a) Primary Consumers or First Order Consumers or Herbivores: These are the animals
which feed on plants or the producers. They are called herbivores. Examples are rabbit, deer,
goat, cattle etc.
(b) Secondary Consumers or Second Order Consumers or Primary Carnivores: The animals
which feed on the herbivores are called the primary carnivores. Examples are cats, foxes,
snakes etc.
(c) Tertiary Consumers or Third Order Consumers: These are the large carnivores which
feed on the secondary consumers. Example are Wolves.
(d) Quaternary Consumers or Fourth Order Consumers or Omnivores: These are the largest
carnivores which feed on the tertiary consumers and are not eaten up by any other animal.
Examples are lions and tigers.
(C)Decomposers or Reducers: Bacteria and fungi belong to this category. They
breakdown the dead organic materials of producers (plants) and consumers (animals) for
their food and re-lease to the environment the simple inorganic and organic substances
produced as by-products of their metabolisms. These simple substances are reused by the
producers resulting in a cyclic ex-change of materials between the biotic community and the
abiotic environment of the ecosystem. The decomposers are known as Saprotrophs (i.e.,
sapros = rotten, trophos = feeder).
Functions of ecosystem
Ecosystems are complex dynamic system. They perform certain functions. These are:
Functions of Ecosystem:
(i) Productivity,
(ii) Decomposition,
(iii) Physical (energy flow),
(iv) Biological (food chains, food web, ecological succession), and (v) Biogeochemical
(nutrient cycling) processes
(I) PRODUCTIVITY
A constant input of solar energy is the basic requirement for any ecosystem to
function and sustain. Primary production is defined as the amount of biomass or
organic matter produced per unit area over a time period by plants during
photosynthesis. It is expressed in terms of weight (g –2 ) or energy (kcal m–2 ). The
rate of biomass production is called productivity. It is expressed in terms of g –2 yr –
1 or (kcal m–2) yr –1 to compare the productivity of different ecosystems. It can be
divided into gross primary productivity (GPP) and net primary productivity (NPP).
Gross primary productivity of an ecosystem is the rate of production of organic
matter during photosynthesis. A considerable amount of GPP is utilized by plants in
respiration. Gross primary productivity minus respiration losses (R), is the net
primary productivity (NPP). GPP – R = NPP Net primary productivity is the available
biomass for the consumption to heterotrophs (herbivores and decomposers).
Secondary productivity is defined as the rate of formation of new organic matter by
consumers. Primary productivity depends on the plant species inhabiting a particular
 area. It also depends on a variety of environmental factors, availability of nutrients
and photosynthetic capacity of plants. Therefore, it varies in different types of
ecosystems. The annual net primary productivity of the whole biosphere is
approximately 170 billion tons (dry weight) of organic matter. Of this, despite
occupying about 70 per cent of the surface, the productivity of the oceans are only 55
billion tons. Rest of course, is on land.
(II) DECOMPOSITION
You may have heard of the earthworm being referred to as the farmer’s ‘friend’. This
is so because they help in the breakdown of complex organic matter as well as in
loosening of the soil. Similarly, decomposers break down complex organic matter into
inorganic substances like carbon dioxide, water and nutrients and the process is
called decomposition. Dead plant remains such as leaves, bark, flowers and dead
remain of animals, including fecal matter, constitute detritus, which is the raw
material for decomposition. The important steps in the process of decomposition are
fragmentation, leaching, catabolism, humification and mineralization.
Detritivores (e.g., earthworm) break down detritus into smaller particles. This
process is called fragmentation.
By the process of leaching,watersoluble inorganic nutrients go down into the soil
horizon and get precipitated as unavailable salts.
Bacterial and fungal enzymes degrade detritus into simpler inorganic substances.
This process is called as catabolism. It is important to note that all the above steps in
decomposition operate simultaneously on the detritus.
Humification and mineralization occur during decomposition in the soil. Humification
leads to accumulation of a dark-colored amorphous substance called humus that is
highly resistant to microbial action and undergoes decomposition at an extremely
slow rate. Being colloidal in nature it serves as a reservoir of nutrients.
The humus is further degraded by some microbes and release of inorganic nutrients
occur by the process known as mineralization.
Decomposition is largely an oxygen-requiring process. The rate of decomposition is
controlled by chemical composition of detritus and climatic factors. In a particular
climatic condition, decomposition rate is slower if detritus is rich in lignin and chitin,
and quicker, if detritus is rich in nitrogen and water-soluble substances like sugars.
Temperature and soil moisture are the most important climatic factors that regulate
decomposition through their effects on the activities of soil microbes. Warm and
moist environment favor decomposition whereas low temperature and anaerobiosis
inhibit decomposition resulting in buildup of organic materials.
(III) ENERGY FLOW
The chemical energy of food is the main source of energy required by all living
organisms. This energy is transmitted to different trophic levels along the food chain.
This energy flow is based on two different laws of thermodynamics:
First law of thermodynamics, that states that energy can neither be created nor
destroyed, it can only change from one form to another.Second law of
thermodynamics, that states that as energy is transferred more and more of it is
wasted.
The energy flow in the ecosystem is one of the major factors that support the survival
of such a great number of organisms. For almost all organisms on earth, the primary
source of energy is solar energy. It is amusing to find that we receive less than 50 per
cent of the sun’s effective radiation on earth. When we say effective radiation, we
mean the radiation which can be used by plants to carry out photosynthesis.
Most of the sun’s radiation that falls on the earth is usually reflected back into space
by the earth’s atmosphere. This effective radiation is termed as the
Photosynthetically Active Radiation (PAR).
Overall, we receive about 40 to 50 percent of the energy having Photosynthetically
Active Radiation and only around 2-10 percent of it is used by plants for the process
of photosynthesis. Thus, this percent of PAR supports the entire world as plants are
the producers in the ecosystem and all the other organisms are either directly or
indirectly dependent on them for their survival.
The energy flow takes place via food chain and food web. During the process of energy
flow in the ecosystem, plants being the producers absorb sunlight with the help of the
chloroplasts and a part of it is transformed into chemical energy n in the process of
photosynthesis.
This energy is stored in various organic products in the plants and passed on to the
primary consumers in the food chain when the herbivores consume (primary
consumers) the plants as food and convert chemical energy accumulated in plant
products into kinetic energy, degradation of energy will occur through its conversion
into heat.
Then followed by the secondary consumers. When these herbivores are consumed by
carnivores of the first order (secondary consumers) further degradation will occur.
Finally, when tertiary consumers consume the carnivores, again energy will be
degraded. Thus, the energy flow is unidirectional in nature.
Based on the source of their nutrition or food, organisms occupy a specific place in
the food chain that is known as their trophic level. Producers belong to the first
trophic level, herbivores (primary consumer) to the second and carnivores
(secondary consumer) to the third.(Fig.)
 The important point to note is that the amount of energy decreases at successive
trophic levels. When any organism dies, it is converted to detritus or dead biomass
that serves as an energy source for decomposers. Organisms at each trophic level
depend on those at the lower trophic level for their energy demands. Each trophic
level has a certain mass of living material at a particular time called as the standing
crop. The standing crop is measured as the mass of living organisms (biomass) or the
number in a unit area. The biomass of a species is expressed in terms of fresh or dry
weight.
Moreover, in a food chain, the energy flow follows the 10 percent law. According to
this law, only 10 percent of energy is transferred from one trophic level to the other;
rest is lost into the atmosphere.

MODELS OF ENERGY FLOW IN ECOSYSTEM

1. Single Channel Energy Flow Model: The flow of energy takes place in a unidirectional
manner through a single channel of producers to herbivores and carnivores. The
energy captured by autotrophs does not revert back to solar input but passes to
herbivores; and that which passes to herbivores does not go back to autotrophs but
passes to consumers. Due to one way flow of energy, the entire system would collapse
if primary source of energy were cut off. At each tropic level there occurs progressive
decrease in energy which is mainly due to loss of energy as heat in metabolic reactions
and also some of the energy is utilized at each tropic level.
2. Y- shaped model: shows a common boundary, light and heat flow as well as import,
export and storage of organic matter. Decomposers are placed in separate box to
partially separate the grazing and detritus food chains. In terms of energy levels
decomposers are in fact a mixed group. •Y- shaped energy flow is more realistic and
practical than the single channel energy flow model because: •It conforms to the basic
stratified structure of ecosystems •It separates the two chains i.e. grazing & detritus
food chain in both time and space. •Micro consumers (bacteria & fungi) and the macro
consumers (animals) differ greatly in size- metabolism relations in two models.

3. Universal energy flow model: As the flow of energy takes place, there is gradual loss
of energy at each level there by resulting in less energy available at the next tropic
level as indicated by narrower pipes (energy flow) and smaller boxes (stored energy
in biomass). The loss of energy is mainly the energy which is not utilized (U). This is
 the energy loss in locomotion, excretion etc. or it the energy lost in respiration (CR)
which is for maintenance. The remaining energy is used for production (P).

(IV) BIOLOGICAL
(A) Food Chain:
The transfer of food energy from the producers, through a series of organisms
(herbivores to carnivores to decomposers) with repeated eating and being eaten,
is known as food chain.
In nature, basically two types of food chains are recognized – grazing food chain
and detritus food chain.
Food chains and energy flow are the functional properties of ecosystems which
make them dynamic. The biotic and abiotic components of an ecosystem are
linked through them.
There are two types of food chains:
(i)Grazing food chains: which starts from the green plants that make food for
herbivores and herbivores in turn for the carnivores. Ecosystems with such type
of food chain are directly dependent on an influx of solar radiation.
This type of chain thus depends on autotrophic energy capture and the movement
of this captured energy to herbivores. Most of the ecosystems in nature follow this
type of food chain.
(ii) Detritus food chains: It starts from the dead organic matter to the detritivore
organisms which in turn make food for protozoan to carnivores etc.
The detritus food chain (DFC) begins with dead organic matter. It is made up of
decomposers which are heterotrophic organisms, mainly fungi and bacteria. They
meet their energy and nutrient requirements by degrading dead organic matter
or detritus. These are also known as saprotrophs (sapro: to decompose).
Decomposers secrete digestive enzymes that breakdown dead and waste
materials into simple, inorganic materials, which are subsequently absorbed by
them.
In an aquatic ecosystem, GFC is the major conduit for energy flow. As against this,
in a terrestrial ecosystem, a much larger fraction of energy flows through the
detritus food chain than through the GFC. Detritus food chain may be connected
with the grazing food chain at some levels: some of the organisms of DFC are prey
to the GFC animals, and in a natural ecosystem, some animals like cockroaches,
crows, etc., are omnivores.

Parasitic food chain

Parasitic food chain is also a auxiliary food chain. It begins with the host and
usually end in parasite.
(B) Food web
Simple food chains are very rare in nature because each organism may obtain food
from more than one trophic level. Thus, in an ecosystem, the various food chains
are interconnected to each other to form a network called food web. A food web
illustrates all possible transfers of energy and nutrient among the organisms in an
ecosystem, whereas food chain traces only one pathway of food. Food webs are
very important in maintaining the stability of an ecosystem.

Differences between food chain and food web

(III) ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION:
An important characteristic of all communities is that their composition and structure
constantly change in response to the changing environmental conditions. This change is
orderly and sequential, parallel with the changes in the physical environment. These changes
lead finally to a community that is in near equilibrium with the environment and that is called
a climax community. The gradual and fairly predictable change in the species composition of
a given area is called ecological succession. During succession some species colonise an area
and their populations become more numerous, whereas populations of other species decline
and even disappear. The entire sequence of communities that successively change in a given
area are called sere(s). The individual transitional communities are termed seral stages or
seral communities. In the successive seral stages, there is a change in the diversity of species
of organisms, increase in the number of species and organisms as well as an increase in the
total biomass. The present-day communities in the world have come to be because of
succession that has occurred over millions of years since life started on earth. Actually,
succession and evolution would have been parallel processes at that time. Succession is
hence a process that starts where no living organisms are there – these could be areas where
no living organisms ever existed, say bare rock; or in areas that somehow, lost all the living
organisms that existed there. The former is called primary succession, while the latter is
termed secondary succession.
Primary Succession: Primary succession is the series of community changes which occur on
an entirely new habitat which has never been colonized before. For example, a newly
quarried rock face or sand dunes. The establishment of a new biotic community is generally
slow.
Secondary Succession: Secondary succession begins in areas where natural biotic
communities have been destroyed such as in abandoned farm lands, burned or cut forests,
lands that have been flooded. Since some soil or sediment is present, succession is faster than
primary succession.
Clement's theory of succession/Mechanisms of succession:
F.E. Clement (1916) developed a descriptive theory of succession and advanced it as a
general ecological concept. His theory of succession had a powerful influence on ecological
thought. Clement's concept is usually termed as classical ecological theory. According to
Clement, succession is a process involving several phases:
1. Nudation: Succession begins with the development of a bare site, called Nudation
(disturbance).
2. Migration: It refers to arrival of propagules.
3. Ecesis: It involves establishment and initial growth of vegetation.
4. Competition: As vegetation became well established, grew, and spread, various
species began to compete for space, light and nutrients. This phase is called competition.
5. Reaction: During this phase autogenic changes affect the habitat resulting in
replacement of one plant community by another.
6. Stabilization: Reaction phase leads to development of a climax community.
Climax community: The final or stable community in a sere is the climax community or
climatic vegetation. It is self-perpetuating and in equilibrium with the physical habitat. There
is no net annual accumulation of organic matter in a climax community mostly. The annual
production and use of energy is balanced in such a community.

(V) BIOGIOCHEMICAL PROCESSES

NUTRIENT CYCLING
All elements in the earth are recycled time and again. The major elements such as
oxygen, carbon, nitrogen, phosphorous, and sulphur are essential ingredients that make up
organisms. Biogeochemical cycles refer to the flow of such chemical elements and
compounds between organisms and the physical environment. Chemicals taken in by
organisms are passed through the food chain and come back to the soil, air, and water
through mechanisms such as respiration, excretion, and decomposition. As an element
moves through this cycle, it often forms compounds with other elements as a result of
metabolic processes in living tissues and of natural reactions in the atmosphere,
hydrosphere, or lithosphere. Such cyclic exchange of material between the living organisms
and their non-living environment is called Biogeochemical Cycle.
 Nutrient cycles are of two types: (a) gaseous and (b) sedimentary. The reservoir for
gaseous type of nutrient cycle (e.g., nitrogen, carbon cycle) exists in the atmosphere and for
the sedimentary cycle (e.g., sulphur and phosphorus cycle), the reservoir is located in Earth’s
crust. Environmental factors, e.g., soil, moisture, pH, temperature, etc., regulate the rate of
release of nutrients into the atmosphere. The function of the reservoir is to meet with the
deficit which occurs due to imbalance in the rate of influx and efflux.
(1) Carbon Cycle-
Carbon enters into the living world in the form of carbon dioxide through the process of
photosynthesis as carbohydrates. These organic compounds (food) are then passed from the
producers to the consumers (herbivores & carnivores). This carbon is finally returned to the
surrounding medium by the process of respiration or decomposition of plants and animals
by the decomposers. Carbon is also recycled during the burning of fossil fuels.

(2) Nitrogen cycle:

Nitrogen is an essential component of protein and required by all living organisms including
human beings. Our atmosphere contains nearly 79% of nitrogen but it cannot be used
directly 12 by the majority of living organisms. Broadly like corbondioxide, nitrogen also
cycles from gaseous phase to solid phase then back to gaseous phase through the activity of
a wide variety of organisms. Cycling of nitrogen is vitally important for all living organisms.
There are five main processes which essential for nitrogen cycle are elaborated below
(a) Nitrogen fixation: This process involves conversion of gaseous nitrogen into
Ammonia, a form in which it can be used by plants. Atmospheric nitrogen can be fixed
by the following three methods: -
(i)Atmospheric fixation: Lightening, combustion and volcanic activity help in the
fixation of nitrogen.
(ii) Industrial fixation: At high temperature (400oC) and high pressure (200 atm.),
molecular nitrogen is broken into atomic nitrogen which then combines with
hydrogen to form ammonia.
(iii) Bacterial fixation: There are two types of bacteria- (i) Symbiotic bacteria e.g.
Rhizobium in the root nodules of leguminous plants. (ii) Freeliving or symbiotic e.g.
1. Nostoc 2. Azobacter 3. Cyanobacteria can combine atmospheric or dissolved
nitrogen with hydrogen to form ammonia.
(b) Nitrification: It is a process by which ammonia is converted into nitrates or nitrites
by Nitrosomonas and Nitrococcus bacteria respectively. Another soil bacteria
Nitrobacter can covert nitrate into nitrite.
 (c) Assimilation: In this process nitrogen fixed by plants is converted into organic
molecules such as proteins, DNA, RNA etc. These molecules make the plant and
animal tissue.
(d) Ammonification: Living organisms produce nitrogenous waste products such as urea
and uric acid. These waste products as well as dead remains of organisms are
converted back into inorganic ammonia by the bacteria This process is called
ammonification. Ammonifying bacteria help in this process.
(e) Denitrification: Conversion of nitrates back into gaseous nitrogen is called
denitrification. Denitrifying bacteria live deep in soil near the water table as they like
to live in oxygen free medium. Denitrification is reverse of nitrogen fixation.

(3) Water Cycle:

Water is essential for life. No organism can survive without water. Precipitation (rain, snow,
slush dew etc.) is the only source of water on the earth. Water received from the atmosphere
on the earth returns back to the atmosphere as water vapour resulting from direct
evaporation and through evapotranspiration the continuous movement of water in the
biosphere is called water cycle (hydrological cycle). Earth is a watery planet of thesolar
system, about 2/3rd of earth surface is covered with water. However, a very small fraction
of this is available to animals and plants. Water is not evenly distributed throughout the
surface of the earth. Almost 95 % of the total water on the earth is chemically bound to rocks
and does not cycle. Out of the remaining 5%, nearly 97.3% is in the oceans and 2.1% exists
as polar ice caps. Thus only 0.6% is present as fresh water in the form of atmospheric water
vapours, ground and soil water. The driving forces for water cycle are 1) solar radiation 2)
gravity. Evaporation and precipitation are two main processes involved in water cycle. These
two processes alternate with each other Water from oceans, lakes, ponds, rivers and streams
evaporates by sun’s heat energy. Plants also transpire huge amounts of water. Water remains
in the vapour state in air and forms clouds which drift with wind. Clouds meet with the cold
air in the mountainous.
On an average 84% of the water is lost from the surface of the through oceans by
evaporation. While 77% is gained by it from precipitation. Water run-off from lands through
rivers to oceans makes up 7% which balances the evaporation deficit of the ocean. On land,
evaporation is 16% and precipitation is 23%.
 (4) Phosphorus Cycle
Phosphorus is a major constituent of biological membranes, nucleic acids and cellular energy
transfer systems. Many animals also need large quantities of this element to make shells,
bones and teeth. The natural reservoir of phosphorus is rock, which contains phosphorus in
the form of phosphates. When rocks are weathered, minute amounts of these phosphates
dissolve in soil solution and are absorbed by the roots of the plants (Fig.). Herbivores and
other animals obtain this element from plants. The waste products and the dead organisms
are decomposed by phosphate-solubilising bacteria releasing phosphorus. Unlike carbon
cycle, there is no respiratory release of phosphorus into atmosphere. The other two major
and important differences between carbon and phosphorus cycle are firstly, atmospheric
inputs of phosphorus through rainfall are much smaller than carbon inputs, and, secondly,
gaseous exchanges of phosphorus between organism and environment are negligible.

ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS
 Ecological pyramids are the graphical representations of trophic levels in an
ecosystem. The base of each pyramid represents the producers or the first trophic level while
the apex represents tertiary or top-level consumer. The three ecological pyramids that are
usually studied are (a) pyramid of number; (b) pyramid of biomass and (c) pyramid of
energy.
(1) Pyramid of number: In this type of ecological pyramid, the number of organisms in
each trophic level is considered as a level in the pyramid. The pyramid of numbers is
usually upright except for some situations like that of the detritus food chain, where
many organisms feed on one dead plant or animal.
(2) Pyramid of biomass: In this particular type of ecological pyramid, each level takes into
account the amount of biomass produced by each trophic level. The pyramid of
biomass is also upright except for that observed in oceans where large numbers of
zooplanktons depend on a relatively smaller number of phytoplankton.
(3) Pyramid of energy: Pyramid of energy is the only type of ecological pyramid, which is
always upright as the energy flow in a food chain is always unidirectional. Also, with
every increasing trophic level, some energy is lost into the environment.

Ecosystem homeostasis:
Ecosystem homeostasis is equilibrium, or a balance of the organisms in an ecosystem. This
means the populations of species in the ecosystem are relatively stable. Over time, these
populations will change, but in the short term, they should move up and down in cycles
around an average value.

TYPES OF ECOSYSTEMS
An ecosystem consists of all the living and non-living things in a specific natural
setting. Plants, animals, insects, microorganisms, rocks, soil, water and sunlight are major
components of many ecosystems. All types of ecosystems fall into one of two categories:
terrestrial or aquatic. Terrestrial ecosystems are land-based, while aquatic are water-
based.The word “biome” may also be used to describe terrestrial ecosystems which extend
across a large geographic area, such as tundra.
(1) Terrestrial Ecosystems:
The ecosystem which is found only on landforms is known as the terrestrial
ecosystem. The main factor which differentiates the terrestrial ecosystems from the
aquatic ecosystems is the relative shortage of water in the terrestrial ecosystems and
as a result the importance that water attains in these ecosystems due to its limited
availability. Another factor is the better availability of light in these ecosystems as the
environment is a lot cleaner in land than it is in water. The main types of terrestrial
ecosystems are the forest ecosystems, the desert ecosystems, the grassland
ecosystems and the mountain ecosystems. We are going to study all of these
individually here in detail.
(a) Forest Ecosystems: These ecosystems have an abundance of flora or plants and
hence in these ecosystems a large number of organisms live in a small space. This
means that these ecosystems have a high density of living organisms. These
ecosystems are classified according to their climate type as tropical, temperate or
boreal i.e; tropical evergreen forest, tropical deciduous forest, temperate
evergreen forest, temperate deciduous forest and taiga. In the tropics, rainforest
ecosystems contain more diverse flora and fauna than ecosystems in any other
region on earth. In these warm, moisture-laden environments, trees grow tall and
foliage is lush and dense, with species inhabiting the forest floor all the way up to
the canopy. In temperate zones, forest ecosystems may be deciduous, coniferous
or oftentimes a mixture of both, in which some trees shed their leaves each fall,
while others remain evergreen year-round. In the far north, just south of the
Arctic, boreal forests – also known as taiga – feature abundant coniferous trees.
(b) Grassland Ecosystems: The grasslands are the areas which comprise mainly of the
grasses with a little number of shrubs and trees. Grazing animals, insectivores and
herbivores are the main types of organisms which are found in these regions. The
three major types of grasslands are the prairies, savannas and steppes. Grassland
ecosystems are typically found in tropical or temperate regions, although they can
exist in colder areas as well, as is the case with the well-known Siberian steppe.
Grasslands share the common climactic characteristic of semi-aridity. Trees are
sparse or non-existent, but flowers may be interspersed with the grasses.
Grasslands provide an ideal environment for grazing animals.
Savanna are the tropical grasslands which are dry seasonally and have a large
number of predators and grazers. Prairies are temperate grasslands which are
totally devoid of large shrubs and trees. Prairies are of three different types, mixed
grass, tall grass and short grass prairies.
(c) Desert Ecosystems: The common defining feature among desert ecosystems is low
precipitation, generally less than 25 centimeters, or 10 inches, per year. Almost
17% of all the land on this planet is occupied by the desert ecosystems.The fauna
and flora in these ecosystems is generally not much developed because of the high
temperatures, intense sunlight and low availability of water. The main vegetation
of such regions are the shrubs, bushes and a few grasses and trees. The stems and
leaves of these plants are also developed in order to conserve as much water as
 possible. Camels, reptiles and some insects and birds are the living creatures
which are found in such regions.
Not all deserts are hot – desert ecosystems can exist from the tropics to the
arctic, but regardless of latitude, deserts are often windy. Some deserts contain
sand dunes, while others feature mostly rock.
(d) Tundra Ecosystems: As with deserts, a harsh environment characterizes
ecosystems in the tundra. In the snowcovered, windswept, treeless tundra, the
soil may be frozen year-round, a condition known as permafrost. The mountain
ecosystem is the most scattered and diverse in terms of the habitats that it
provides. A large number of animals and plants are found in this ecosystem.
Though the conditions at the very high altitudes can be very demanding allowing
only the survival of the treeless alpine vegetation. Another important feature
about these ecosystems is that the animals which live here have thick fur coats for
protection against cold and generally have a long hibernation period in the
winters. The slopes at lower altitudes are generally covered with coniferous
forests.
During the brief spring and summer, snows melt, producing shallow ponds
which attract migrating waterfowl. Lichens and small flowers may become visible
during this time of year. The term “tundra” most commonly denotes polar areas,
but at lower latitudes, tundra-like communities known as alpine tundra may be
found at high elevations.
(2) Aquatic Ecosystem
An ecosystem which exists in a body of water is known as an aquatic ecosystem. The
communities of living organisms which are dependent on each other and the aquatic
surroundings of their environment for their survival exist in the aquatic ecosystems.
The aquatic ecosystems are mainly of two types, the freshwater ecosystems and the
marine ecosystems.
(a) Marine Ecosystem: Marine ecosystems are the biggest ecosystems. They cover
around 71% of earth’s surface and also contain almost around 97% of the total
water present on earth. High amounts of minerals and salts are generally present
in the water in the marine ecosystems and to better understand the amount and
composition of the different minerals and salts in the water in different marine
ecosystems. Marine ecosystems differ from freshwater ecosystems in that they
contain saltwater, which usually supports different types of species than does
freshwater. Marine ecosystems are the most abundant types of ecosystems in the
word. They encompass not only the ocean floor and surface but also tidal zones,
estuaries, salt marshes and saltwater swamps, mangroves and coral reefs.
(b) Freshwater Ecosystem: The freshwater ecosystems are very small in magnitude
as compared to the marine ecosystems as these covers only 0.8% of the earth’s
surface and only account for 0.009% of the total water present on earth. There are
 three basic kinds of freshwater ecosystems and these are Lentic, Lotic, and
Wetlands. The lentic ecosystems are slow-moving or still water like ponds or
lakes. Lotic ecosystems are fast-moving water like rivers. The wetlands are those
systems where soil remains saturated for a long period of time. Many different
species of reptiles, amphibians, and around 41% of the world’s fish species live in
these ecosystems. The faster moving waters contain more dissolved oxygen than
the slow-moving waters and hence support greater biodiversity.
Pond Ecosystems – These are usually relatively small and contained. Most of the
time they include various types of plants, amphibians and insects. Sometimes they
include fish, but as these cannot move around as easily as amphibians and insects,
it is less likely, and most of the time fish are artificially introduced to these
environments by humans.
River Ecosystems – Because rivers always link to the sea, they are more likely to
contain fish alongside the usual plants, amphibians and insects.
These sorts of ecosystems can also include birds because birds often hunt in and
around water for small fish or insects.
As is clear from the title, freshwater ecosystems are those that are contained to
freshwater environments. This includes, but is not limited to, ponds, rivers and
other waterways that are not the sea (which is, of course, saltwater and cannot
support freshwater creatures for very long). Freshwater ecosystems are actually
the smallest of the three major classes of ecosystems, accounting for just 1.8% of
the total of the Earth’s surface. The ecosystems of freshwater systems include
relatively small fish (bigger fish are usually found in the sea), amphibians (such as
frogs, toads and newts), insects of various sorts and, of course, plants. The
absolutely smallest living part of the food web of these sorts of ecosystems is
plankton, a small organism that is often eaten by fish and other small creatures.

ECOSYSTEM SERVICES
Ecosystem services are the benefits that people obtain from ecosystems. They
support, directly or indirectly, our survival and quality of life. Some ecosystem services are
well known, such as those which are essential for life (e.g. food and clean air and water) or
those which improve our quality of life (e.g. recreation and beautiful landscapes). Other
services are often taken for granted, such as natural processes (e.g. pollination and flood
regulation) (Fig 2). According to the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA) that 60% of
ecosystem services are being degraded or used unsustainably, often resulting in significant
harm to human well-being. The MA categorised ecosystem services into four classes:
1. Provisioning services, which are the products obtained from ecosystems, such as
food, water, fuel and materials for building. Agro-ecosystems provide food for human
consumption and, together with the associated ecosystems supporting marine and
 freshwater fisheries, underpin global food security. Ecosystems play important roles
in the global hydrological cycle, contributing to water provision, regulation and
purification (Dudley and Stolton 2003; Bruijnzeel 2004; Brauman et al. 2007). The
provision of fuels and fibres, medicinal and other biochemical resources such as
metabolites, pharma-ceuticals, nutrients, crop protection chemicals, cosmetics and
other natural products for industrial use and as a basis for biomimetics that may
become increasingly important in nanotechnology applications (Ninan 2009).
Biodiversity has also played an iconic, ornamental role throughout the development
of human society. Uses of plant and animal parts, especially plumage of birds, have
been important in conferring individual status, position and influence. Ornamental
plants are typically grown for the display of their flowers but other common
ornamental features include leaves, scent, fruit, stem and bark.
2. Regulating services, Ecosystems contribute to several of natural processes, like air
quality regulation, climate regulation, water/flood regulation, disease and pest
control, pollination and water purification, environmental regulation services of
importance for human wellbeing, particularly in urban areas where vegetation
reduce air and noise pollution, mitigate the “urban heat island effect” (Santomouris,
2001), and reduce impacts related to climate change (Bolund and Hunhammar,
1999). Numerous factors interact in the regulation of climate, including the reflection
of solar radiation by clouds, dust and aerosols in the atmosphere. Vegetation covers
also play a key factor in preventing soil erosion and vegetation cover combined with
drought resulted in unprecedented wind erosion, destroying farmland and
livelihoods.
3. Cultural services, which are the non-material benefits people, obtain from ecosystems
and landscapes through spiritual enrichment, recreation and aesthetic enjoyment.
4. Supporting services, such as soil formation, photosynthesis and nutrient and water
cycling which are necessary for the production of all other ecosystem services. In
some estimates, over 75% of the world's crop plants, as well as many plants that are
source species for pharmaceuticals, rely on pollination by animal vectors (Nabhan
and Buchman, 1997). Klein et al. (2007) found that, for 87 out of 115 leading global
crops (representing up to 35% of the global food supply), fruit or seed numbers or
quality were increased through animal pollination. In many agricultural systems,
pollination is actively managed through the establishment of populations of
domesticated pollinators, particularly the honeybee.

Ecosystem preservation and conservation strategies

It has taken millions of years of evolution, to accumulate this rich diversity in nature, but we
could lose all that wealth in less than two centuries if the present rates of species losses
continue. Ecosystem and its conservation are now vital environmental issues of
international concern as more and more people around the world begin to realise the critical
importance of biodiversity for our survival and well- being on this planet. Ecosystem is a
wealth to which no value can be put. In the final analysis, the very survival of the human race
is dependent on conservation of ecosystem. It is evident that this invaluable heritage is being
destroyed at an alarming rate due to several reasons. There are several strategies which are
adapted for conservation of ecosystem. Some of these are:
1. Legislation: Formal policies and programs for conservation and sustainable
utilization of ecosystem resources date back to several decades. The concept of
environmental protection is enshrined in the Indian constitution in Articles 48a and
51a (g). Major central acts relevant to biodiversity include: Environment Protection
Act, 1986; Fisheries Act, 1897; Forest Act, 1927; Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980;
Wildlife (Protection) Act 1972 and Wildlife (Protection) Amendment Act 1991.
Biological Diversity Act, 2002.
2. In -situ Conservation: Conserving the animals and plants in their natural habitats is
known as in situ conservation. The established natural habitats are: National parks
and sanctuaries; Biosphere reserves; Nature reserves; Reserved and protected
forests; Preservation plots; Reserved forests. Biosphere Reserves are another
category of protected areas. Under this, a large area is declared as a Biosphere
Reserve where wildlife is protected, but local communities are allowed to continue to
live and pursue traditional activities within the Reserve. A program “Eco-
development” for in-situ conservation of biological diversity involving local
communities was initiated. It integrates the ecological and economic parameters for
sustained conservation of ecosystems by involving local communities with
maintenance of earmarked regions surrounding protected areas.
3. Ex-situ Conservation: Ex-situ conservation of plants and animals preserve/ or protect
them away from their natural habitat. This could be in zoological parks and botanical
gardens or through the forestry institutions and agricultural research centers. A lot
of effort is under way to collect and preserve the genetic material of crops, animal,
bird and fish species.
4. Community Participation in Biodiversity Conservation: It is being recognized that no
legal provisions can be effective unless local communities are involved in planning,
management and monitoring conservation programs. Successful conservation
strategies will have to have the confidence and participation of the local communities.
5. Recording Indigenous Knowledge: The lives of local communities are closely
interwoven with their environment, and are dependent upon their immediate
resources for meeting their needs. These communities have a vast knowledge about
local flora and fauna which is very important for biodiversity conservation. Much of
this knowledge is orally passed on from generation to generation.
6. International Conservation Strategies: Conserving biodiversity is not an issue
confined to any one country or community. It is a crucial global concern. Several
international treaties and agreements are in place in the attempt to strengthen
 international participation and commitment towards conserving biodiversity. Some
of these are:
• The Convention on Biological Diversity: This was signed during the Earth Summit
in 1992. It focuses not only on conserving biodiversity but also on sustainable use of
biological resources and equitable sharing of benefits arising from its use.
• The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and
Fauna (CITES): This is an international treaty which is designed to protect wild plants
and animals affected by international trade. The treaty, in force since 1975, controls
the export, import and re-export of endangered and threatened wildlife.
• The Convention on Wetlands of International Importance: This Convention, also
known as the Ramsar Convention, was signed in Ramsar (Iran) in 1971 and came into
force in December 1975. It provides a framework for international cooperation for
the conservation of wetland habitats which have been designated to the ‘List of
Wetlands of International Importance’ (Dilip Sarkar, Conserving Biodiversity in
India).

ECOSYSTEM RESTORATION
Ecological restoration is the process of reclaiming habitat and ecosystem functions by
restoring the lands and waters on which plants and animals depend.
Ecological restoration seeks to initiate or accelerate ecosystem recovery following damage,
degradation, or destruction. It is a corrective step that involves eliminating or modifying
causes of ecological degradation and re-establishing the natural processes — like natural
fires, floods, or predator-prey relationships — that sustain and renew ecosystems over time.
Restoration practitioners do not carry out the actual work of ecosystem recovery. Rather,
they create the conditions needed for recovery so the plants, animals, and microorganisms
can carry out the work of recovery themselves. Assisting recovery can be as simple as
removing an invasive species or reintroducing a lost species or a lost function (like fire); or
as complex as altering landforms, planting vegetation, changing the hydrology, and
reintroducing wildlife.
The goal of ecological restoration is to return a degraded ecosystem to its historic trajectory,
not its historic condition. The ecosystem may not necessarily recover to its former state since
contemporary ecological realities, including global climate change, may cause it to develop
along an altered trajectory, just as these same realities may have changed the trajectory of
nearby undisturbed ecosystems. History plays an important role in restoration, but
contemporary conditions must also be taken into consideration.
HOMEOSTASIS: DEFINITION, TYPES, EXAMPLES AND APPLICATIONS
Homeostasis is the ability of an organism to maintain a steady and uniform internal
environment to allow the normal functioning of the systems.
It is the tendency to achieve equilibrium against various natural and environmental factors.
Homeostasis results in dynamic equilibrium where continuous changes keep on taking place
and yet steady conditions are maintained.
Homeostasis is mainly involved in managing various internal variables of the living system
like body temperature, pH of various fluids, the concentration of different ions and the body
sugar levels.
A number of regulatory mechanisms are employed to resist changes in the body against
environmental and bodily factors.
Homeostasis can be maintained by separate organs or by the entire body at once.

Mechanism of maintaining homeostasis

Homeostasis is maintained by a complex system that consists of individual units working in
a particular sequence to balance a given variable. All homeostasis mechanisms consist of four
separate units, which are:
1. Stimulus
• The stimulus is something that results in changes within the system involving the
variable.
• The stimulus represents that the variable has moved away from its normal range,
initiating the process of homeostasis.
• One example of this is the increased temperature of the body above 37°C due to
various causes. The increased temperature indicates that the temperature of the body
has gone higher than its higher range.
2. Sensor/ Receptor
 • The sensor or receptor is the sensing unit of homeostasis, where it monitors and
responds to the changes in the body.
• The changes in the system are realized by the sensor, which then sends the
information to the control unit.
• The nerve cells and receptors like thermoreceptors and mechanoreceptors are
examples of sensor/ receptors.
3. Control unit
• Once the information is sent to the control unit, it tallies the changed value to its
normal value.
• If the value is different from the normal value, the control center activates the
effectors against the stimulus.
• The thermoregulatory unit in the hypothalamus of the brain that controls the
temperature of the body is an example of the control unit.
4. Effector
• Effectors can be muscles, organs, glands, or other similar structures that are activated
as a result of the signal from the control unit.
• An effector is a target which is acted upon by the control unit to bring the value of
variable back to normal.
• The effector essentially counteracts the stimulus to nullify its effect.
• In the case of thermoregulation, the sweat glands are effectors that are acted upon by
the thermoregulatory unit to produce sweat so as to bring the value of body
temperature back to its normal value.
Feedback Loops
A feedback loop is a biological system that helps to maintain homeostasis where the result
of the system either enhances the system (positive feedback) or inhibits the system (negative
feedback).
The feedback loop is activated when a change in a system result in an alarm that triggers an
output. The output either supports the change or inhibits it.
There are two types of feedback loops that assist the process of homeostasis:
1. Negative feedback loop
• Most homeostatic processes are maintained by negative feedback loops.
• Negative feedback loops result in an output that tends to minimize the effect of the
stimulus in order to stabilize the system.
• These loops tend to counteract the stimulus and act against the stimulus that might
have triggered the system.
• Negative feedback loops are activated under two conditions;
• In the first case, the activation is caused when the value of a variable (like body
temperature) is above its normal value and thus has to be brought back down.
• Under the other conditions, the activation is caused when the value of the
variable is below the normal value and thus has to be brought back up.
 • An example of a negative feedback loop is the production of RBCs by the kidneys when
the decreased level of oxygen is sensed in the body.
• Negative feedback loops might occur in nature like in the case of carbon cycle where
the cycle is balanced according to the concentration of carbon emission.
2. Positive feedback loop
• Some biological and natural systems might utilize positive feedback loops where the
output of the loop tends to increase the effect of the stimulus.
• This loop is generally observed in processes that need to happen quickly and towards
completion.
• Thus, positive feedback loops tend to move the process towards completion rather
than towards equilibrium.
• An example of a positive feedback loop in the body is the process of childbirth. In this
case, as the baby’s head pushes the cervix, the neurons in that region are activated.
This causes the brain to send signals to produce oxytocin which further increases the
uterine contractions putting more pressure on the cervix, facilitating childbirth.
• Positive feedback loops, like negative loops, can be observed in nature during the
ripening of the fruits in trees. After the ripening of one fruit, it gives off ethylene gas
that when exposed to the nearby fruits, ripens them as well.
Types of Homeostatic Regulation in the body
A number of homeostatic regulation processes, balancing the chemical or physical
parameters, take place in the human body. Generally, there are three types of homeostatic
regulation in the body, which are:
1. Thermoregulation
• Thermoregulation is the process occurring inside the body that is responsible for
maintaining the core temperature of the body.
• Thermoregulation works by the negative feedback loop where once the body
temperature is either increased or decreased beyond its normal temperature, it is
brought back to normal.
• Different homeostatic processes like sweating, dilation of blood vessels counteract
the increased body temperature, whereas processes like contraction of blood vessels,
and breakdown of adipose tissue to produce heat prevent the decreased body
temperature.
• The process of thermoregulation is maintained by organs like skin and adipose tissue
of the integumentary system and the hypothalamus of the brain.
2. Osmoregulation
• Osmoregulation is the process of maintaining a constant osmotic pressure inside the
body by balancing the concentration of fluids and salts.
• During this process, excess water or ions or other molecules like urea are removed
from the body to maintain the osmotic balance.
 • One classic example of this process is the removal of excess water and ions out of the
blood in the form of urine to maintain the osmotic pressure of the blood.
• The rennin-angiotensin system and other hormones like antidiuretic hormones act as
a messenger for the electrolytic regulation system of the body.
3. Chemical regulation
• Chemical regulation is the process of balancing the concentration of chemicals like
glucose and carbon dioxide in the body by producing hormones.
• During this process, the concentration of hormones like insulin increases when the
blood sugar level increases in order to bring the level back to normal.
• A similar process is observed in the respiratory system, where the rate of breathing
increases as the concentration of carbon dioxide increases.
Examples of Homeostasis
Acid-Base Homeostasis
• Acid-Base homeostasis is the process of regulating the pH value of the intracellular
and extracellular fluids in the body.
• A pH balance of fluids in the body is crucial for the normal physiology of the body.
• A number of chemical buffers are present in different parts of the body that prevent
changes in the pH of solutions.
• Another case of acid-base balance is observed in blood plasma where the excessive
carbonic acid is broken down into hydrogen ion and bicarbonate ions.
• If the pH of the blood is low, the hydrogen ions are released into urine causing the pH
to rise whereas if the pH of the blood is high, the bicarbonate ions are released into
urine causing the pH to drop.
Glucose Homeostasis
• Glucose homeostasis is the process of maintaining a desirable level of glucose in the
blood by the opposing and balanced action of insulin and glucagon hormones.
• The level of glucose in the blood is significant to balance the normal functioning of the
body.
• When the level of glucose in low in blood as a result of prolonged fasting, the glucagon
acts to convert the reserved glycogen into glucose to bring back the balance.
• Similarly, when the level of glucose is high in the blood, the insulin acts to convert
glucose into glycogen to bring back the balance.
Regulation of Blood Glucose
Calcium homeostasis
• Calcium homeostasis is the process of balancing the level of calcium in the body.
• The skeletal system plays an essential role in maintaining calcium homeostasis. In
addition, parathyroid hormone, vitamin D, and calcitonin also play an essential role.
• When the blood calcium level is low, the parathyroid hormone (PTH) causes
osteoclastic activity that causes demineralization of bone to release calcium ions into
the blood.
• At the same time, the PTH also increases calcium absorption in the kidneys, balancing
the calcium levels in the blood.
• However, when the blood calcium level is high, the thyroid hormone releases
calcitonin that inhibits the osteoclastic activity and stimulates the absorption activity
of the bones.
• Similarly, the hormone also decreases the absorption of calcium by kidneys, thus
maintaining the calcium levels.
Fluid Homeostasis
• Fluid homeostasis is the process of maintaining the concentration of water and
electrolyte in various bodily fluids.
• The principle of this concept is that the amount of water lost by the body must equal
the amount of water taken to balance the fluid concentration in the body.
• When the fluid volume decreases, the electrolyte concentration of the fluid increases,
this results in the activation of the pituitary gland that releases the antidiuretic
hormone, which then stimulates the kidney to retain water.
 • However, when the fluid volume increases, the electrolyte concentration of the fluid
decreases. In this case, the adrenal cortex of the kidney is stimulated to release
aldosterone hormone that directs the nephrons to retain sodium and other
electrolytes.
Blood pressure homeostasis
• Blood pressure homeostasis is the process of maintaining blood pressure in the heart
and blood vessels.
• When the blood pressure is high, the baroreceptors in the blood vessels are stretched
more tightly, causing the parasympathetic nervous system to activate the circulatory
system. This creates a decrease in cardiac output and vasodilation of blood vessels,
resulting in falling of blood pressure.
• When the blood pressure is low, the stretching of baroreceptors in the blood vessels
decreases. This triggers the sympathetic activation of the circulatory system, causing
an increase in cardiac output and vasoconstriction. These activities, together, cause
blood pressure to rise.
Applications/Importance of Homeostasis
• Homeostasis is a necessary process that maintains the internal environment of living
beings at optimum levels so that normal physiological processes can take place
smoothly.
• As a result of homeostasis, the metabolic reactions are controlled by enzymes.
• Homeostasis allows the body to function even when the environment and other
factors change.
• One of the clinical applications of homeostasis is the restoration of the immune
system by phagocytic activity during sepsis caused by the therapeutic agent.
• Any failure in homeostatic regulation in any systems within the body affects the
normal functioning of the system with some conditions that may even be fatal.

ENERGY RESOURCES
Energy Scenario:
Energy is a key input in the economic growth and there is a close link between the
availability of energy and the future growth of a nation. Power generation and energy
consumption are crucial to economic development.
In India, energy is consumed in a variety of forms such as fuel wood; animal waste
and agricultural residues are the traditional sources of energy. These non-commercial fuels
are gradually getting replaced by commercial fuels i.e. coal, petroleum products, natural gas
and electricity.
Out of total energy, commercial fuels account for 60% whereas the balance 40% is
coming from non-commercial fuels. Of the total commercial energy produced in the form of
power or electricity, 69% is from coal (thermal power), 25% is from hydel power, 4% is from
diesel and gas, 2% is from nuclear power, and less than 1% from non- conventional sources
like solar, wind, ocean, biomass, etc.
Petroleum and its products are the other large sources of energy. In a developing
country like India, in spite of enhanced energy production, there is still shortage due to
increased demand of energy. In spite of the fact that there is a phenomenal increase in power
generating capacity, still there is 30% deficit of about 2,000 million units.
Policy makers are in the process of formulating an energy policy with the objectives
of ensuring adequate energy supply at a minimum cost, achieving self-sufficiency in energy
supplies and protecting environment from adverse impact of utilizing energy resources in
an injudicious manner. The main features of this policy are
• Accelerated exploitation of domestic conventional energy resources, viz., oil, coal,
hydro and nuclear power;
• Intensification of exploration to achieve indigenous production of oil and gas;
• Efficient management of demand of oil and other forms of energy;
• To formulate efficient methods of energy conservation and management;
• Optimisation of utilisation of existing capacity in the country
• Development and exploitation of renewable sources of energy to meet energy
requirements of rural communities;
• Organisation of training for personnel engaged at various levels in the energy sector.
• Government private partnership to exploit natural energy resources

Renewable Resources
The resources that can be replenished through rapid natural cycles are known as
renewable resource. These resources are able to increase their abundance through
reproduction and utilization of simple substances.
Examples of renewable resources are plants (crops and forests), and animals who are
being replaced from time to time because they have the power of reproducing and maintain
life cycles.
Some examples of renewable resources though they do not have life cycle but can be
recycled are wood and wood-products, pulp products, natural rubber, fibres (e.g. cotton, jute,
animal wool, silk and synthetic fibres) and leather.
In addition to these resources, water and soil are also classified as renewable
resources. Solar energy although having a finite life, as a special case, is considered as a
renewable resource in as much as solar stocks is inexhaustible on the human scale.

Non-Renewable Resources
The resources that cannot be replenished through natural processes are known as
non-renewable resources.
These are available in limited amounts, which cannot be increased. These resources
include fossil fuels (petrol, coal etc.), nuclear energy sources (e.g. uranium, thorium, etc).
metals (iron, copper, gold, silver, lead, zinc etc.), minerals and salts (carbonates, phosphates,
nitrates etc.).
Once a non-renewable resource is consumed, it is gone forever. Then we have to find
a substitute for it or do without it.
Non-renewable resources can further be divided into two categories, viz. Recyclable
and non-recyclable
(1) Recyclable resources: These are non-renewable resources, which can be
collected after they are used and can be recycled. These are mainly the non-
energy mineral resources, which occur in the earth’s crust (e.g. ores of
aluminium, copper, mercury etc.) and deposits of fertilizer nutrients (e.g.
phosphate sock and potassium and minerals used in their natural state
(asbestos, clay, mica etc.)
(2) Non-recyclable resources: These are non-renewable resources, which cannot
be recycled in any way. Examples of these are fossil fuels and nuclear energy
sources (e.g. uranium, etc.) which provide 90 per cent of our energy
requirements.

Use of Alternate Energy Sources

There is a need to develop renewable energy sources which are available and could be
utilized (solar or wind) or the sources which could be created and utilized (bio-mass). The
main renewable energy sources for India are solar, wind, hydel, waste and bio-mass. Biomass
are resources which are agriculture related like wood, bagasse, cow dung, seeds, etc.
(1) Hydel energy: India has a total hydro energy potential of about 1.5 lakh MW, of which
only about 20 % is installed. Small hydro plant potential is about 15000 MW and most
of it is in the northern and eastern hilly regions.
(2) Wind energy: The wind power potential of India is about 45,000 MW out of which
capacity of 8748 MW has been installed in India till 2008. India is one of the leading
countries in generating the power through wind energy. Gujarat, AP, Karnataka, MP
and Rajasthan are states having more than 5000 MW potential each. These potentials
could be improved if the technology of putting turbines in sea is embraced. There are
wind farms on sea generating as high as 160 MW of power.
(3) Geothermal energy: Geothermal energy is thermal energy generated and stored in the
Earth. Thermal energy is the energy that determines the temperature of matter.
Earth's geothermal energy originates from the original formation of the planet (20%)
and from radioactive decay of minerals (80%). Geothermal power is cost effective,
reliable, sustainable, and environmentally friendly, but has historically been limited
to areas near tectonic plate boundaries. Recent technological advances have
dramatically expanded the range and size of viable resources, especially for
applications such as home heating, opening a potential for widespread exploitation.
Geothermal wells release greenhouse gases trapped deep within the earth, but these
 emissions are much lower per energy unit than those of fossil fuels. As a result,
geothermal power has the potential to help mitigate global warming if widely
deployed in place of fossil fuels.
(4) Ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC): Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC)
uses the difference between cooler deep and warmer shallow or surface ocean waters
to run a heat engine and produce useful work, usually in the form of electricity. A heat
engine gives greater efficiency and power when run with a large temperature
difference. In the oceans the temperature difference between surface and deep water
is greatest in the tropics, although still a modest 20 to 25 °C. It is therefore in the
tropics that OTEC offers the greatest possibilities. OTEC has the potential to offer
global amounts of energy that are 10 to 100 times greater than other ocean energy
options such as wave power.
(5) Biomass energy: Biomass is the oldest means of energy used by humans along with
solar energy. As soon as the fire was discovered, it was used widely among humans
mainly for heat and light. Fire wasgenerated using wood or leaves, which is basically
a biomass. The biomass could be used to generate steam or power or used as a fuel.
Power is generated using rice husk in Andhra Pradesh, while several bagasse-based
plants are there. India has a potential of 3500 MW from bagasse. Other fast-growing
plants could be planned over a huge area, so that it provides biomass for generating
power.
Organic waste such as dead plant and animal material, animal dung, and
kitchen waste can be converted by the anaerobic digestion or fermentation into a
gaseous fuel called biogas. Biogas is a mixture of 65% methane (CH4) and of 35% CO2
and may have small amounts of hydrogen sulphide (H2S), moisture and siloxanes. It
is a renewable energy resulting from biomass. Biogas can be used as a fuel in any
country for any heating purpose, such as cooking. It can also be used in anaerobic
digesters where it is typically used in a gas engine to convert the energy in the gas
into electricity and heat. Biogas can be compressed, much like natural gas, and used
to power motor vehicles.
(6) Bio-fuels: India has more than 50 million hectares of wasteland, which could be
utilized for cultivating fuel plants. Jatropha is one of the options which can be planted
on arid lands and be used for production of bio fuels.
(7) Solar energy: India being a tropical country has potential to use solar energy on
commercial bases. According to estimates, 35 MW of power could be generated from
one sq km. With such potential, solar energy has bright future as energy source for
the development of the country. Initial cost is the biggest limitation which has led to
the low realization of its potential. For solar energy to become one of the front
runners, it will require lot of research, cheap technology and low capital.
Problems Relate to the Use of Energy Resources
a. Fossil fuel
 • Global warming
• Acid rains
• Dangers posed by leaded fuels, Oil spills
• Water pollution caused by poorly managed coal mines
• Air pollution.
b. Alternate energy resources
• The initial cost of establishment of alternate energy generation is costlier
than conventional resources.
• Maintenance of these structures is difficult.
• It requires more space.
• Energy supply is unpredictable during natural calamities.

Growing Energy Needs

Energy consumption of a nation is usually considered as an index of its development,
because almost all the development activities are directly or indirectly dependent upon
energy. Power generation and energy consumption are crucial to economic development as
economy of any nation depends upon availability of energy resources. There are wide
disparities in per capita energy use of developed and the developing nations. With increased
speed of development in the developing nations energy needs are also increasing.
A. The very original form of energy technology probably was the fire, which produced
heat and the early man used it for cooking and heating purposes.
B. Wind and hydropower have also been used. Invention of steam engineers replaced
the burning of wood by coal and coal was further replaced by oil.
C. The oil producing has started twisting arms of the developed as well as developing
countries by dictating the prices of oil and other petroleum products.
D. Energy resources are primarily divided into two categories viz. renewable and non-
renewable sources.
E. Renewable energy resources must be preferred over the non-renewable resources.
F. It is inevitable truth that now there is an urgent need of thinking in terms of
alternative sources of energy, which are also termed as non-conventional energy
sources which include:
✓ Solar energy needs equipment such as solar heat collectors, solar cells, solar cooker,
solar water heater, solar furnace and solar power plants.
✓ Wind energy
✓ Hydropower, Tidal energy, ocean thermal energy, geothermal energy, biomass,
biogas, biofuels etc.
G. The non-renewable energy sources include coal, petroleum, natural gas, nuclear
energy.

Case Study
 Importance of the energy resources in present economy and as a base for our future
can be underlined by the fact that recent confrontations between some powerful nations of
the world have primarily been attributed driven by objective to secure their energy supplies.
Examples of this have been the two gulf wars. It was the hunger for energy resources that
drove Iraq to lead an offensive over Kuwait and also reason for second Gulf war has been
attributed to energy security by defence experts. In recent times, world has witnessed a
confrontation at South China Sea between India, Vietnam and China over the issue of
exploring natural gas and petroleum under the sea bed.
1. Cauvery – The River: Cauvery, which is locally known as Kaveri, is a large river that
flows through the southern states of Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. The river has its
origin at Talakaveri, Kodagu in Karnataka and empties itself into the Bay of Bengal
through Poompuhar in Tamil Nadu. The river has enjoyed social, economic, political
religious and even cultural importance in the life of people from both the states that
are currently fighting over its water.
Cauvery Water Dispute: The Cauvery River has been a source of conflict
between the states of Karnataka and Tamil Nadu for over 124 years. The primary
quarrel, in this case, has always been about the sharing and distribution of water of
Cauvery River between the two states. Over the years, repeated attempts from both
the states and central governments have failed to resolve this dispute which has now
transformed into regional conflict now. The Cauvery Water Dispute has become a
very sensitive topic for common people of both the states who now regard treat it as
a fight for regional supremacy between the two states.
Cauvery water is vitally important for both the states as people from
Karnataka depend upon it to satisfy their drinking needs, whereas farmers from
Cauvery delta in Tamil Nadu depend upon it for agriculture and livelihood.
The fight for Cauvery River water become even more important during rainfall
deficient years, as the entire basin delta of the Cauvery River falls under the drought
prone area. Therefore, Cauvery River water is the only source of water in this region.
As far as water resources are concerned, around 53% of Cauvery water
resources fall within the geographic boundaries of Karnataka, whereas only 30% of
water resources fall within the geographical borders of Tamil Nadu.
On the other hand, 54% of river basin area (the portion of land drained by the
river) lies in the state of Tamil Nadu, whereas only 42% of Cauvery River basin area
is in Karnataka.
As per the facts provided above, Karnataka claims more rights over Cauvery
water as the river originates in the state and they hold 53% of water resources fall
within their state.
Similarly, Tamil Nadu has been traditionally and historically dependent on
Cauvery water to meet the irrigation needs in the northern part of the state. In
addition to this, they also have larger share of river basin area and have been using
 more water from Cauvery historically, which has translated into demand for more
water from Karnataka.
2. JNNSM Introduction:The Jawaharlal Nehru National Solar Mission was launched on
the 11th January, 2010 by our Prime Minister, Dr. Manmohan Singh. The Mission has
set the ambitious target of deploying 20,000 MW of grid connected solar power by
2022 and aims at reducing the cost of solar power generation in the country through
(i) long term policy; (ii) large scale deployment goals; (iii) aggressive R&D; and (iv)
domestic production of critical raw materials, components and products. It has been
envisaged to achieve grid tariff parity by 2022.
The Prime Minister has emphasized the importance of the mission as: “The
importance of this Mission is not just limited to providing large-scale grid connected
power. It has the potential to provide significant multipliers in our efforts for
transformation of India's rural economy. Already, in its decentralized and distributed
applications, solar energy is beginning to light the lives of tens of millions of India's
energy-poor citizens. The rapid spread of solar lighting systems, solar water pumps
and other solar power-based rural applications can change the face of India's rural
economy. We intend to significantly expand such applications through this Mission.
As a result, the movement for decentralized and disbursed industrialization will
acquire an added momentum, a momentum which has not been seen before.”
Revision of cumulative targets under National Solar Mission from 20,000 MW
by 2021-22 to 1,00,000 MW.
The Union Cabinet chaired by the Prime Minister, Shri Narendra Modi, today
gave its approval for stepping up of India’s solar power capacity target under the
Jawaharlal Nehru National Solar Mission (JNNSM) by five times, reaching 1,00,000
MW by 2022. The target will principally comprise of 40 GW Rooftop and 60 GW
through Large and Medium Scale Grid Connected Solar Power Projects. With this
ambitious target, India will become one of the largest Green Energy producers in the
world, surpassing several developed countries.
The total investment in setting up 100 GW will be around Rs 6,00,000 cr. In
the first phase, the Government of India is providing Rs 15,050 crore as capital
subsidy to promote solar capacity addition in the country. This capital subsidy will be
provided for Rooftop Solar projects in various cities and towns, for Viability Gap
Funding (VGF) based projects to be developed through the Solar Energy Corporation
of India (SECI) and for decentralized generation through small solar projects. The
Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE) intends to achieve the target of
1,00,000 MW with targets under the three schemes of 19,200 MW.
Apart from this, solar power projects with investment of about Rs 90,000 crore
would be developed using Bundling mechanism with thermal power. Further
investment will come from large Public Sector Undertakings and Independent Power
 Producers (IPPs). State Governments have also come out with State specific solar
policies to promote solar capacity addition.
Scaling up of Grid Connected Solar Power Projects from 20,000 MW by the
year 2021-22, to 1,00,000 MW by the year 2021-22 under National Solar Mission

UNIT III: BIODIVERSITY AND CONSERVATION

Biodiversity refers to the variety and variability among all groups of living organisms and
the ecosystem complexes in which they occur. From the driest deserts to the dense tropical
rainforests and from the high snow-clad mountain peaks to the deepest of ocean trenches, life
occurs in a marvellous spectrum of forms, size, colour and shape, each with unique ecological
inter-relationships.
In the Convention of Biological diversity (1992) biodiversity has been defined as the
variability among living organisms from all sources including inter alia, terrestrial, marine and
other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are a part.
Levels of Biodiversity:
Units of biodiversity may range from the genetic level within a species to the biota in a specific
region and may extend up to the great diversity found in different biomes.
1. GENETIC DIVERSITY: It is the basic source of biodiversity. The genes found in
organisms can form enormous number of combinations each of which gives rise to some
variability. Genes are the basic units of hereditary information transmitted from one
generation to other. When the genes within the same species show different versions due
to new combinations, it is called genetic variability. For example, all rice varieties belong
to the species Oryza sativa, but there are thousands of wild and cultivated varieties of rice
which show variations at the genetic level and differ in their colour, size, shape, aroma and
nutrient content of the grain. This is the genetic diversity of rice.
2. SPECIES DIVERSITY: This is the variability found within the population of a species or
between different species of a community. It represents broadly the species richness and
their abundance in a community. There are two popular indices of measuring species
diversity known as Shannon-Wiener index and Simpson index. What is the number of
species on this biosphere? The estimates of actual number vary widely due to incomplete
and indirect data. The current estimates given by Wilson in 1992 put the total number of
living species in a range of 10 million to 50 million. Till now only about 1.5 million living
and 300,000 fossil species have been actually described and given scientific names. It is
quite likely that a large fraction of these species may become extinct even before they are
discovered and enlisted.
3. ECOSYSTEM DIVERSITY: This is the diversity of ecological complexity showing
variations in ecological niches, trophic structure, food-webs, nutrient cycling etc. The
ecosystems also show variations with respect to physical parameters like moisture,
temperature, altitude, precipitation etc. Thus, there occurs tremendous diversity within the
 ecosystems, along these gradients. We may consider diversity in forest ecosystem, which
is supposed to have mainly a dominance of trees. But, while considering a tropical
rainforest, a tropical deciduous forest, a temperate deciduous forest and a boreal forest, the
variations observed are just too many and they are mainly due to variations in the above-
mentioned physical factors. The ecosystem diversity is of great value that must be kept
intact. This diversity has developed over millions of years of evolution. If we destroy this
diversity, it would disrupt the ecological balance. We cannot even replace the diversity of
one ecosystem by that of another. Coniferous trees of boreal forests cannot take up the
function of the trees of tropical deciduous forest lands and vice versa, because ecosystem
diversity has evolved with respect to the prevailing environmental conditions with well-
regulated ecological balance.
India as a Mega-diversity Nation:
India is one of the 12 megadiversity countries in the world. The Ministry of Environment
and Forests, Govt. of India (2000) records 47,000 species of plants and 81,000 species of animals
which is about 7% and 6.5% respectively of global flora and fauna.
Table: Distribution of species in some major groups of flora and fauna in India
Group-wise species Distribution
Plants Number Animals Number
Bacteria 850 Lower groups 9979
Fungi 23,000 Mollusca 5042
Algae 2500 Arthropoda 57,525
Bryophytes 2564 Pisces (Fishes) 2546
Pteridophytes 1022 Amphibia 428
Gymnosperms 64 Reptiles 1228
Angiosperms 15,000 Birds 204
Mammals 372

Endemism: Species which are restricted only to a particular area are known as endemic.
India shows a good number of endemic species. About 62% of amphibians and 50% of lizards are
endemic to India. Western ghats are the site of maximum endemism.
Centre of origin: A large number of species are known to have originated in India. Nearly
5000 species of flowering plants had their origin in India. From agro-diversity point of view also
our country is quite rich. India has been the centre of origin of 166 species of crop plants and 320
species of wild relatives of cultivated crops, thereby providing a broad spectrum of diversity of
traits for our crop plants.
Marine diversity: Along 7500 km long coastline of our country in the mangroves, estuaries,
coral reefs, back waters etc. there exists a rich biodiversity. More than 340 species of corals of the
world are found here. The marine diversity is rich in molluscs, crustaceans (crabs etc.), polychaetes
and corals. Several species of Mangrove plants and seagrasses (Marine algae) are also found in
our country.
 A large proportion of the Indian Biodiversity is still unexplored. There are about 93 major
wet lands, coral reefs and mangroves which need to be studied in detail. Indian forests cover 64.01
million hectares having a rich biodiversity of plants in the Trans-Himalayan, north-west, west,
central and eastern Himalayan forests, western ghats, coasts, deserts, Gangetic plains, deccan
plateau and the Andaman, Nicobar and Lakshadweep islands. Due to very diverse climatic
conditions, there is a complete rainbow spectrum of biodiversity in our country.

BIOGEOGRAPHICAL ZONES OF INDIA

India has different types of climates and topography in different parts of the country and
these variations have induced enormous variability in flora and fauna. India has a rich heritage of
biological diversity and occupies the tenth position among the plant rich nations of the world.
It is very important to study the distribution, evolution, dispersal and environmental
relationship of plants and animals in time and space. Biogeography comprising of phytogeography
and zoogeography deals with these aspects of plants and animals. In order to gain insight about
the distribution and environmental interactions of flora and fauna of our country, it has been
classified into ten biogeographic zones (Table 4.1). Each of these zones has its own characteristic
climate, soil, topography and biodiversity.
Table 4.1. India’s major biogeographic habitats
Sr. Biogeographic Zone Biotic Province Total area
No. (Sq. Km.)
1 Trans-Himalayan Upper Regions 186200
2 Himalayan North-West Himalayas 6900
West Himalayas 720000
Central Himalayas 123000
East Himalayas 83000
3 Desert Kutch 45000
Thar 180000
Ladakh NA
4 Semi-Arid Central India 107600
Gujarat-Rajwara 400400
5 Western Ghats Malabar Coast 59700
Western Ghat Mountains 99300
6 Deccan Peninsula Deccan Plateau South 378000
Central Plateau 341000
Eastern Plateau 198000
Chhota Nagpur 217000
Central Highlands 287000
7 Gangetic Plain Upper Gangetic Plain 206400
Lower Gangetic Plain 153000
8 North-East India Brahmaputra Valley 65200
 North-Eastern Hills 106200
9 Islands Andaman Islands 6397
Nicobar Islands 1930
Lakshadweep Islands 180
10 Coasts West Coast 6500
East Coast 6500
Source: “Conserving our Biological Wealth”, WWF for Nature-India and Zoological Survey of
India.
Biodiversity Hotspots:
Areas which exhibit high species richness as well as high species endemism are termed as
hot spots of biodiversity. The term was introduced by Myers (1988). There are 25 such hot spots
of biodiversity on a global level out of which two are present in India, namely the Eastern
Himalayas and Western Ghats.
These hotspots covering less than 2% of the world’s land area are found to have about 50%
of the terrestrial biodiversity. According to Myers et al. (2000) an area is designated as a hotspot
when it contains at least 0.5% of the plant species as endemics.
About 40% of terrestrial plants and 25% of vertebrate species are endemic and found in
these hotspots. After the tropical rain forests, the second highest number of endemic plant species
are found in the Mediterranean (Mittermeier). Broadly, these hot spots are in Western Amazon,
Madagascar, North and East Borneo, North Eastern Australia, West Africa and Brazilian Atlantic
forests. These are the areas of high diversity, endemism and are also threatened by human
activities. More than 1 billion people (about 1/6th of the world’s population) most of whom are
desperately poor people, live in these areas. Any measures of protecting these hotspots need to be
planned keeping in view the human settlements and tribal issues.
Earlier 12 hot spots were identified on a global level. Later Myers et al (2000) recognized
25 hot spots as shown in Table. Two of these hotspots lie in India extending into neighbouring
countries namely, Indo-Burma region (covering Eastern Himalayas) and Western Ghats - Sri
Lanka region. The Indian hot spots are not only rich in floral wealth and endemic species of plants
but also reptiles, amphibians, swallow tailed butterflies and some mammals.
(a) Eastern Himalayas: They display an ultra-varied topography that fosters species diversity
and endemism. There are numerous deep and semi-isolated valleys in Sikkim which are
extremely rich in endemic plant species. In an area of 7298 Km2 of Sikkim about 4250
plant species are found of which 60% are endemic.
The forest cover of Eastern Himalayas has dwindled to about 1/3rd of its original
cover. Certain species like Sapria himalayana, a parasitic angiosperm was sighted only
twice in this region in the last 70 years.
Recent studies have shown that North East India along with its contiguous regions
of Burma and Chinese provinces of Yunnan and Schezwan is an active center of organic
evolution and is considered to be the cradle of flowering plants. Out of the world’s recorded
flora 30% are endemic to India of which 35,000 are in the Himalayas.
(b) Western Ghats: It extends along a 17,000 Km2 strip of forests in Maharashtra, Karnataka,
Tamil Nadu and Kerala and has 40% of the total endemic plant species. 62% amphibians
and 50% lizards are endemic to Western Ghats.
Forest tracts upto 500 m elevation covering 20% of the forest expanse are evergreen
while those in 500-1500 m range are semievergreen. The major centers of diversity are
Agastyamalai Hills and Silent Valley—the New Amambalam Reserve Basin. It is reported
that only 6.8% of the original forests are existing today while the rest has been deforested
or degraded, which raises a serious cause of alarm, because it means we have already lost
a huge proportion of the biodiversity.
 Although the hotspots are characterized by endemism, interestingly, a few species
are common to both the hotspots in India. Some common plants include Ternstroemia
japonica, Rhododendron and Hypericum, while the common fauna includes laughing
thrush, Fairy blue bird, lizard hawk etc. indicating their common origin long back in the
geological times.
ENDANGERED SPECIES OF INDIA
The International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN)
publishes the Red Data Book which includes the list of endangered species of plants and animals.
The red data symbolizes the warning signal for those species which are endangered and if not
protected are likely to become extinct in near future.
In India, nearly 450 plant species have been identified in the categories of endangered,
threatened or rare. Existence of about 150 mammals and 150 species of birds is estimated to be
threatened while an unknown number of species of insects are endangered. It may not be of direct
relevance here to give a complete list of endangered flora and fauna of our country. However, a
few species of endangered reptiles, birds, mammals and plants are given below:
(a) Reptiles: Gharial, green sea turtle, tortoise, python
(b) Birds: Great Indian bustard, Peacock, Pelican, Great Indian Hornbill, Siberian White Crane
(c) Carnivorous Mammals: Indian wolf, red fox, Sloth bear, red panda, tiger, leopard, striped
hyena, Indian lion, golden cat, desert cat, dugong
(d) Primates: Hoolock gibbon, lion-tailed macaque, Nilgiri langur, Capped monkey, golden
monkey
(e) Plants: A large number of species of orchids, Rhododendrons, medicinal plants like
Rauvolfia serpentina, the sandal wood tree Santalum, Cycas beddonei etc.
The Zoological Survey of India reported that Cheetah, Pink headed duck and mountain quail
have already become extinct from India.
• A species is said to be extinct when it is not seen in the wild for 50 years at a stretch e.g.
Dodo, passenger pigeon.
• A species is said to be endangered when its number has been reduced to a critical level or
whose habitats, have been drastically reduced and if such a species is not protected and
conserved, it is in immediate danger of extinction.
• A species is said to be in vulnerable category if its population is facing continuous decline
due to overexploitation or habitat destruction. Such a species is still abundant, but under a
serious threat of becoming endangered if causal factors are not checked.
• Species which are not endangered or vulnerable at present, but are at a risk are categorized
as rare species. These taxa are usually localized within restricted areas i.e. they are usually
endemic. Sometimes they are thinly scattered over a more extensive area.
Some important endangered and extinct species are shown below.
Passenger Pegion Dodo
ENDEMIC SPECIES OF INDIA
India has two biodiversity hot spots and thus possesses a large number of endemic species.
Out of about 47,000 species of plants in our country 7000 are endemic. Thus, Indian subcontinent
has about 62% endemic flora, restricted mainly to Himalayas, Khasi Hills and Western Ghats.
Some of the important endemic flora include orchids and species like Sapria himalayana, Uvaria
lurida, Nepenthes khasiana, Pedicularis perroter etc.
A large number out of a total of 81,000 species of animals in our country is endemic. The
western ghats are particularly rich in amphibians (frogs, toads etc.) and reptiles (lizards, crocodiles
etc.). About 62% amphibians and 50% lizards are endemic to Western Ghats. Different species of
monitor lizards (Varanus), reticulated python and Indian Salamander and Viviparous toad
Nectophhryne are some important endemic species of our country.

IUCN RED LIST CRITERIA AND CATEGORIES

The term IUCN stands for International Union for Conservation of Nature which was established
in 1948. It is an international organization comprised of over 1300 government and non-
government members and relying on the input of about 16000 experts. Its objective is to promote
nature conservation and sustainable use of natural resources throughout the world. This
organization also focuses on issues such as poverty, gender equality, and sustainable business
practices in order to address its core objective. To achieve its goal, the organization engages in
field-work, data collection and analysis, lobbying, and public education outreach. The IUCN
provides knowledge and tools that enable and promote the sustainable development at a global
level (Cordoso et al., 2016). The present headquarter of IUCN is located in United Kingdom.
One of the historical works done by IUCN is its list of threatened species of plants and
animals also famous by the name of Red List. It is also known as the Red Data List. The IUCN
Red List System was initiated in 1963 and since then evaluation of the conservation status of
species and subspecies is continuing on a global scale. The IUCN Red List is arguably one of the
most useful worldwide lists of species that area at risk of extinction. The Red List, established in
1964, provides the conservation status of plant and animal species around the world. Its usefulness
is based on its reliance on a number of objective criteria. The IUCN members determine the risk
of a species’ extinction by utilizing criteria such as population size, subpopulations, the number of
mature individuals, generation, the decline in population size, extreme fluctuations in population
size, fragmented populations and habitats, habitat area size, and distribution of the population.
These rules have received international acceptance and have become one of the key decision tools
in conservation biology for focusing attention on species of conservation concern (Gardenfors,
2001). Threatened species are assessed as Critically Endangered (CR), Endangered (EN) or
Vulnerable (VU), but extinct or non-threatened species are also assessed and listed. Besides
extinction risk assessment, the Red List provides a plethora of useful information on each species
assessed, including distribution, trends, threats and conservation actions. The quantity and quality
of this information allows the Red List to be used in multiple ways, such as to raise awareness
about threatened species, guide conservation efforts and funding, set priorities for protection,
measure site irreplaceability and vulnerability, influence environmental policies and legislation
and evaluate and and monitor the state of biodiversity (Rodrigues et al., 2006; Baillie et al., 2008;
Martin-Lopez et al., 2009).
Criteria A to E
The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) uses several criteria to enter
species in various categories. These criteria (A to E) are discussed below.
1. Criteria A: Population reduction in the form of either of the following: An observed,
estimated, inferred or suspected reduction of at least 20% over the last 10 years or three
generations, whichever is the longer, based on (and specifying) any of the following: direct
observation, an index of abundance appropriate for the taxon, a decline in area of
occupancy, extent of occurrence and/or quality of habitat, actual or potential levels of
exploitation, the effects of introduced taxa, hybridization, pathogens, pollutants,
competitors or parasites. A reduction of at least 20%, projected or suspected to be met
within the next ten years or three years or three generations, whichever is the longer, based
on (and specifying) any of (2), (3), (4) or (5) above.
2. Criteria B: Extent of occurrence estimated to be less than 20,000 km2 or area of occupancy
estimated to be less than 2000 km2, and estimates indicating any two of the following:
Severely fragmented or known to exist at no more than ten locations. Continuing decline,
inferred, observed or projected, in any of the following; extent of occurrence, area of
occupancy, area, extent and/or quality of habitat, number of locations or subpopulations
and number of mature individuals. Moreover, extreme fluctuations in any of the following:
extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of locations or subpopulations, number
of mature individuals.
3. Criteria C: Population estimated to number fewer than 10,000 mature individuals and
either: An estimated continuing decline of at least 10% within 10 years or three generations,
whichever is longer, or A continuing decline, observed, projected, or inferred, in numbers
of mature individuals and population structure in the form of either: severely fragmented
(i.e. no subpopulation estimated to contain more than 1000 mature individuals) all
individuals are in a single subpopulation.
4. Criteria D: Population very small or restricted in the form of either of the following:
population estimated to number less than 1000 mature individuals. Population is
characterized by an acute restriction in its area of occupancy (typically less than 100 km2)
or in the number of locations (typically less than five). Such a taxon would thus be prone
to the effects of human activities (or stochastic events whose impact is increased by human
activities) within a very short period of time in an unforeseeable future, and is thus capable
of becoming Critically Endangered or even Extinct in a very short period.
5. Criteria E: Quantitative analysis showing the probability of extinction in the wild is at
least 10% within 100 years (IUCN, 2012).
IUCN Red List Categories
The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species was created in 1964. This is the world’s most inclusive
record of the worldwide conservation status of biological species. The Species are categorized into
nine groups by the IUCN Red List (see figure 1).
Extinct (EX): A species becomes extinct when the last existing member of that family dies or
no known individuals remaining. A species said to be a taxon when there is no reasonable doubt
that the last individual has died. A taxon is presumed extinct when exhaustive surveys in known
and/or expected habitat, at appropriate times (diurnal, seasonal, annual) throughout his historic
range have failed to record an individual. Survey should be over a time frame appropriate to the
taxon’s life cycles and life forms.
Extinct in Wild (EW): Undoubtedly the last member has died but the captive member
endures or as a naturalised population outside its historic range. A taxon is extinct in the
wild when it is known only to survive in cultivation, in captivity or as a naturalised population
well outside the past range. A taxon is presumed extinct in the wild when exhaustive surveys in
known and/or expected habitat at appropriate times (diurnal, seasonal, annual) throughout his
historic range have failed to record an individual. Survey should be over a time frame appropriate
to the taxon’s life cycles and life forms.
Critically Endangered (CE): The critically endangered species face an extremely high risk of
extinction in the immediate future. Extremely high risk of the extinction in the wild. A taxon is
critically endangered when the best available evidence indicates that it meets any of the criteria A
to E for Critically Endangered and it is therefore considered to be facing an extremely high risk of
extinction in the wild.
Endangered (EN): The endangered species are the species which faces a high risk of
extinction in the near future. High risk of the extinction in the wild. A taxon is Endangered when
the best available evidence indicates that it meets any of the criteria A to E for Endangered and it
is therefore considered to be facing an very high risk of extinction in the wild.
Vulnerable (VU): High risk of endangerment in the wild. A taxon is Vulnerable when the best
available evidence indicates that it meets any of the criteria A to E for Vulnerable and it is therefore
considered to be facing high risk of extinction in the wild.
Near Threatened (NT): Close to qualifying among threatened species or likely to become
endangered in the near future. A taxon is near threatened when it has been evaluated against the
criteria but does not qualify for Critically Endangered, Endangered or Vulnerable now but it is
close to qualifying for or is likely to qualify for a threatened category in the near future.
Least Concern (LC): Low risk to extinction. Does not qualify for a more at-risk category.
Widespread and abundant taxa are included in this category. A taxon is Least Concern when it has
been evaluated against the criteria but does not qualify for Critically Endangered, Endangered, and
Vulnerable or near threatened. Widespread and abundant taxa are included in this category.
Data Deficient (DD): Insufficient data to generate an analysis or in other words not enough
data to make an assessment of its risk of extinction. A taxon is Data Deficient when there is
inadequate information to make a direct or indirect assessment of its risk of extinction based on its
distribution and/or population status. A taxon in this category may be well studied and its biology
well known but appropriate data on abundance and/or distribution are lacking. Data Deficient is
therefore not a category of threat. Listing of taxa in this category shows that more information is
required and acknowledges the possibility that future research will show that threatened
classification is appropriate. It is important to make positive use of whatever data are available.
Not Evaluated (NE): Not assessed against criteria. A taxon is Not Evaluated when it
is has not yet been evaluated against the criteria (IUCN, 2017).

VALUES OF BIODIVERSITY
The value of biodiversity in terms of its commercial utility, ecological services, social and aesthetic
value is enormous. We get benefits from other organisms in innumerable ways. Sometimes we
realize and appreciate the value of the organism only after it is lost from this earth. Very small,
insignificant, useless looking organism may play a crucial role in the ecological balance of the
ecosystem or may be a potential source of some invaluable drug for dreaded diseases like cancer
or AIDS. The multiple uses of biodiversity or biodiversity value has been classified by McNeely
et al in 1990 as follows:
(i) Consumptive use value: These are direct use values where the biodiversity product can be
harvested and consumed directly e.g. fuel, food, drugs, fibre etc.
• Food: A large number of wild plants are consumed by human beings as food. About 80,000
edible plant species have been reported from wild. About 90% of present-day food crops
have been domesticated from wild tropical plants. Even now our agricultural scientists
make use of the existing wild species of plants that are closely related to our crop plants
for developing new hardy strains. Wild relatives usually possess better tolerance and
hardiness. A large number of wild animals are also our sources of food.
• Drugs and medicines: About 75% of the world’s population depends upon plants or plant
extracts for medicines. The wonder drug Penicillin used as an antibiotic is derived from a
fungus called Penicillium. Likewise, we get Tetracyclin from a bacterium. Quinine, the
cure for malaria is obtained from the bark of Cinchona tree, while Digitalin is obtained
from foxglove (Digitalis) which is an effective cure
for heart ailments. Recently vinblastin and vincristine, two anticancer drugs, have been
obtained from Periwinkle (Catharanthus) plant, which possesses anticancer alkaloids. A
large number of marine animals are supposed to possess anti-cancer properties which are
yet to be explored systematically.
• Fuel: Our forests have been used since ages for fuel wood. The fossil fuels coal, petroleum
and natural gas are also products of fossilized biodiversity. Firewood collected by
individuals are not normally marketed, but are directly consumed by tribals and local
villagers, hence falls under consumptive value.
(ii) Productive use values: These are the commercially usable values where the product is
marketed and sold. It may include lumber or wild gene resources that can be traded for use
by scientists for introducing desirable traits in the crops and domesticated animals. These
 may include the animal products like tusks of elephants, musk from musk deer, silk from
silk-worm, wool from sheep, fir of many animals, lac from lac insects etc, all of which are
traded in the market. Many industries are dependent upon the productive use values of
biodiversity e.g.- the paper and pulp industry, Plywood industry, Railway sleeper industry,
Silk industry, textile industry, ivory-works, leather industry, pearl industry etc. Despite
international ban on trade in products from endangered species, smuggling of fur, hide,
horns, tusks, live specimen etc. worth millions of dollars are being sold every year.
Developing countries in Asia, Africa and Latin America are the richest biodiversity centres
and wild life products are smuggled and marketed in large quantities to some rich western
countries and also to China and Hong Kong where
export of cat skins and snake skins fetches a booming business.
(iii) Social Value: These are the values associated with the social life, customs, religion and
psycho-spiritual aspects of the people. Many of the plants are considered holy and sacred
in our country like Tulsi (holy basil), Peepal, Mango, Lotus, Bael etc. The leaves, fruits or
flowers of these plants are used in worship or the plant itself is worshipped. The tribal
people are very closely linked with the wild life in the forests. Their social life, songs,
dances and customs are closely woven around the wildlife. Many animals like Cow, Snake,
Bull, Peacock, Owl etc. also have significant place in our psycho-spiritual arena and thus
hold special social importance. Thus, biodiversity has distinct social value, attached with
different societies.
(iv) Ethical value: It is also sometimes known as existence value. It involves ethical issues like.
all life must be preserved. It is based on the concept of. Live and Let Live. If we want our
human race to survive, then we must protect all biodiversity, because biodiversity is
valuable.
The ethical value means that we may or may not use a species, but knowing the
very fact that this species exists in nature gives us pleasure. We all feel sorry when we learn
that. passenger pegion. Or. dodo. is no more on this earth. We are not deriving anything
direct from Kangaroo, Zebra or Giraffe, but we all strongly feel that these species should
exist in nature. This means, there is an ethical value or existence value attached to each
species.
(v) Aesthetic value: Great aesthetic value is attached to biodiversity. No one of us would like
to visit vast stretches of barren lands with no signs of visible life. People from far and wide
spend a lot of time and money to visit wilderness areas where they can enjoy the aesthetic
value of biodiversity and this type of tourism is now known as eco-tourism. The.
Willingness to pay. concept on such eco-tourism gives us even a monetary estimate for
aesthetic value of biodiversity. Ecotourism is estimated to generate about 12 billion dollars
of revenue annually, that roughly gives the aesthetic value of biodiversity.
(vi) Option values: These values include the potentials of biodiversity that are presently
unknown and need to be explored. There is a possibility that we may have some potential
 cure for AIDS or cancer existing within the depths of a marine ecosystem, or a tropical
rainforest.
Thus, option value is the value of knowing that there are biological resources
existing on this biosphere that may one day prove to be an effective option for something
important in the future. Thus, the option value of biodiversity suggests that any species
may prove to be a miracle species someday. The biodiversity is like precious gifts of nature
presented to us. We should not commit the folly of losing these
gifts even before unwrapping them.
The option value also includes the values, in terms of the option to visit areas where
a variety of flora and fauna, or specifically some endemic, rare or endangered species exist.
(vii) Ecosystem service value: Recently, a non-consumptive use value related to self-
maintenance of the ecosystem and various important ecosystem services has been
recognized. It refers to the services provided by ecosystems like prevention of soil erosion,
prevention of floods, maintenance of soil fertility, cycling of nutrients, fixation of nitrogen,
cycling of water, their role as carbon sinks, pollutant absorption and reduction of the threat
of global warming etc.
Different categories of biodiversity value clearly indicate that ecosystem, species
and genetic diversity all have enormous potential and a decline in biodiversity will lead to
huge economic, ecological and socio-cultural losses.

THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY
Extinction or elimination of a species is a natural process of evolution. In the geologic period the
earth has experienced mass extinctions. During evolution, species have died out and have been
replaced by others. However, the rate of loss of species in geologic past has been a slow process,
keeping in view the vast span of time going back to 444 million years. The process of extinction
has become particularly fast in the recent years of human civilization. In this century, the human
impact has been so severe that thousands of species and varieties are becoming extinct annually.
One of the estimates by the noted ecologist, E.O. Wilson puts the figure of extinction at 10,000
species per year or 27 per day! This startling figure raises an alarm regarding the serious threat to
biodiversity. Over the last 150 years the rate of extinction has escalated more dramatically. If the
present trend continues, we would lose 1/3rd to 2/3rd of our current biodiversity by the middle of
twenty first century.
Causes of biodiversity loss:
1. LOSS OF HABITAT: Destruction and loss of natural habitat is the single largest cause of
biodiversity loss. Billions of hectares of forests and grasslands have been cleared over the
past 10,000 years for conversion into agriculture lands, pastures, settlement areas or
development projects. These natural forests and grasslands were the natural homes of
thousands of species which perished due to loss of their natural habitat. Severe damage has
been caused to wetlands thinking them to be useless ecosystems. The unique rich
biodiversity of the wetlands, estuaries and mangroves are under the most serious threat
 today. The wetlands are destroyed due to draining, filling and pollution thereby causing
huge biodiversity loss.
Sometimes the loss of habitat is in instalments so that the habitat is divided into
small and scattered patches, a phenomenon known as habitat fragmentation. There are
many wild life species such as bears and large cats that require large territories to subsist.
They get badly threatened as they breed only in the interiors of the forests. Due to habitat
fragmentation many song birds are vanishing.
There has been a rapid disappearance of tropical forests in our country also, at a
rate of about 0.6% per year. With the current rate of loss of forest habitat, it is estimated
that 20-25% of the global flora would be lost within a few years. Marine biodiversity is
also under serious threat due to large scale destruction of the fragile breeding and feeding
grounds of our oceanic fish and other species, as a result of human intervention.
2. POACHING: Illegal trade of wildlife products by killing prohibited endangered animals
i.e. poaching is another threat to wildlife. Despite international ban on trade in products
from endangered species, smuggling of wildlife items like furs, hides, horns, tusks, live
specimens and herbal products worth millions of dollars per year continues. The
developing nations in Asia, Latin America and Africa are the richest source of biodiversity
and have enormous wealth of wildlife. The rich countries in Europe and North America
and some affluent countries in Asia like Japan, Taiwan and Hong Kong are the major
importers of the wild life products or wild life itself.
The trading of such wild life products is highly profit making for the poachers who
just hunt this prohibited wild life and smuggle it to other countries mediated through a
mafia. The cost of elephant tusks can go up to $ 100 per kg; the leopard fur coat is sold at
$ 100,000 in Japan while bird catchers can fetch up to $ 10,000 for a rare hyacinth macaw,
a beautiful coloured bird, from Brazil. The worse part of the story is that for every live
animal that actually gets into the market, about 50 additional animals are caught and killed.
If you are fond of rare plants, fish or birds, please make sure that you are not going
for the endangered species or the wild-caught species. Doing so will help in checking
further decline of these species. Also do not purchase fur coat, purse or bag, or items made
of crocodile skin or python skin. You will certainly help in preserving biodiversity by doing
so.
3. MAN-WILDLIFE CONFLICTS: We have discussed about the need to preserve and protect
our wildlife. However, sometimes we come across conflicting situations when
wildlife starts causing immense damage and danger to man and under such conditions it
becomes very difficult for the forest department to pacify the affected villagers and gain
local support for wild-life conservation.
Instances of man animal conflicts keep on coming to lime light from several states
in our country. In Sambalpur, Orissa 195 humans were killed in the last 5 years by
elephants. In retaliation the villagers killed 98 elephants and badly injured 30 elephants.
 Several instances of killing of elephants in the border regions of Kote-Chamarajanagar belt
in Mysore have been reported recently. The man-elephant conflict
in this region has arisen because of the massive damage done by the elephants to the
farmer’s cotton and sugarcane crops. The agonized villagers electrocute the elephants and
sometimes hide explosives in the sugarcane fields, which explode as the elephants intrude
into their fields. In fact, more killings are done by locals than by poachers. Recently, in
early 2004, a man-eating tiger was reported to kill 16 Nepalese people and one 4-year-old
child inside the Royal Chitwan National Park, 240 Km South-west of Kathmandu. The
Park renowned for its wildlife conservation effort has become a zone of terror for the locals.
At times, such conflicting situations have been reported from the border regions of Corbett,
Dudhwa, Palamau and Ranthambore National Parks in our country as well. Very recently
in June, 2004 two men were killed by leopards in Powai, Mumbai. A total of 14 persons
were killed during 19 attacks since January by the leopards from the Sanjay Gandhi
National Park, Mumbai which has created a panic
among the local residents.
Causes of Man-animal conflicts: The root causes of these conflicts are discussed below:
(i) Dwindling habitats of tigers, elephants, rhinos and bears due to shrinking forest cover
compels them to move outside the forest and attack the field or sometimes even
humans. Human encroachment into the forest areas raises a conflict between man and
the wildlife, perhaps because it is an issue of survival of both.
(ii) Usually the ill, weak and injured animals have a tendency to attack man. Also, the
female tigress attacks the human if she feels that her newborn cubs are in danger. But
the biggest problem is that if human-flesh is tasted once then the tiger does not eat any
other animal. At the same time, it is very difficult to trace and cull the man-eating tiger
and, in the process, many innocent tigers are also killed.
(iii) Earlier, forest departments used to cultivate paddy, sugarcane etc. within the
sanctuaries when the favourite staple food of elephants i.e. bamboo leaves were not
available. Now due to lack of such practices the animals move out of the forest in search
of food. It may be noted that, one adult elephant needs 2 quintals of green fodder and
150 kg of clean water daily and if it is not available, the animal strays out.
(iv) Very often the villagers put electric wiring around their ripe crop fields. The elephants
get injured, suffer in pain and turn violent.
(v) Earlier there used to be wild-life corridors through which the wild animals used to
migrate seasonally in groups to other areas. Due to development of human settlements
in these corridors, the path of wildlife has been disrupted and the animals attack the
settlements.
(vi) The cash compensation paid by the government in lieu of the damage caused to the
farmers crop is not enough. In Mysore, a farmer gets a compensation of Rs. 400/- per
quintal of expected yield while the market price is Rs. 2400/- per quintal. The agonized
farmer therefore gets revengeful and kills the wild animals.
 Remedial Measures to Curb the Conflict:
a. Tiger Conservation Project (TCP) has made provisions for making available vehicles,
tranquillizer guns, binoculars and radio sets etc. to tactfully deal with any imminent danger.
b. Adequate crop compensation and cattle compensation scheme must be started, along with
substantial cash compensation for loss of human life.
c. Solar powered fencing should be provided along with electric current proof trenches to
prevent the animals from straying into fields.
d. Cropping pattern should be changed near the forest borders and adequate fodder, fruit and
water should be made available for the elephants within forest zones.
e. Wild life corridors should be provided for mass migration of big animals during
unfavorable periods. About 300 km2 area is required for elephant corridors for their
seasonal migration.
f. In Similipal Sanctuary, Orissa there is a ritual of wild animal hunting during the months of
April-May for which forest is burnt to flush out the animals. Due to massive hunting by
people, there is a decline in prey of tigers and they start coming out of the forest in search
of prey. Now there is WWF-TCP initiative to curb this ritual of. Akhand Shikar. in Orissa.

Biological invasion with emphasis on Indian Biodiversity

Biological invasions are one of the main components of global change. Through mechanisms such
as predation, hybridization or competition, invasive species are a major cause of biodiversity loss,
alteration of ecosystems, and biotic homogenization. In addition, they have a strong impact on the
health and economy of human societies. At the same time, invasive species provide unique
opportunities to understand major evolutionary and ecological processes due to their ability to
adapt to new environments and successfully compete with native species.
Not all exotic species arriving to a region become invasive. Only a small fraction of species
manages to establish themselves successfully and, of these, only a few are able to increase in
numbers and become invasive. Similarly, not all invasive species have an impact on biodiversity,
human health or the economy. However, once established, the control or eradication of the species
is difficult and the associated economic costs can be huge. For these reasons it is important to
emphasise prevention and rapid response mechanisms. In addition to monitoring and regulating
routes of entry of invasive species, prevention requires understanding what makes a species a good
invader or a region particularly susceptible to invasion.
Invasive species Although the traits of invasive species have been widely studied, no research has
demonstrated the ability to predict, with confidence, the result of a particular invasion. In fact,
there are doubts that the study of the species traits linked to successful or unsuccessful invaders
might be useful in predicting the outcome of a particular invasion.
Furthermore, a species can become an invader without changing its traits, only due to changes in
the habitat. Thus, invasive traits might work as indicators of risk and not as definitive predictors.
In the case of insects, population growth rate, food habits, the range of tolerance for environmental
factors, size and dispersal ability might be important, but not conclusive indicators of invasiveness.
Regarding vertebrates, it was suggested that the comparison of closely related species with
different success as invaders might bring new ideas for analysis. However closely related species
may have completely different success as invaders: one might be an invader while the other a rare
species. Apparently, invasive vertebrate species, in general, tend to originate from extensive, non-
isolated, continental areas.
With the increasing risks of biological invasion, researches are being carried out all over the world
on various aspects of invasion including:
(i) Identification of mechanisms responsible for invasion success of alien species.
(ii) Impacts posed by these invasive species on biodiversity and ecosystem services.
(iii) Management interventions of invasive species.
Studies have been performed to eradicate the invasives via physical, chemical as well as biological
means. However, till date no valid records are available for successful management of invasive
species from all over the world via any of these methods. The reason for the failure of these
attempts could be the multiple strategies adopted by these species for their invasion success and
requirements of comparatively larger amount of funds to eradicate these invasives from all over
the world.
These species are not only threatening the native biodiversity, but are also harming food security
via reducing agricultural productivity, economy, ecosystem services and water, soil and air
qualities. Therefore, it is the urgent need of time to carry out studies on diverse facets of biological
invasion as:
A. Prediction and rank potential of invasive species.
B. To identify susceptibility and vulnerability of different ecosystems to biological invasion.
C. To develop strategies for the management and eradication of invasive species.
D. To reinforce biodiversity conservation policies and sustainable use of biodiversity.
E. To emphasize the bio-security procedures ahead of established national border
interventions.
The Global Invasive Alien Species Indicator revealed that there has not been significant reduction
in the biodiversity due to biological invasion yet. Hence, timely implementation of proper and
effective management plans could possibly conserve the existing biodiversity and protect the
nature from further harmful impacts of biological invasion. In my opinion, nature-based solutions
like restoration of degraded lands, afforestation and reforestation, promotion of native species and
various other biodiversity conservation methods need to play the key role for mitigation of
biological invasion. Furthermore, exploitation of the invasive species could be an alternative to
eradicate some of the invaders like plant species.
Hence, exploring the potential of allelopathy by invasive plants could also be promising in
achieving higher crop productivity without compromising the environmental safety due to use of
chemical fertilizers and pesticides. Invasive plants can be effective bio-herbicides that could be
used as the potential alternative weed control options by replacing synthetic herbicides to minimize
the environmental pollution caused by these synthetic herbicides and increase crop production.
Whilst, the state, national and international communities have been implementing various events,
programs and campaigns to create awareness among people about nature's health, our
responsibilities towards protecting environment and consequences of various anthropogenic
disturbances in upcoming future, such awareness are limited only to specific events only.
Environment day, Earth Day, Wildlife Day, Forest Day, Water Day etc., are some of such
examples.

Current Mass Extinction Crisis

Mass Extinction (Meaning):
• A mass extinction event is when species vanish much faster than they are replaced.
• This is usually defined as about 75% of the world's species being lost in a 'short' amount
of geological time - less than 2.8 million years.
Mass Extinctions So Far:
• First Mass Extinction: The Ordovician mass extinction that occurred about 445 million
years ago killed about 85% of all species.
• Second Mass Extinction: The Devonian mass extinction (about 375 million years ago)
wiped out about 75% of the world’s species.
• Third Mass Extinction: The Permian mass extinction (about 250 million years ago) also
known as the Great Dying caused the extinction of over 95% of all species.
• Fourth Mass Extinction: The Triassic mass extinction (about 200 million years ago)
eliminated about 80% of Earth’s species, including some dinosaurs.
• Fifth Mass Extinction: This Cretaceous mass extinction (about 65 million years ago) is
known for wiping out non-avian dinosaurs.
About the Latest Findings:
• New Explanations: There have been several theories behind each mass extinction and with
advances in new technologies, researchers have been uncovering more intricate details
about these events.
• Traditional Thought: For decades, the prevailing school of thought was that volcanism-
induced global warming causes the oceans to lose oxygen and thus impact marine
habitability, potentially destabilising the entire ecosystem.
• New School of Thought: In recent years, mounting evidence points to several episodes in
the Earth’s history when oxygen levels also dropped in cooling climates.

Ordovician climate and marine biogeochemical cycles during that period showed
“seafloor and upper-ocean oxygenation in response to ongoing global cooling.”
This led to deep-sea anoxia affecting ocean circulation.
Thus, the paper concludes that climate cooling may have led to changes in nutrient
cycling, primary producer communities which ultimately drove the Late Ordovician mass
extinction.
Ongoing Sixth Mass Extinction and Impact:
Sixth Mass Extinction:
• Some researchers have pointed out that we are currently experiencing a sixth mass
extinction as the result of human-induced climate change (referred to as the Anthropocene
extinction).
• Currently, only an estimated 2% of all of the species that ever lived are alive but the
absolute number of species is greater than ever before.
• It is described as the most serious environmental problem since the loss of species will be
permanent.
• The loss of species has been occurring since human ancestors developed agriculture over
11,000 years ago. Since then, the human population has increased from about 1 million to
7.7 billion.
Possible Impact:
• The extinction of the species causes tangible impact such as in the form of a loss in crop
pollination and water purification.
• Further, if a species has a specific function in an ecosystem, the loss can lead to
consequences for other species by impacting the food chain.
• The effects of extinction are expected to worsen the genetic and cultural variability which
would change entire ecosystems.
• When genetic variability and resilience is reduced, its contribution to human welfare may
be lost.
 Biodiversity Conservation Strategies
Biodiversity conservation is the protection, preservation, management, or restoration of wildlife
and natural resources such as forests, water bodies, etc. Survival of many species and habitats,
which are threatened due to human activities, can be ensured through the conservation of
biodiversity. There is an urgent need, not only to manage and conserve the biotic wealth, but also
to restore the degraded ecosystems.
Humans have been directly or indirectly dependent on biodiversity for their sustenance to a
considerable extent. However, increasing population pressure and developmental activities have
led to large scale depletion of the natural resources.
Biodiversity conservation is meant for management of human activities in the environment so that
it does not lead to habitat destruction and loss of biodiversity. The conservation of biodiversity is
carried out:
1. To preserve and protect the species in their habitat.
2. To maintain essential ecological process so that there is no ecological imbalance created.
3. To use the species and ecosystem sustainably without exploiting them.
4. To preserve flora and fauna, natural parks, sanctuaries, biosphere reverses, etc. are created.
5. To conserve the genetic biodiversity by establishing the zoological gardens (zoos),
botanical gardens, nurseries, etc.
6. To ensure proper planning of land use and other natural resources so as to conserve the
biodiversity.
7. To prohibit the hunting, poaching of animals, fishing etc., beyond the productive capacity
of ecosystem.
8. To ensure biodiversity maintenance by enforcing the acts, laws of legislative controls such
as India forests act, endangered species act, etc.,
9. To create public awareness about sustainable use of the species without affecting the
biodiversity.
10. To delineate the particular areas as “reserved” so that no activity is permitted in that zone.
Example: reserve forests.
11. To conserve the biodiversity with regard to plants and animals,a number of measures are
now being taken the world over.
Types of conservation: Conservation can broadly be divided into two types:
1. In-situ conservation
2. Ex-situ conservation
BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION
In-Situ Conservation Ex-Situ Conservation
1. Protected areas 1. Seed banks, Gene banks
National parks 2. Long term captive breeding
Sanctuaries 3. Animal translocations
Biosphere reserves 4. Tissue culture banks
2. Sacred forests and lakes 5. Cryopreservation of gametes and embryos
 6. Botanical gardens
7. Zoological gardens (Zoos)

[1] In-situ conservation:

In-situ conservation is on site conservation or the conservation of genetic resources in natural
populations of plant or animal species, such as forest genetic resources in natural populations of
tree species.
In-situ conservation is the process of protecting an endangered plant or animal species in its natural
habitat, either by protecting or cleaning up the habitat itself, or by defending the species from
predators.
It is applied to conservation of agricultural biodiversity in agro-forestry by farmers, especially
those using unconventional farming practices. In-situ conservation is done by declaring the
particular area as protected area.
The role of protected areas in maintaining biodiversity:
A protected area is a geographically defined area that is designated or regulated and managed to
achieve specific conservation objectives. It may be set aside for the protection of biological
diversity, and of natural and associated cultural resources and is managed through legal or other
effective means. This includes national parks and nature reserves, sustainable use reserves,
wilderness areas and heritage sites.
Protected areas (PAs) have been widely used as a conservation tool in order to maintain a
representative sample of unaltered species and eco-systems for the future, and to limit the potential
for environmental degradation through human mismanagement of resources.
At present, approximately 8,500 PAs exist throughout the world in 169 countries. This covers
about 750 million hectares of marine and terrestrial ecosystems, which amounts to 5.2 % of the
Earth’s land surface.
The World Conservation Union, International Union of Conservation of Nature (IUCN), has a key
role in promoting the establishment of protected areas throughout the world. Since 1948, IUCN
has developed standards and guidelines for PAs management. Protected areas have been
established following the categories defined by the IUCN.
Strict protection categories (categories I – III) have mostly been applied in the developing
countries, whereas categories V and VI are the most commonly used in the developed world).
Category I: Strict Protection Sometimes called strict nature reserve/wilderness areas. These are
protected areas managed mainly for science or wilderness protection. These are generally smaller
areas where the preservation of important natural values with minimum human disturbance.
Category II: Ecosystem Conservation and Tourism Sometimes called national parks. These are
generally larger areas with a range of outstanding features and ecosystems that people may visit
for education, recreation, and inspiration as long as they do not threaten the area's values.
Category III: Conservation of Natural Features Sometimes called natural monuments. These are
similar to National Parks, but usually smaller areas protecting a single spectacular natural feature
or historic site.
Category IV: Conservation through Active Management Sometimes called habitat and wildlife
(species) management areas. These are areas managed to protect and utilise wildlife species.
Category V: Landscape/Seascape Conservation and Recreation Sometimes called protected
landscapes/seascapes.
Category VI: Sustainable Use of Natural Ecosystems Sometimes called managed resource
protected areas. Protected areas are managed mainly for the sustainable use of natural ecosystems.
In the past, it was assumed that the best way to preserve biodiversity was to conserve it through
protected areas by reducing human activities or completely excluding humans. Population growth
and poverty were seen as main causes of environmental degradation; people were regarded as a
problem from which the environment needed protection. Accordingly, protected areas and parks
were fenced off from local people, traditional practices were prohibited, and people were held
under penalties of fines or imprisonments for utilising park resources. However, there are very
controversial scientific and social problems with this approach, which was characterized by serious
conflicts between local communities and the state.
This, therefore, led to a transformation in thinking and the recognition that:
1. Local people understand their environment and have extensive knowledge of the resources
within their local environment.
2. The exclusion of local people from protected areas may actually lead to impoverishment
of their biological diversity, with both ecological and social costs.
3. Traditional practices enable people to live with nature in a mutually beneficial way. For
example, instead of banning hunting altogether, a series of regulations could be put in place
to regulate hunting, e.g. prohibitions on killing juveniles, or pregnant females.
4. Many communities still do not see wildlife and the environment as their own property
because they are not involved in decision-making process and have little responsibility in
conservation projects.
5. Revenues earned from PAs have not always been passed on to communities PAs
management has taken on a more holistic approach to assessing biodiversity and
environmental protection - it has to be effective in linking conservation with human needs.
PAs management must take into account the local people’s realities, that is, policy formulation
must be based on a more realistic understanding of the social and political dimensions of natural
resources management.
In India, following three types of natural habitats are being maintained:
1. National parks.
2. Wildlife sanctuaries.
3. Biosphere reserves
India has over 600 protected areas, which includes over 90 national parks, over 500 animal
sanctuaries and 15 biosphere reserves.
 (1) National parks: A national park is an area which is strictly reserved for the betterment of
the wildlife and where activities like forestry and grazing on cultivated area are not
permitted. In these parks, even private ownership rights are not allowed. Their boundaries
are well marked and circumscribed. They are usually small reserves spreading in an area
of 100 to 500 sq. km. In national parks, the emphasis is given on the preservation of a single
plant or animal species.
List of some major national parks of India
Year of Area
S. No. Name State
establishment (km2)
1 Corbett National Park Uttarakhand 1921 1318.5
2 Dudhwa National Park Uttar Pradesh 1977 490.29
3 Gir National Park Gujarat 1965 258.71
4 Kanha National Park Madhya Pradesh 1955 940
KangerGhati National Park (Kanger Chhattisgarh 1982 200
5
Valley)
6 Kaziranga National Park Assam 1974 471.71
7 Nanda Devi National Park Uttarakhand 1982 630.33
8 Sariska National Park Rajasthan 1955 866
9 Silent Valley National Park Kerala 1980 237
10 Sundarbans National Park West Bengal 1984 1330.12

(2) Wildlife sanctuaries: A sanctuary is a protected area, which is reserved for the conservation
of only animals in which the human activities (like harvesting of timber, collecting minor
forest products, and private ownership rights) are allowed as long as they do not interfere
with the well-being of animals. Boundaries of sanctuaries are not well defined and
controlled biotic-interference is permitted, e.g., tourist activity.
List of some major wildlife sanctuaries of India
S. Year of Area
Name State
No. establishment (km2)
1 Ghana Bird Sanctuary Rajasthan 1982 28.73
2 Hazaribag Wildlife Sanctuary Jharkhand 1954 183.89
3 Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary Tamil Nadu 1940 321.55
4 Jaldapara Wildlife Sanctuary West Bengal 2012 216
5 Mount Abu Wildlife Sanctuary Rajasthan 1960 288.84
Annamalai Wildlife Sanctuary (Indira Tamil Nadu 1989 117.10
6 Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary and National
Park)
 (3) Biosphere reserves: It is a special category of protected areas, where human population
also forms a part of the system. They are large protected area of usually more than 5000
sq.km. A biosphere reserves has 3 parts, viz. core zone, buffer zone and transition zone.
a. Core zone is the inner zone; this is undisturbed and legally protected area.
b. Buffer zone lies between the core and transition zone. Some research and educational
activities are permitted here.
c. Transition zone is the outermost part of biosphere reserves. Here, cropping, forestry,
recreation, fishery and other activities are allowed.
The main functions of biodiversity reserves are:
a. Conservation: To ensure the conservation of ecosystem, species and genetic resources
b. Development: To promote economic development, while maintaining cultural, social and
ecological identity.
c. Scientific Research: To provide support for research related to monitoring and education,
local, national and global issues. Biosphere reserves serve in some ways as ‘living
laboratories’ for testing out and demonstrating integrated management of land, water and
biodiversity.
List of some major biosphere reserves of India
S. Year of Area
Name State
No. establishment (km2)
1 Nanda Devi Uttarakhand 1982 5,860.69
2 Manas Assam 1990 2837
3 Gulf of Mannar Tamil Nadu 1980 10,500
4 Great Nicobar Andaman and Nicobar Islands 1989 885
5 Panchmarhi Madhya Pradesh 1999 4,926.28

Uses of in-situ conservation:

1. The flora and fauna live in natural habitats without human interference.
2. The life cycles of the organisms and their evolution progresses in a natural way.
3. In-situ conservation provides the required green cover and its associated benefits to our
environment.
4. It is less expensive and easy to manage.
5. The interests of the indigenous people are also protected.
[2] Ex-situ conservation
Ex-situ conservation is the preservation of components of biological diversity outside their natural
habitats. This involves conservation of genetic resources, as well as wild and cultivated species,
and draws on a diverse body of techniques and facilities. Such strategies include establishment of
botanical gardens, zoos, conservation strands and gene, pollen seed, seedling, tissue culture and
DNA banks. Methods of ex-situ conservation are as follows:
1. Seed gene bank: These are cold storages where seeds are kept under controlled temperature
and humidity for storage and this is easiest way to store the germ plasma of plants at low
 temperature. Seeds preserved under controlled conditions (minus temperature) remain
viable for long durations of time.
2. Gene bank: Genetic variability also is preserved by gene bank under normal growing
conditions. These are cold storages where germplasm is kept under controlled temperature
and humidity for storage; this is an important way of preserving the genetic resources.
3. Cryopreservation: This is the newest application of technology for preservation of biotic
parts. This type of conservation is done in liquid nitrogen at very low temperature (-196°C).
The metabolic activities of the organisms are suspended under low temperature, which are
later used for research purposes.
4. Tissue culture bank: Cryopreservation of disease-free meristems is very helpful. Long term
culture of excised roots and shoots are maintained. Meristem culture is very popular in
plant propagation as it’s a virus and disease-free method of multiplication.
5. Long term captive breeding: The method involves capture, maintenance and captive
breeding on long term basis of individuals of the endangered species, which have lost their
habitat permanently or certain highly unfavourable conditions are present in their habitat.
6. Botanical gardens: A botanical garden is a place where flowers, fruits and vegetables are
grown. The botanical gardens provide beauty and calm environment. Most of them have
started keeping exotic plants for educational and research purposes.
7. Animal Translocation: Release of animals in a new locality, which come from anywhere
else.
Translocation is carried in following cases:
1. When a species, on which an animal is dependent, becomes rare.
2. When a species is endemic or restricted to a particular area.
3. Due to habit destruction and unfavourable environment conditions.
4. Increase in population in an area
8. Zoological gardens or zoos: In zoos, wild animals are maintained in captivity and
conservation of wild animals (rare, endangered species). The oldest zoo, the Schonbrumm
Zoo, which exists today also, was established in VIENNA in 1759. In India, the 1st zoo
came into existence at BARRACKPORE in 1800. In world, there are about 800 zoos. Such
zoos have about 3000 species of vertebrates. Some zoos have undertaken captive breeding
programmes.
Uses of ex-situ preservation:
1. It is useful for declining population of species.
2. Endangered animals on the verge of extinction are successfully bred.
3. Threatened species are bred in captivity and then released in the natural habitats.
4. Ex-situ centres offer the possibilities of observing wild animals, which is otherwise not
possible.
5. It is extremely useful for conducting research and scientific work on different species.

Case Studies
 1. Project Tiger – A success in species conservation
Tiger (Panthera tigris) has been the integral part to the life and legend of mankind. The tiger
has been feared and revered, hunted and worshiped; it has found its way into folklore and lullabies,
books of worship, popular fiction and innumerable stories of heroism, bravery and adventure.
At present the tiger is an endangered species and has found its way in the Red Data Book. The
tiger population has been reduced from 40,000 to 1,827 by 1972, mainly due to hunting, habitat
loss due to deforestation and taming the rivers for human needs.
Considering the fast decline of the tiger population, a special task force was set up in 1970 by
the Indian Board for Wildlife to prepare an action plan to conserve the population of tiger in the
country. As a result, in 1st April, 1973, Project Tiger was launched.
Objectives of Project Tiger:
1. To ensure maintenance of a viable population of tigers in India for scientific,
economic, aesthetic, cultural and ecological values.
2. To preserve, for all times, areas of biological importance as a national heritage for
the benefit, education and enjoyment of the people.
Principles of Tiger Reserves:
In 1973-74 nine tiger reserves were established — located in 9 different states and covering a
total area of 13,017 sq. kms.
It was based on the following principles:
1. Elimination of all forms of human exploitation and disturbance from the core and
rationalisation of such activities in the buffer.
2. Limitation of habitat management to repair damage done by man with the aim of
restoring the ecosystem as close to its natural functioning as possible.
3. Researching facts about habitat and wild animals and carefully monitoring changes
in flora and fauna.
Conservation Process in Project Tiger:
Conservation of tiger (or any other wildlife) requires the following knowledge:
1. The natural habitat of tiger and its food habit.
2. About the breeding habit and breeding season of tigers.
3. Its relation with other animals.
4. The number of animals present at any given time; reasons for their diminishing or
increasing.
5. Places of drinking water and its arrangement.
6. Places of cover and shelter for tigers.
7. Enactment of the laws for their protection.
Levels of Conservation:
Conservation of tiger is done at the following levels:
Level I: The population of the tigers in any reserve is to be determined from time to time. The
reasons for either their increase or decrease are to be noted. In case of decrease, the reasons are
to be located and appropriate measures are to be undertaken.
 If they encounter severe diseases then it should be diagnosed and immediate treatments are to
be made. If the decrease in number is due to poaching then constant vigilance is to be
maintained to keep poachers away.
Level II: The food of tiger comprises of deer, sambar, wild boar etc. as it is a carnivore. Care
should be taken to keep the food animals in sufficient numbers, so that the tiger need not come
out of the forest for food and get killed by the hunters.
Level III: It is essential to have knowledge about the breeding season of the tigers and the
number of litters born. The litters should be protected from all sorts of danger including
diseases. The diseased litters or tigers should be imprisoned and treated and later released into
their natural habitat.
Tiger conservation initiatives and success:
The first official estimation of the Indian tiger population was done in 1972. About 1,827 tigers
were recorded in the wild. This led to the setting up of a task force under IBWL which ultimately
led to the launching of ‘Project Tiger’ in 1973, beginning with nine sites in nine different states
(Table 4.53):

The 1989 census showed that the number of tigers had increased to 4,334, both in the tiger
reserves and other areas of wildlife (Table 4.54). The highest (269) number of tigers was reported
from Sunderbans, followed by Kanha (97), Nagarjunsagar (97), Simlipal (93) and Manas (92).
However, some alarming decline of tiger population was noted from some tiger reserves like
Kanha, Manas. Sariska National Park etc. and in the two north-eastern states of Meghalaya and
Arunachal Pradesh (which are outside the tiger reserves).
By 1993 the number of Tiger Reserves had increased to 19 with the census reading (Table
4.54) estimating a total of 3,750 tigers out of which the Tiger Reserve population was 1,266 tigers.
M.P. recorded the highest population of 912 tigers, which incidentally was the highest density of
tigers anywhere in the world. In 1993 the second phase of Project Tiger was launched to refocus,
restructure and reformulate strategies, so as to save not only the tiger and its habitat but also to
conserve the entire biodiversity.
The guidelines introduced were:
1. To establish guidelines for tourism in the tiger reserves.
2. To provide management of buffer areas so as to ensure availability of adequate
firewood and fodder for the people living on the outskirts of the reserves.
3. To integrate local population through ecological development programmes.
4. To establish Nature Interpretation Centres.
At present the Tiger Reserve has increased to 27, distributed throughout the country and
covering a forest area of over 37,700 sq. kms (Table 4.55). The new census of the Tiger population
is currently being undertaken.
Project Tiger represents the country’s commitment to protecting wildlife and is recognised
today as a conservation success story. Under the chairmanship of the Prime Minister, a steering
committee provides guidelines to the management of the tiger reserves. Such projects have ensured
the protection of the entire ecosystems, which have resulted over the years to an increase in the
tiger population to more than double.
 Greatest Tragedy in Project Tiger:
The Tiger Conservation Project has hit the greatest tragedy when the Namdapha tiger reserve
in Arunachal Pradesh and Sariska in Rajasthan have been swept clean of the majestic beast. The
last census (2001-02) had declared 22 tigers at Sariska and 61 at Namdapha.
Officials of the wildlife department in Namdapha are doubting the presence of only a single
big cat in the vast reserve spread across 1,985 square kilometers. But even that one tiger that
Namdapha now lays claim has not been sighted by forest officials.
The officials are blaming the poor infrastructure and limited frontline staff, where each staff
has to cover an area of 65-70 square kilometers. Another reason which has been sighted to the
tragedy is the presence of the Lisu tribe who have settled (originally from Myanmar) in the reserve
and are the ones who hunt the beasts.
 Tiger Conservation in West Bengal:
Currently there are two cites of ‘Project Tiger’ in West Bengal – Sunderbans and Buxa.
Sundarbans:
Sunderbans is considered as the largest pro-grading delta of the world, consisting of small
islands traversed by a network of rivers, canals and creeks. Situated far south of West Bengal,
Sundarbans have been formed by the Ganga-Brahmaputra River systems. The major portion of
Sunderbans lies in Bangladesh.
The Indian part covers 9,630 sq. kms. of which Project Tiger covers 2,585 sq. kms. The core
area (National Park) comprises 1,692 sq. kms. It has been declared as “World Heritage Site”. The
unique mangrove ecosystem contains characteristic mangrove vegetation such as Sundri, Garan,
Hetal, Keya etc.
The islands hold the largest single population of tigers and also other animal species like deer,
monkeys, various types of poisonous snakes, etc. In the canals and rivers, the salt water
crocodiles thrive. India and Bangladesh have drawn up strategies to work jointly for the cause
of tigers and this could lead to more focused attention of the world.
Buxa:
Buxa is situated in the Dooars in North Bengal and is the critical corridor with Assam and
Bhutan. The tiger population here had touched a critical low due to poaching. However, Buxa has
re-established its pristine status through habitat improvement measures such as canopy opening,
plantation of palatable grasses and fodder species, ground water management, fire protection etc.
Efforts also have been made to reintroduce the extinct faunal species.
The success of the Project Tiger has shown that, no species, irrespective of its importance, can
be conserved in isolation. The residents of Sunderbans and Buxa are aware that the protection of
tigers would only serve their own interest. Moreover, they are aware that the investment under the
India Eco-development Project is because of its unique tiger habitat.
The Government of West Bengal has whole-heartedly taken up the cause for the conservation
and protection of the Royal Bengal Tiger and its habitat as part of its commitment to renew and
protect the state’s glorious heritage.
2. Project Elephant
The Government of India introduced Project Elephant in 1992 as a Centrally Sponsored
Scheme with the following goals:
➢ To safeguard elephants, their habitat, and migration routes
➢ To address problems of animal-human conflict
Elephant welfare in captivity
The Project is primarily being carried out in 16 States / UTs. Major elephant range states in the
country receive financial and technical assistance through Project Elephant from the Ministry of
Environment, Forests, and Climate Change.
Status of Elephants in India
 India has the largest and the most stable population of Asian elephants. India is home to more
than 60% of all wild Asian elephants. The number of 29,964 elephants were registered in the most
recent elephant census, which was conducted in 2017.
31 elephant reserves exist in India. Dandeli Elephant Reserve of Karnataka, Singphan Elephant
Reserve of Nagaland, and Lemru Elephant Reserve of Chattishgarh have been established in the
past three years by respective states.
As a result, there is now around 76,508 sq km of elephant reserves spread throughout 14 states
in India.
As per the Elephant Census conducted in 2017, Karnataka has the highest number of elephants
(6,049), followed by Assam (5,719) and Kerala (3,054), respectively.
About Asian Elephants
Three subspecies of Asian elephants are found which are the Indian, Sumatran, and Sri Lankan.
The largest terrestrial mammal on the Asian continent is the Asian elephant. They live in grasslands
and forests ranging from dry to wet in 13 range countries across South and Southeast Asia.
Elephant herd sizes in Asia are far smaller than those of African savannah elephants.
The largest and oldest female elephant herd member is in charge (known as the matriarch) of
the herd. Elephants’ gestation (pregnancy) period, which can last up to 680 days (22 months), is
the longest known gestational period among any mammals. Females between the ages of 14 and
45 may give birth to calves every four years on average, increasing to five years by age 52 and six
years by age 60. Elephants have always been closely associated with humans throughout Asia,
where they have evolved into significant cultural symbols.
Protection Status of Asian Elephants
IUCN Red List: Endangered.
Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972: Schedule I.
CITES: Appendix I
Threats to Elephants
Tropical Asia’s steadily increasing human population has encroached onto the elephant’s once-
vast but now-shrinking forest habitat. The Asian elephant’s current range is home to about 20% of
the world’s population. The biggest threats to Asian elephants include habitat loss, fragmentation,
and degradation. Unlawful killing (for example, in revenge for human-elephant conflicts or to
obtain their ivory and other products). Mistreatment in captivity, Rampant mining and Corridor
destruction, Genetic viability loss brought on by small populations and isolation.
Habitat Loss
Due to human population growth, the habitat of Asian elephants is rapidly decreasing, and wild
elephant populations are typically small, isolated, and unable to coexist since human settlements
have cut off their traditional migration routes.
Fragmentation
 What was previously a continuous elephant habitat has been broken up into small sections by
large construction projects (such as dams, roads, mines, and industrial complexes), plantations,
and expanding human settlements.
Unlawful Killing
Elephant incursions on farms and villages are becoming more frequent. Human lives and even
physical goods are lost as a result of this. These elephants are frequently killed in retaliation by the
locals.
Although capture has been outlawed in India, Vietnam, and Myanmar to protect their natural
herds, elephants are nonetheless killed annually in Myanmar for the illegal wildlife trade.
Poaching
Since only male Asian elephants have tusks, only males are targeted for poaching. The
proportion of males without tusks in the population may rise as a result of the selective removal of
tuskers for their ivory.
The goal of Project Elephant
Need of the hour is to-
➢ Protect elephants and their habitat.
➢ Reduce human-elephant conflict.
➢ Promote elephant-friendly policies.
➢ Monitor elephant numbers, population trends, and threats to elephants and their habitat.
➢ Build capacity in range States.
➢ Research elephants to help inform conservation strategies.
Steps Taken for Elephant Conservation
1. To effectively manage the elephant population, the infrastructure needs to be improved
in elephant reserves.
2. To conserve elephants, anti-depredation teams, anti-poaching teams, and trekkers are
employed.
3. Barricading and fencing to avoid human-animal conflict in required areas are
promoted.
4. Gaj Yatra, a national awareness program to honour elephants, emphasizes the
importance of protecting elephant corridors.
5. Solar fences, trenches, and stonewalling are being installed in depredation-prone areas
to reduce the threat of elephants to human habitations.
6. To assess the success of field conservation activities, the Monitoring the Illicit Killing
of Elephants (MIKE) program, which was established in 2003, examines trends in
information about the illegal killing of elephants from across Africa and Asia.
7. Research on a range of topics, including human-animal conflict and elephant habitat
carrying capacity, is encouraged.
8. Measures are taken to reduce the number of wild elephant deaths by educating the local
inhabitants.
 9. The Ministry of Environment and Forests of India established the Elephant Task Force,
which delivered its report, titled “Gajah,” to the Ministry in 2010.
10. The National Elephant Conservation Authority (NECA) is now being created, in
accordance with one of the Elephant Task Force’s recommendations.
11. To prevent the deaths of elephants by speeding trains, the Ministries of Environment
Forests and Climate Change (MoEF&CC) and the Ministry of Railways have jointly
issued recommendations to all the affected states.
Recent news
➢ The Centre has notified a set of rules called the Captive Elephant (Transfer or Transport)
Rules, 2024 that liberalises the conditions under which elephants may be transferred within
or between States.
➢ Elephants are, according to the provisions of the Wildlife Protection Act, a Schedule 1
species and therefore, be it wild or captive, cannot be captured or traded under any
circumstances.
➢ Section 12 of the Act allows Schedule I animals to be translocated for ‘special purposes’
such as education and scientific research.
➢ They can also be translocated for population management of wildlife without harming any
wild animals and collection of specimens for recognised zoos/museums.
➢ Captive elephants because of their historical role in forest management, timber transport,
and presence in estates of erstwhile royal families and temple precincts for religious
purposes can be owned and therefore come under a special category.
➢ However, strict rules guide the transfer of such elephants.
➢ The circumstances under which captive elephants can be transferred are:
a. when an owner is no longer in a position to maintain the elephant,
b. the elephant will likely have better upkeep than in the present circumstances; or
c. when a state’s Chief Wildlife Warden “deems it fit and proper” in the circumstances of the
case for better upkeep of the elephant.

3. Crocodile breeding and management project

Crocodiles are large semi aquatic reptiles found in the tropics of Africa, Asia, the Americas,
and Australia. According to the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, there are 23 known
crocodile species, with 7 listed as Critically Endangered, 4 as Vulnerable, and 12 as Least
Risk. The Indian Crocodile Conservation Project has brought once-threatened crocodilians back
from the brink of extinction and put them on the road to recovery. The Project has not only
produced a large number of crocodiles, but it has also contributed to conservation in a variety of
related fields. This scheme focuses on the gharial, saltwater crocodile, and mugger. In this article,
we will discuss the Indian Crocodile Conservation Project which will be helpful for UPSC exam
preparation.
Indian Crocodile Conservation Project - Background
 Crocodilians were threatened in India due to indiscriminate commercial killing and severe
habitat loss until the Wildlife (Protection) Act of 1972.
By the 1970s, all three crocodile species (Gharial, Mugger crocodile, and Saltwater crocodile)
in Odisha's river systems were on the verge of extinction.
Crocodiles were scarce due to increased human activity in rivers and other traditional habitats,
resulting in a reduction in the extent of habitable stretches. In addition, predation reduces the
survival rate of crocodile hatchlings in the wild.
From the 1960s onward, piecemeal efforts were made to save the crocodile.
Dr. H. R. Bustard, an FAO expert hired by UNDP/FAO and the Government of India, studied
the prospects of crocodile rehabilitation, and a Crocodile Conservation Project was launched in
1975 in various states based on his report and guidance.
What is the Indian Crocodile Conservation Project?
The Crocodile Conservation Project was established in various states in 1975. The Gharial and
Saltwater Crocodile Conservation Program was launched in Odisha in early 1975, followed by
the Mugger Conservation Program. As a result of the programme, the estimated number of
saltwater crocodiles in India increased from 96 in 1976 to 1,640 in 2012. The project received
funding and technical assistance from UNDP/FAO via the Government of India. The Crocodile
Project began with the goal of increasing the population to the point where sightings of 5 to 6
crocodiles per kilometre length of water were possible. Through rear and release operations, the
Project attempted to compensate for natural losses caused by death and predation.
This included collecting eggs from nests as soon as they were laid, incubating and hatching the
eggs in hatcheries under temperature and humidity control, rearing the young juveniles, marking
and releasing the young crocodiles into Nature in protected areas, and assessing the degree of
success in restocking any protected area with crocodiles released from hatcheries.
To accomplish these goals, three separate research units for the Gharial, Salt Water Crocodile,
and Mugger were established in Tikarpara, Dangmal, and Ramatirtha, respectively.
Captive breeding plans for all three species were pursued at the Nandankanan Biological Park.
Soon after the project began, it became clear that well-trained staff were required for a successful
crocodile conservation programme. In 1980, a Crocodile Breeding and Management Training
Institute was founded in Hyderabad.
Indian Crocodile Conservation Project - Objectives
a. Creating sanctuaries to protect the remaining crocodilians in their natural habitat.
b. To quickly rebuild natural populations, more than 7000 crocodiles have been restocked,
including 4000 gharial (Gavialis gangeticus), 1800 mugger (Crocodylus palustris), and
1500 saltwater crocodiles (Crocodylus porosus)
c. To promote captive breeding.
d. To conduct research to improve management.
e. To increase the number of trained personnel on project sites through the (then) Central
Crocodile Breeding and Management Training Institute in Hyderabad.
 f. Involve the community in the project on a personal level.
Crocodile Species Found in India
1. Mugger
Mugger or Marsh crocodiles are restricted to the Indian subcontinent and are typically found in
freshwater habitats such as lakes, marshes, and rivers. They can also be found in coastal saltwater
lagoons and estuaries. When the temperature drops below 5°C, both young and adult mugger
crocodiles dig burrows. Mugger crocodile hatchlings are pale olive with black spots, whereas
adults are dark olive to grey or brown. They are an egg-laying, hole-nesting species. It feeds on
fish, reptiles, birds, and mammals. The main cause of their vulnerability is habitat destruction,
fragmentation, and transformation, as well as fishing activities and the use of crocodile parts for
medicinal purposes. In Myanmar and Bhutan, this crocodile species is already extinct.
Their current status can be found in the table below:
IUCN Red List Vulnerable
CITES Appendix I
Wildlife Protection Act, 1972 Schedule I

Mugger
Saltwater Crocodile
The saltwater crocodile, also known as a maneater, is thought to be the largest crocodile species
on Earth. They are also known as estuarine crocodiles. It is found in Odisha's Bhitarkanika
National Park, West Bengal's Sundarbans, and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. They can also
be found in Southeast Asia and northern Australia. It is capable of dominating almost any animal
that enters its territory, ambushes most of its prey, and then drowns or swallows it whole. Its
reputation as a man-eater is one of the main reasons for its hunting and a threat to its survival. It is
also hunted for its skin, and habitat loss is a major factor in its declining population.
Its current global status is as under:
IUCN Red List Least Concern
CITES Appendix I
Wildlife Protection Act, 1972 Schedule I
 Saltwater Crocodile
2. Gharial
The gharial, also known as the gavial, is the longest living crocodile. They are called gharial
because of their long and thin snouts that resemble an earthen pot (known as "Ghara" in Hindi). It
currently lives in rivers in the northern plains of the Indian subcontinent. The Chambal river on
the northern slopes of the Vindhya mountains is known as the primary habitat of gharials. The
gharial population is estimated to have declined from 5,000-10,000 in 1946 to less than 250 in
2006. The main causes of this decline are illegal sand mining, poaching, habitat destruction, floods,
and large-scale fishing operations.
Its current status is as under:
IUCN Red List Critically Endangered
CITES Appendix I
Wildlife Protection Act, 1972 Schedule I

Gharial
Indian Crocodile Conservation Project - Achievements
All three crocodile species have been saved from extinction, and many of their habitats have
been added to the state's protected area network. The crocodile project, which has long slowed in
the state, has made significant contributions to the development of knowledge and the spread of
awareness. Crocodiles' future can be secured by adequately protecting their habitats. Aside from
producing a large number of crocodiles in a short period of time, the Crocodile Project has made
numerous contributions to the overall approach to wildlife conservation, research, and training.
Locals have been intimately involved in crocodile management. Full-time research personnel have
been hired for the wildlife wing to conduct crocodile and other wildlife research. Crocodiles have
been used as the flagship species in some important wetland sanctuaries. Other wetland species
were actively managed alongside the crocodilians. Mangrove plants, marine turtles, freshwater
turtles, monitor lizards, Gangetic dolphins, otters, and other reptilian fauna were among them.
Along with the crocodile project, an intimate international collaboration in wildlife conservation,
education, and training began.
Crocodile Census in India
The crocodile census was held in January 2020 in Odisha's Bhitarkanika National Park and its
surrounding areas in the Kendrapara district. Officials formed 22 teams to count the crocodiles in
all of the creeks and rivers within the park and its surrounding areas, and 1,757 crocodiles were
discovered. This was slightly more than last year's total of 1,742 crocodiles. During the census,
620 hatchlings, 325 yearlings, 288 juveniles, 185 sub-adults, and 339 adult crocodiles were
discovered. The enumerators also saw 12 albino crocodiles and four giant crocodiles over 20 feet
long in the water bodies.
Crocodile Conservation Programmes in India
a. Baula Project in Dangamal
The Oriya word for saltwater crocodile is 'Baula.' Salt-water crocodile eggs have been collected
locally at Dangmal in Bhitarkanika sanctuary, and young crocodiles have been released in creeks
and estuaries, with over 2200 crocodiles released in phases since 1977. This operation was
relatively successful, and the crocodile population in the Bhitarkanika river system gradually
increased. More than 50 released female Saltwater Crocodiles have successfully breaded and are
laying eggs in the wild.
b. Mugger Project At Ramatirtha
The Ramatirtha centre for Mugger crocodiles began with Mugger eggs and juveniles obtained from
Tamilnadu. Since 1984, Muggers have been bred and young ones released into the wild in
Similipal, and more than 600 crocodiles have been released in the area. A census was carried out
to determine the population status of Mugger crocodiles in the major rivers/waterbodies within the
Similipal.
c. Gharial Project at Tikarpada
Gharial eggs were collected at Tikarpara at various times from Nepal's Narayani and Kali
rivers, as well as the Chambal sanctuary in Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, and Uttar Pradesh. The
eggs taken from Mahanadi were infertile. Gharial hatchlings were obtained from eggs incubated
in Nepal's Royal Chitwan National Park and Uttar Pradesh's Katarniyaghat sanctuary. More than
700 Gharials raised at Tikarpara and those produced through captive breeding at Nandankanan
Zoo were released in the Mahanadi River between Boudh and Katrang. One assessment of the rear
and release operation in respect of Gharials was made between December 1987 and January 1988,
when only 25 Gharials were discovered to be surviving in the entire stretch of the river Mahanadi
and downstream of Hirakud Reservoir over a 400-kilometer stretch. One male and two female
Gharials were sighted and counted in and outside of the sanctuary during the January 2003 census.
A study was conducted to determine the causes of the Gharial's poor survival in Mahanadi. It is
critical to reduce fishing and navigation on certain stretches of the river in order to increase the
Gharial population to more viable levels. It has been proposed to rehabilitate Gharials in the
Mahanadi upstream of the Hirakud reservoir, as well as some stretches of the river Brahmani. A
census conducted in winter 2004 in the Mahanadi river system within the boundaries of the
Satkosia Gorge Sanctuary revealed the survival of only one male Gharial (3-3.5m length). This
Gharial was located on the Mahanadi / SatkosiaGorge river between Binikei and Majhipada.
d. Crocodile Captive Breeding in Nandankanan, Odisha
At Nandankanan Zoo, captive breeding units for all three crocodilian species have been
established. Muggers that were bred at Nandankanan Zoo were also released in Satkosia Gorge.
Although Gharials have failed to establish themselves in Satkosia Gorge, Muggers have
established themselves well in this stretch of the Mahanadi River. According to a survey conducted
between January and March 2004, there are 64 Muggers in the Mahanadi system and 83 Muggers
in the rivers of Similipal.
IUCN-SSC Crocodile Specialist Group
The IUCN SSC Crocodile Specialist Group (CSG) is a global network of biologists, wildlife
managers, government officials, independent researchers, non-government (NGO)
representatives, farmers, traders, tanners, fashion leaders, and private companies dedicated to the
conservation of the world's 23 living species of alligators, crocodiles, caimans, and gharials. It was
founded in 1971, and its main mission is to assist the IUCN and the Species Survival Commission
(SSC) in the conservation, management, and sustainability of crocodiles worldwide.
World Crocodile Day
Every year on June 17th, World Crocodile Day is observed. It is a worldwide awareness
campaign to raise awareness about the plight of endangered crocodiles and alligators. The
Crocodile Conservation Project was launched in 1975 in various Indian states to conserve
crocodiles. The authorities in charge should conduct public awareness campaigns to highlight the
plight of endangered crocodiles.
Crocodilians were threatened in India due to indiscriminate killing for commercial purposes
and severe habitat loss until the Wildlife (Protection) Act of 1972. The overall strategy for
crocodile rehabilitation was to protect them in their natural habitats, rebuild the population quickly
through captive breeding (rear and release), and train personnel for the job. To determine the exact
number of crocodiles across the country, future censuses must incorporate cutting-edge
technology.
 4. Vulture Breeding program
Vultures, which feed on dead animals, were once the most common birds on the planet,
including the Indian subcontinent. Until the 1980s, vultures were very common in India. With
India losing more than 95 percent of its vulture population between the 1990s and the mid-2000s,
conservation efforts were urgently needed to prevent vultures from becoming extinct. The
Government of India launched Project Vulture in 2006 to increase the population of Indian
vultures. In this article, we will discuss Project Vulture which will be helpful for UPSC exam
preparation.
Vulture in India
• In India, nine vulture species have been identified. Out of which, five belong to Genus
Gyps and the remaining four are monotypic.
• Until the 1980s, vultures were very common in India.
• The population of the three resident Gyps species (Oriental White-backed Vulture, Long-
billed Vulture and Slender-billed Vulture) in the country was estimated to be 40 million
individuals during this time period.
• However, the overall population fell by more than 90% in the mid-1990s. By 2007, all
three Gyps species had been exterminated.
Vulture Species IUCN Status
Oriental White-backed Vulture (Gyps Bengalensis) Critically Endangered
Long-billed Vulture (Gyps Indicus) Critically Endangered
Slender-billed Vulture (Gyps Tenuirostris) Critically Endangered
Himalayan Vulture (Gyps Himalayensis) Near Threatened
Eurasian Griffon (Gyps Fulvus) Least Concerned
Red-headed Vulture (Sarcogyps Calvus) Critically Endangered
Egyptian Vulture (Neophron Percnopterus) Endangered
Bearded Vulture (Gypaetus Barbatus) Near Threatened
Cinereous Vulture (Aegypius Calvus) Near Threatened
Vultures – Background
• The decline of vulture populations in India was first observed at Rajasthan's Keoladeo
Ghana National Park.
• By 2005, the genus Gyps had declined by 97 percent (over a 12-year period) in India.
• Other Asian countries, such as Nepal and Pakistan, have seen similar declines.
• In India, the wild populations of three species, namely the Whitebacked Vulture, the
Slender-billed Vulture, and the Long-billed Vulture, have declined dramatically over the
last decade.
• The critically endangered species include the red-headed vulture or king vulture, the
Slender-billed Vulture, and the Long-billed Vulture.
• Egyptian vulture and White-backed Vulture populations in India have also declined and
are now classified as Endangered.
• The drastic decline in population was initially thought to be due to a lack of food (dead
livestock) or an unknown viral epidemic disease, but it was later confirmed that the decline
in population was caused by the drug diclofenac.
What is Diclofenac Sodium?
• Diclofenac is a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) that is used to treat pain
and inflammation in certain conditions.
• NSAIDs are linked to adverse kidney (renal) failure, which is caused by a decrease in
renal prostaglandin synthesis.
• Vultures that are unable to break down the chemical diclofenac suffer from kidney failure
when they consume the carcass of animals that have received the drug Diclofenac.
• Visceral gout, a buildup of uric acid within tissues and on the surfaces of internal organs,
was found in 85 percent of the dead vultures discovered.
• Death is caused by renal failure, which has been linked to metabolic failure or toxic disease.
• "Neck drooping" - vultures exhibit this behaviour for several weeks before collapsing and
falling out of trees, or just before death. It is the only visible behavioural sign that birds are
ill.
• In May 2006, the Indian government prohibited the use of diclofenac in veterinary
medicine. Unfortunately, the ban did not go far enough, and human diclofenac was used to
treat sick cattle.
• One issue is that the human form of diclofenac is much cheaper than alternative drugs like
meloxicam, which have been tested for vulture safety.
Meloxicam - An Alternative
• Meloxicam is a second generation NSAID that is rated better than Diclofenac for the
treatment of livestock and has a lower risk of side effects.
• It is also approved for human use in over 70 countries.
• Meloxicam is approved for use in veterinary medicine in India, Europe, and the United
States.
Significance of Vultures in India
• The scavenging lifestyle that has earned them a bad reputation is, in fact, what makes them
so valuable to the environment, nature, and society.
• Vultures that feed on dead animals assist areas in getting rid of carcasses that would
otherwise provide foul odours and scenery for a much longer period of time, and are thus
known as nature's cleanup crew.
• Vultures also play an important role in the control of wildlife diseases.
• Helps in disposal of dead bodies in accordance with Parsi religious practises.
• Vultures are the primary carrion eaters in India and Africa.

Condition Without Vultures

• Other scavenging species' populations will be thrown off balance.
• It will result in an increase in putrefying carcasses.
• The movement of feral dogs into carcass dumps contributes to the spread of diseases like
rabies and anthrax.
• The traditional Parsi practise of burying their dead in 'Towers of Silence' for vultures to
feed on will be affected.
• Life will be much more difficult for local hide and bone collectors, who rely on cleaned
carcasses to make a living.
Vulture Safety Zones (VSZ)
• The concept of a VSZ is unique to the Asian continent, but similar VSZs exist in Europe
and Africa.
• The goal of developing VSZs is to establish targeted awareness activities within a 150-
kilometer radius of vulture colonies so that no diclofenac or veterinary toxic drugs are
found in cattle carcasses, the primary food source for vultures.
• The term "diclofenac free zones" (DFZ) referred to the complete removal of diclofenac
from identified vulture safe zones, which are areas where vulture colonies have been
identified.
• The VSZ spans several hundred kilometres, including the Jim Corbett National Park in
Uttarakhand, the Dudhwa and Kartarniaghat forest reserves in Uttar Pradesh, and the Indo-
Nepal border.
• Nepal has already established VSZs along its borders with India.

Importance of VSZs
• A safe food source that is free of veterinary drugs, poisons, and other agricultural
chemicals.
• Extra food near breeding colonies improves breeding success by increasing the survival
chances of the young vultures.
• Breeding birds can be provided with additional food, such as bone fragments.
• Contribute to lowering the risk of disease spread.
• A location for scientists to research the biology and ecology of these endangered species.
 • A chance to raise public awareness about vulture conservation and funds.
• This is a fantastic opportunity for eco-tourists to see these magnificent birds.
Different Zones under Vulture Safety Zones
• Vulture Safe Zone will be established between Uttarkhand and Nepal, spanning from
Corbett to Katriya Ghat, a Tarai belt covering 30,000 square kilometres.
o This area, which includes marshy grassland, savannas, and forests, is home to the
slender-billed vulture and the white-backed vulture.
• Similarly, a belt stretching from Dibrugarh in Assam to North Lakhimpur in Arunachal
Pradesh will be protected as a vulture safe zone, home to slender-billed and white-backed
vultures.
• The third zone would be in central India, covering the state of Chhattisgarh, which is home
to white-backed and long-billed vultures.
Vulture Restaurants
• Vulture Restaurants (VR) are restaurants where Maharashtra and Punjab Forest
departments reserve tables exclusively for the unique and rare vultures.
• Vultures, as natural scavengers, have long been harmed by rapid urbanisation and
deteriorating climate.
• Their population in the state shrank as man-made activities reduced their food
sources. This is where the 'Vulture Restaurants' comes in.
• The first "vulture restaurant" opened in 2015 at the Phansad Wildlife Sanctuary in the
Raigad district.
• The success of these restaurants depends on the availability of carcasses.
• The forest department relies on villagers to supply carcasses in exchange for incentives.
• The state forest department's wildlife wing allows the locals to bring their dead pets and
livestock as food for vultures.
Vulture Breeding Centres in India
• In 2005, the vulture research facility in Pinjore, Haryana, was designated as Asia's first
Vulture Conservation Breeding Centre.
• India currently has four vulture breeding facilities located in Rani, Guwahati (Assam),
Pinjore (Haryana), Buxa (West Bengal), and Bhopal (Madhya Pradesh).
• The Central Zoo Authority (CZA) manages four more centres: Junagarh in Gujarat,
Nandankanan in Orissa, Hyderabad in Telangana, and Muta in Ranchi.
• The Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF) and the BNHS have launched a
programme to release 30 young vultures from breeding centres to three designated safe
zones by 2014.
• Though breeding facilities have been in operation for several years, vulture reproduction
takes time.
• It takes at least four to five years for young vultures to learn to fly.
 • The projects are costly, but the idea is that if vultures go extinct, there should be some in
captivity that can be released.
Measures Taken to Conserve Vultures
• The veterinary drug Diclofenac has been banned by the governments of India and Nepal.
• Meloxicam is being promoted as an effective replacement for vultures and other
scavenging birds.
• The Government of India has developed a National Action Plan on Vulture Conservation
(2006). The Action Plan outlines strategies and actions for mitigating vulture population
declines through ex-situ and in-situ vulture conservation.
• White-backed, Long-billed, and Slender-billed Vultures have been moved from Schedule
IV to Schedule I of the Wild Life (Protection) Act of 1972.
• Vulture Protection Zones have been created.
• Sites for Vulture Restaurants have been identified and in operation.
• In Panchkula, a 'Vulture Captive Care Facility' has been established.
• State governments have been advised to establish vulture care centres in order to conserve
three species of vultures.
• Captive breeding facilities have been established to secure healthy wild birds for breeding
in captivity for conservation and future release.
• Regular awareness raising activities are organised for various groups such as veterinarians,
pharmacists, school children, government agencies, conservation partners, and local
communities.
India’s Role in Conservation of vulture
• In 2004, India introduced a motion in the IUCN for vulture conservation, which was
accepted in the form of an IUCN resolution.
• It called on Gyps vulture range countries to take action to prevent all uses of diclofenac in
veterinary applications.
• It also called for the establishment of an IUCN South Asian Task Force under the
auspices of the IUCN and range countries to develop and implement national vulture
recovery plans, including conservation breeding and release.
Action Plan for Vulture Conservation (APVC) in India (2020-2025)
• The Action Plan for Vulture Conservation (APVC) in India, 2020-2025, is a critical
requirement for the country's vulture conservation.
• With the first action plan expiring in 2009, it was critical that a new document be created
that outlines the vision for vulture conservation in the coming years.
• Based on the recommendations of the Action Plan for Vulture Conservation 2006, a
number of conservation measures have been implemented to prevent the extinction of at
least three vulture species: Oriental White-backed, Long-billed, and Slender-billed.
• There are, however, a number of issues impeding vulture conservation in the country that
must be addressed as soon as possible.
 • The APVC 2020-2025 has identified priority actions and additional action points for
vulture conservation than were mentioned in the 2006 action plan.
• The most urgently recommended action is to prevent nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs
(NSAIDs) from poisoning major vulture food, cattle carcasses.
Objectives of APVC
• Preventing the poisoning of cattle carcasses, which are the primary source of food for
vultures.
• Conduct vulture safety testing on available molecules of veterinary NSAIDs.
• If a drug is discovered to be toxic to vultures, the DCGI must implement a system that
automatically removes it from veterinary use.
• Additional Conservation Breeding Centres are required in the country. There are currently
eight Vulture Conservation Breeding Centres located throughout the country.
• Red-headed Vulture and Egyptian Vulture populations have also declined by more than
80% over the years, necessitating the establishment of a conservation breeding programme
for these species.
• To conduct a coordinated national vulture count to get a better estimate of the size of the
country's vulture populations.
• Enhancing the vulture safe zone network by establishing at least one vulture safe zone in
each state and continuing to work on existing vulture safe zone efforts.
• Identifying and gathering information on other emerging threats to vulture conservation be
gathered.
Saving Asia’s Vultures from Extinction (SAVE)
• SAVE is a coalition of like-minded regional and international organisations formed to
oversee and coordinate conservation, campaigning, and fundraising efforts to alleviate
the plight of South Asia's vultures.
• The Saving Asia's Vultures from Extinction (SAVE) programme announced plans to
release up to 25 birds into a 30,000-square-kilometer drug-free "safe zone."
• After witnessing the devastation wrought by a drug on Asian vulture populations, a project
hopes to begin releasing captive-bred birds into the wild by 2016.
• Its goal is to use a single programme for saving three critically important species from
extinction.
• Bombay Natural History Society, Bird Conservation Nepal, RSPB (UK), National Trust
for Nature Conservation (Nepal), International Centre for Birds of Prey (UK), and
Zoological Society of London are theSAVE partners.
The population of white-backed vultures, once the world's most common large raptor, has
declined by more than 99 percent across the Indian subcontinent, owing primarily to the use of
diclofenac in veterinary medicine. Vultures that consume diclofenac-treated carcasses develop
kidney failure. While the production of veterinary diclofenac was prohibited in 2006, the drug for
humans is still on the market.
 5. Project Great Indian bustard
o The Great Indian Bustard (Ardeotis nigriceps), the State bird of Rajasthan, is considered
India’s most critically endangered bird.
o It is considered the flagship grassland species, representing the health of the grassland
ecology.
o Its population is confined mostly to Rajasthan and Gujarat. Small populations occur
in Maharashtra, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh.

▪ Vulnerability:
o The bird is under constant threats due to collision/electrocution with power
transmission lines, hunting (still prevalent in Pakistan), habitat loss and alteration as a
result of widespread agricultural expansion, etc.
o GIBs are a slow-reproducing species. They lay a few eggs and have almost a year-
long parental care of chicks. The GIB achieves maturity in around 3-4 years.
 ▪ Protection Status:
o IUCN Red List: Critically Endangered
o Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and
Flora (CITES): Appendix 1
o Convention on Migratory Species (CMS): Appendix I
o Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972: Schedule I

What Steps are Being Taken to Conserve the GIB?

▪ Species Recovery Programme:
o It is kept under the species recovery programme under the Integrated Development
of Wildlife Habitats of the Ministry of Environment, Forests and Climate Change
(MoEFCC).
▪ Firefly Bird Diverters:
o Firefly bird diverters are flaps installed on power lines. They work as reflectors for
bird species like the GIB.
o Birds can spot them from a distance of about 50 meters and change their path of flight
to avoid collision with power lines.
▪ Artificial Hatching:
o The conservation breeding programme started in 2019 by collecting eggs from the wild
and artificially hatching them. The first chick hatched on 21st June 2019, and
was named ‘Uno’. Eight more chicks were hatched that year and raised and monitored.
o A total of 29 GIBs have been housed in the two breeding centres in Rajasthan.

▪ National Bustard Recovery Plans:

o It is currently being implemented by conservation agencies.

▪ Conservation Breeding Facility:

o MoEF&CC, the Rajasthan government and the Wildlife Institute of India (WII) have
also established a conservation breeding facility in Desert National Park at Jaisalmer
in June 2019.
▪ Project Great Indian Bustard:
o It has been launched by the Rajasthan government to construct breeding enclosures
for the species and develop infrastructure to reduce human pressure on its habitats.
Desert National Park:
▪ It is situated on the western border of India within the Jaisalmer & Barmer Districts of
Rajasthan.
▪ Great Indian Bustards, Rajasthan State animal (Chinkara), State tree (khejri) and State
flower (Rohida) are found naturally at this park.
▪ It was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1980 and National Park in 1992.
Kutch Bustard Sanctuary:
▪ The Kutch Bustard Sanctuary is located near Nalia in the Kutch district of Gujarat,
India.
▪ It is the smallest sanctuary in the country, spread over just two square kilometres. The
sanctuary, also known as the Lala-Parijan sanctuary, was declared in July 1992 primarily
to safeguard the endangered Great Indian bustard.
▪ The sanctuary is home to three species of Bustards: the Great Indian bustard, lesser
floricans, and the Macqueen bustard.

6. Silent Valley Movement

The Silent valley is an evergreen tropical forest in the Palakkad district of Kerala, India. The Silent
Valley Movement was an environmental movement against the state to protect the Silent valley. It
was a landmark environmental movement that began in 1973. The protest was in response to the
proposed construction of a hydroelectric dam across the Kunthipuzha River. The river ran through
the Silent Valley, a region of dense tropical forest home to a diverse range of flora and fauna.
What is Silent Valley Movement?
The Silent Valley Movement was a social movement in Kerala, India. It opposed the construction
of a hydroelectric power project in the Silent Valley, an evergreen tropical forest. The movement
was successful in preventing the construction of the project. The Silent Valley was declared a
national park in 1985.

Silent Valley Movement

History of the Silent Valley Movement
The Silent Valley project was a popular social and environmental campaign that began in the 1970s
to protest against the proposed hydroelectric project in the Silent Valley area of Kerala, India. The
movement was primarily led by environmentalists, scientists, and local people concerned about
the destruction of the unique ecosystem and the displacement of the indigenous communities living
in the area.
Participants of the Silent Valley Movement
Here are some of the participants of the Silent Valley Movement:
 o Kerala Sastra Sahitya Parishad (KSSP): A science and social welfare organization. It
was instrumental in raising awareness of the issue. It mobilized support for the movement.
o Silent Valley Samrakshana Samithi (SVSS): A local organization. It was formed to
oppose the construction of the project.
o Kerala Forest Research Institute (KFRI): A government research institute. It conducted
studies on the Silent Valley. It concluded that the project would have a devastating impact
on the forest.
o World Wildlife Fund (WWF): An international conservation organization. It supported
the movement and provided financial help.
o Salim Ali: A renowned ornithologist who was a vocal critic of the project.
o Madhav Gadgil: A scientist and ecologist who played a key role in the movement.
o Sugathakumari: A poet and environmental activist. She wrote a poem called "Marathinu
Stuthi" ("Ode to a Tree") that became a rallying cry for the movement.

7. Save Western Ghat Movement

The link between the climate crisis and extreme weather events such as cloudbursts and flash
floods is now well understood by the virtue of numerous researches and various IPCC reports.
Mindless construction and land use has only exacerbated all these impacts, particularly in
ecologically vulnerable regions such as the Western Ghats.
However, the Central Government and the Western Ghat state governments have remained
oblivious of this science especially in case of land use planning in the region.
Western Ghats
▪ About: Western Ghats consist of a chain of mountains running parallel to India’s Western
Coast and passing from the states of Kerala, Maharashtra, Goa, Gujarat, Tamil Nadu
and Karnataka.
▪ Significance:
o The Ghats influence the Indian monsoon weather patterns that mediate the
warm tropical climate of the region.
o They act as a barrier to rain-laden monsoon winds that sweep in from the south-
west.
o Western Ghats are home to tropical evergreen forests, as well as to 325 globally
threatened species.
▪ Threats to Western Ghats:
o Developmental Pressures: Urbanisation together with agricultural
expansion and livestock grazing are posing serious threats to the region.
• About 50 million people are estimated to live in the Western Ghats Region,
resulting in developmental pressures that are orders of magnitude greater
than many protected areas around the world.
 o Biodiversity Relates Issues: Forest loss, habitat fragmentation, habitat
degradation by invasive plant species, encroachment and conversion also
continue to affect the Ghats.
• Fragmentation caused by development pressure in the Western Ghats
is shrinking the availability of wildlife corridors and suitable habitats
outside Protected Areas.
o Climate Change: In the intermediate years, the climate crisis has gained
momentum:
• In the past four years (2018-21), floods have ravaged the ghat areas of
Kerala thrice killing hundreds of people and delivering an overwhelming
blow to infrastructure and livelihoods
• Landslides and flash floods ravaged the ghat areas of Konkan in 2021
• Cyclones are also gaining intensity with the warming of the Arabian
Sea leaving the west coast especially vulnerable.
o Threats from Industrialisation: More polluting industries, quarries and mines,
roads, and townships are likely to be planned due to the absence of the Western
Ghats ESA policy.
• This implies more damage to the fragile landscape of the region in future.
▪ Committees for Western Ghats:
o Gadgil Committee (2011): Also known as the Western Ghats Ecology Expert
Panel (WGEEP), it recommended that all of the Western Ghats be declared as
the Ecological Sensitive Areas (ESA) with only limited development allowed in
graded zones.
o Kasturirangan Committee (2013): It sought to balance the development and
environment protection in contrast to the system proposed by the Gadgil report.
• The Kasturirangan committee recommended that instead of the total area
of Western Ghats, only 37% of the total area should be brought under
ESA and a complete ban on mining, quarrying and sand mining be imposed
in ESA.
▪ Procedural Delays in Western Ghats ESA Declaration:
o The Centre has kept the notification of the Western Ghats ESA pending since
2011.
• Since the recommendations of the Kasturirangan Committee, four draft
notifications have been issued but to no avail.
o More recently, the Central Government extended the deadline till June 30, 2022
to notify the 2018 draft Western Ghats ESA notification.
• While a six-month extension may seem inconsequential, implementation of
the Western Ghats ESA policy has been pending for over 10 years now.
 o While the government intends to prohibit or restrict industrial and developmental
activities in some 37% of the mountain range, the Western Ghats states are
opposed to many such barriers.
Way Forward
▪ Preventive Approach: Considering the changes in climate, which would affect the
livelihood of all people and hurt the nation’s economy, it is prudent to conserve the
fragile ecosystems.
o This will cost less compared to the situation prone to calamities than spending
money /resources for restoration / rejuvenation.
o Thus, any further delay in the implementation will only accentuate
degrading of the most prized natural resource of the country.
▪ Engaging With All Stakeholders: A proper analysis based on scientific study followed
by consensus among various stakeholders by addressing respective concerns is
required urgently.
o Holistic view of threats and demands on the forest land, products and services,
devising strategies to address these with clearly stated objectives for the authorities
involved must be taken.
▪ Addressing the Concerns of Local People: Arguments go that the idea of demarcating an
ecologically sensitive area is inherently against people and their developmental aspirations.
o However, many of the local people might have no information on what is an ESA;
whether it will derail development in the region and what are the alternative models
of development.
o The issue can be discussed through detailed public consultations so that the policy
is not seen to have a top-down approach.
▪ Role of State Governments: The states must recognise the dangers of destroying the
ecosystem, especially when India has been facing the brunt of the climate crisis.
o They must realise that the climate crisis is a reality, and instead of delaying the
decision-making process, devise more decisive climate-proofing actions to save
the valuable Western Ghats.
▪ Empowering Local Communities: The WGEEP emphasised that it is the people at the
grassroot level who have the knowledge and are tied to the environment should have the
motivation to safeguard the region.
o The way forward lies in the pursuit of genuine democratic decentralisation and
empowering local communities in villages and cities.
o The people of Western have previously pioneered progressive initiatives such as
the People’s Planning Campaign in Kerala. The spirit of such movements should
now be restored to effectively counter resource exhaustion.
Conclusion
▪ There are no two views on protecting the Western Ghats, but also, there is a need to strike
a balance between safeguarding the forests and the right to livelihood of the local people.
▪ It is important to realize that the Western Ghats or any natural resource for that matter, is
not just ours to destroy. It is everyone’s duty to preserve it for posterity.

UNIT IV: ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION AND

CONTROL MEASURES
The environmental pollution is one of the most challenging problem today. In spite of
continuous efforts of our environmental engineers, scientists and a conscious society, our problem
of environmental pollution remains the same.
Environment: the human environment encompasses all physical, chemical, biological and
social processes which exert a significant influence, directly or indirectly on human beings. In turn,
human beings also exert influence on quality of environment. Thus, the subject of environmental
sciences has its root in ecology which is the study of how living and non-living things in nature
relate to one another.
It comprises of following four segments:
1. Lithosphere (earth’s crust land):
a. The lithosphere is important for life to exist. Earth’s biosphere relies greatly on the
presence of this rocky terrain. Tectonic plates forming lithosphere causes change,
which, in turn, gave rise to life as we know it today.
b. The shifting of tectonic plates causes the formation of mountains, volcanoes and
even the continents.
c. Volcanoes and earthquakes are devastating in the short term, but give rise to fertile
soil and lands in the long term. These lands help in the growth of new vegetation
and life.
d. Biotic remains buried in this lithosphere undergo gradual change over millions of
years. These organic compounds turn into coal, natural gas and oil, powering
modern equipment.
e. The lithosphere is the source for useful minerals and elements, such as iron,
aluminum, copper, calcium, magnesium and more. Human beings have used these
materials to construct and build machinery and tools.

f. Lastly, the lithosphere, along with the hydrosphere and atmosphere, is responsible
for providing nutrients to animal life on Earth. The layer offers nutrients to plants,
which convert the same into glucose. This glucose is derived by higher animals to
survive.
 2. Hydrosphere (water on earth):
a. One of the Basic Needs of Human: Apart from drinking, water is essential for
cooking, cleaning, washing and even for the functioning of so many industries. In
addition to this, water is necessary for agriculture and the generation of electricity
through hydropower. It is difficult to imagine a day without water.
b. Part of a Living Cell: The main component in the cells of all living organisms is
water. It is found that 75% of the cell is composed of water. Most of the chemical
reactions occurring in the cells are mainly due to the presence of water. Survival of
a cell is impossible without water. In plants, the energy transportation is done with
the help of these water molecules only.
c. Habitat for Many Organisms: Hydrosphere is the habitat for numerous aquatic
plants and animals. The number of living organisms in water is high when
compared to the number of organisms that are living on land. Plants and animals in
the water make use of gases such as oxygen and carbon dioxide that are dissolved
in water for their existence. They also use nutrients such as ammonium ions, nitrate,
etc. for their life.
d. Regulates Temperature: One of the important features of the hydrosphere is that it
helps to regulate the temperature of the environment. The specific heat capacity of
water is the main property by which this regulation is happening. Water takes time
to heat as well as to cool. So the places surrounded by water bodies like oceans and
lakes tend to have a balanced climate. The temperature in the coastal areas may not
have extreme temperature differences. Not only maintains atmosphere temperature,
but also regulates temperature for all living organisms.
3. Atmosphere (air surrounding the earth):
a. The densest part of the atmosphere only extends to about 20km above the ground.
It is a very thin slice compared to the diameter of the Earth, which is 12,472 km.
b. The atmosphere’s composition has changed over millions of years because of
volcanic and microbial activity.
c. The atmosphere holds the all-important Oxygen that all living organisms need to
breathe.
d. Without the atmosphere protecting us from the Sun’s UV rays, we would have
severe sunburns. It also shields us from meteorites and space rocks that come to
Earth at high speeds.
Atmosphere and Its Layers:
An atmosphere is a layer of gas or layers of gases that envelope a planet. Earth's air is made out of
around 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, and 1% different gases. These gases are trapped in atmospheric
layers. The troposphere is the thinnest layer of the atmosphere. The environment safeguards life
on earth by protecting it from approaching bright (UV) radiation, keeping the planet warm, and
forestalling limits among constant temperatures. Based on temperature, the atmosphere is
separated into five different layers.
1. Troposphere: It is the thinnest layer of the atmosphere. The climate changes such as
heavy rain and lightning happen the most in this part of the layer. Starting from ground
level, it extends 10 km in the upward direction above sea level. When we go higher in the
troposphere, the temperature gets colder.
2. Stratosphere: It is the next layer to the troposphere. The Stratosphere reaches out as much
as 50 Kilometers above the ground. It contains the ozone layer which protects us from UV
radiation which can cause cancer.
3. Mesosphere: It is the layer above the stratosphere. It reaches upward around 50 kilometres
further. The mesosphere has the coldest temperature among all the layers of the
environment. The temperature gets colder as you go high up in the mesosphere.
4. Thermosphere: The layer above the mesosphere is the thermosphere. It is the second
highest layer of the atmosphere that absorbs harmful radiation from the Sun. Due to this
phenomenon, this layer is also very hot.
5. Exosphere: The exosphere is the top layer, which merges with what is regarded as outer
space. Here, the gravitational pull of Earth is so weak that gas molecules can escape into
space. It is the second thinnest layer of the atmosphere after the troposphere.

Ozone Layer:
The ozone layer is the layer in the stratosphere that absorbs most of the UV rays. Its chemical
formula is O₃. It acts as a shield to the earth. This layer is gradually depleting because of the use
of chlorofluorocarbons. The use of ACs, refrigerators, etc. is becoming a major cause of ozone
depletion. Ozone depletion is a major threat to our planet because it can cause glaciers to melt. It
also increases the risk of skin cancer due to solar radiation.
4. Biosphere: life on earth:
Importance of Biosphere:
a. The biosphere is the interconnection between a healthy life and the interactions of
living organisms. Even a minor change in the biosphere can cause a large impact
on the lives of living organisms.
b. The biosphere promotes the life of the earth by adapting to various environmental
changes, favorable climatic conditions, and a source of energy as food is the main
importance of the biosphere.
c. To sustain life on earth, the biosphere also helps recycle nutrients like oxygen and
nitrogen. The biosphere also provides food and raw material to different plants,
animals, and human beings.
Features of Biosphere:
a. The biosphere provides the ecosystem that is needed for the survival of
organisms. It plays an important role in supporting life on the planet earth. It is
a crucial element in climate regulation. Adaptation to the climate of the
biosphere is expected for living organisms. The biosphere is the only source of
food on Earth.
b. Safe areas for protecting plant and animal kingdoms are known as biosphere
reserves. It also helps to protect and restore the tradition of tribals in the region.
They preserve the biodiversity of a region. It covers all types of life as well as
biomes.
c. The biosphere acts as the life support system of the earth, helping in the control
of atmospheric composition, soil health, and the water cycle. It also helps in
recycling nutrients, provides food and raw material, and promotes life on the
earth. Adaptation to the biosphere can uphold life on earth.

Pollution:
The earth’s environment has been composed in a very unique way for sustaining life on
earth. Through one process, the different constituents of the atmosphere are consumed and through
the other, these constituents are released into the atmosphere. During respiration oxygen is
consumed by living beings and is again released into the atmosphere by plants through the process
of photosynthesis.
The undesirable or unwanted foreign species causing pollution in air, water and soil are
called pollutants.
TYPES OF POLLUTION:
Basically, the Pollution is of two types viz.,
 1. Natural Pollution: This type of pollution is limited in its occurrence generally from natural
hazards like volcanic eruptions, emissions of natural gas, soil erosion, ultraviolet rays,
cosmic rays etc. and
2. Manmade Pollution: Most of the pollution is man made only. However, Pollution is usually
categorized as Air Pollution; Water Pollution; Thermal Pollution; Noise Pollution; Land &
soil Pollution; Radio Active Pollution and Marine Pollution
AIR POLLUTION:
Air pollution may be described as “the imbalance in quality of air so as to cause adverse effects on
the living organisms existing on earth”. Pollution is due to the presence of undesirable substance
of sufficient quantity which exists in environment. The substance or energy which causes pollution
is called pollutant.
Types of air pollutants: Pollutants may be classified according to origin and state of matter.
a) According to Origin: Air pollutants are divided into two categories as primary & secondary.
1) Primary air pollutants are those which are emitted directly into the atmosphere. Eg: C;
CO; CO2; SO2; N; S; H; NO2; CFC’s etc .
2) Secondary air pollutants are those which are produced in the air by the interaction
Among the primary air pollutants or by reaction with atmospheric constituents. Eg: Ozone (O3);
Smog; Para Acetyl Nitrate (PAN); Acid Rain; Aerosols.
b) According to State of Matter: Air pollutants include fine solids; liquids and gases. Dust, Smoke,
Fumes etc are examples for solid particles whereas fog is an example for liquid particles.
PRIMARY POLLUTANTS
1. Carbon Monoxide: It is a colorless, odorless, poisonous gas that is produced by the
incomplete burning of carbon-based fuels (coal, petrol, diesel and wood) which comes
from the automobile industries, exhaust devices, about 70% of CO emissions are from the
transport sector. When the air is polluted with CO, human blood is likely to be deprived of
oxygen and leads to coma and death. In mild dosages, it leads to headache.
2. Oxides of Sulphur: SO2 is a gas produced from burning of coal, mainly in thermal power
plants. Some industries such as paper mills produce SO2. It is injurious not only to men
and plants, but it also attacks rapidly a few rocks such as limestone, marbles, electric
contacts etc. Sulphur trioxide is more irritant than SO2 because it combines immediately
with water to form sulphuric acid.
3. Oxides of Nitrogen: Combustion of coal, oil, natural gas and gasoline which produces up
to 50 ppm of Nitrogen. NO2 are also produced when fossil fuels are burned especially in
power plants and motor vehicles. NO2 poisoning results SILOFILTER disease. High levels
of NO2 exposure causes cough and make the human beings feel short of breath.
4. Chloro Fluoro Carbons: CFC’s (also known as Freon) are non- toxic. They contain Carbon,
Fluorine and Chlorine atoms. The major uses of CFCs are as coolants in refrigerators and
 in air conditioners; as solvents in cleaners particularly for electronic circuit boards etc.
CFCs are the main cause of ozone depletion.
SECONDARY POLLUTANTS:
1. Ozone (O3) / Ozone layer Depletion: Ozone consists of oxygen molecules which contain
three oxygen atoms. Ozone protects us from ultra violet radiation and other harmful rays.
It is observed that over the last few years, many manmade processes release gases into
atmosphere causing drastic depletion of ozone layer.
2. Smog: Smog is a combination of smoke and fog or various gases when react in the presence
of sunlight. The effects of smog on human health cause for respiratory, irritation to the
eyes, diseases related to nose, throat, bronchitis, pneumonia, headache, nerves, liver, and
kidneys.
3. Acid rain: Acid rain has become one of the most important global environmental problems
and poses significant adverse impact on soils, rivers, lakes, forests and monuments. The
phenomenon occurs when SO2 and NO2 from the burning of fossil fuels such as Petrol,
Diesel, Coat etc combine with water vapour in atmosphere and fall as rain or snow or fog.
AIR POLLUTION EFFECTS, PREVENTION AND CONTROL MEASURES:
Effects of Air pollution: The effects of pollution may be direct and affect certain organisms. The
effects of pollution may possess a hazard or nuisance. Long continued pollution even affects the
evolution of a species and eliminates organisms that cannot tolerate certain pollutants and favor
others who can eat. Air pollution causes deaths, impair health, reduce visibility and brings vast
economic losses. It can also cause intangible losses to historic monuments such as Taj Mahal. Air
pollution can affect the environment on a global scale.
Prevention and control of Air Pollution:
a) Inputs that do not contain the pollutants.
b) Operating process to minimize generation of the pollutants.
c) Replacing the process with one does not generate the pollutant.
d) Removing the pollutants from the process.
e) Substitution of raw materials. Eg: The substitution of high sulphur coal with low sulphur
coal in power plants. Eg: Changing a fossil fuel with nuclear energy can eliminate sulphur
emission.
f) By involving the Process Modification: Eg: Chemical and petroleum industries have
changed by implementing Automated operations, computerized process control by
reducing the Oxidation of SO2 to SO3 by reducing excess air.
g) By involving the control technologies: Control equipment viz., Wet Collector (scrubber),
Gravity Settling chamber; Cyclone Collectors, Dry Scrubbers, filters, electrostatic
precipitators etc. are to be used to minimize the air pollution.
WATER POLLUTION
 Hydrosphere in the universe contains water in the form of oceans, rivers, lakes, tanks and
many other water sources. Water sources in the world are of two types. They are (1) Marine water
bodies and (2) Fresh Water bodies. Water is a good solvent for many substances. Because of this
property water cannot exist in its pure form at many parts of the world. Water pollution is mainly
because of sewage, industrial disposals i.e., effluents.
PARAMETERS OF WATER POLLUTION:
1. Chemical examination of water (tests): pH; Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD), Dissolved
Oxygen (DO), etc. are some of the chemical tests to find the stage of pollution of water.
a) pH: The value of pH gives the degree of acidity or alkalinity of polluted water.
Determination of pH is important in calculating the coagulant (thick or thin) dose.
b) Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD): It is defined as the quantity of oxygen utilized by
micro-organisms at a temperature of 20֯C, generally measured for 5 days. When water
is polluted by unwanted materials, naturally the O2 content gets reduced and that water
become not fit for consumption either by human beings or animals or plants. Living
organisms require water with some quantity of sustainable oxygen in it. That oxygen
is necessary for living organisms is generally called BOD. If there is reduction in
oxygen content of water, it becomes unfit for biological consumption because there is
change in BOD.
COMMON TYPES OF WATER POLLUTANTS:
1. Based on sources:
a) Disease causing agents: Bacteria, viruses, protozoan that enter water from domestic
sewage and animal wastes.
b) Water soluble inorganic chemicals: Acids, salts and compounds of toxic metals such
as Lead, Mercury can make water unfit to drink, harm fishes and other aquatic life.
Also Nitrate, Phosphate compounds dissolve in water that can cause excessive growth
of algae, which then die and decay, depleting dissolved O2 in water and killing fish.
c) Water Soluble Organic chemicals: Oil, gasoline (a type of oil is obtained from
petroleum), pesticides, detergents and many other water-soluble chemicals that
threaten human health and harm fish.
d) Heat: Large quantity of water is heated when it is used in the cooling towers of thermal
power plants. When this hot water is discharged into the nearby water bodies, it causes
an increase in its temperature.
e) Sewage: sewage is waste water from municipal area where there is human habitation.
Sewage which comes from homes is called domestic sewage
2. Based on natures: In nature water pollution is classified into three types by Kimball (1975).
They are:
a) Domestic water pollution: Sewage is a part of domestic water pollution. Domestic
sewage not only contains unwanted waste materials, but it is also infested with harmful
bacteria, virus etc. These are responsible for causing diseases in animals and human
 beings, if they drink this polluted water and even plants may die if polluted water is
provided. Domestic water pollution leads to Diarrhea, Cholera and Typhoid in human
beings.
b) Agricultural Water Pollution: Water require for plants for its growth. Major irrigation,
minor irrigation, sprinkler irrigation, drip irrigation, lift irrigation carry waste
substances and causing water pollution in addition to the utilization of fertilizer and
pesticides. Agricultural water pollution leads to Eutrophication & Water Bloom.
Ecological effects:
The important troubling ecological impacts are:
▪ Excessive nutrients in water bodies promote plant growth which leads to a drop
in water quality;
▪ Disruption of the natural ecosystem E.g. lack of oxygen for shelf marine life
(causing a drop in their population).
▪ Decrease in the recreational and aesthetic value of water bodies
▪ Health problems when it occurs in drinking water reserves
▪ Coral reef decline
▪ Decreased biodiversity
▪ Changes in species composition and dominance, and
▪ Toxicity effects.
▪ Toxic phytoplankton species
▪ Decreases in water transparency (increased turbidity)
▪ Color, smell, and water treatment problems
▪ Dissolved oxygen depletion
▪ Increased incidences of fish kills
▪ Loss of desirable fish species
c) Industrial water pollution: Many industries discharge waste materials containing
harmful chemicals. Such Industrial wastes are called effluents. The river Godavari is
polluted because of effluents released by the paper industry. It affects the entire water
ecosystem causing enormous damage to fishes, prawns and fresh water animals. Eg:
Minamata disease & Fluorosis. Minamata disease is a neurological syndrome caused
by severe mercury poisoning. Symptoms include ataxia, numbness in the hands and
feet, general muscle weakness, narrowing of the field of vision and damage to hearing
and speech. In extreme cases, insanity, paralysis, coma, and death follow within weeks
of the onset of symptoms. Minamata disease was first discovered in Minamata city in
Japan in 1956. It was caused by the release of methyl mercury from, the Chisso
Corporation's chemical factory, which continued from 1932 to 1968. This highly toxic
chemical bio- accumulated in shellfish and fish in Minamata Bay which when eaten by
the local people resulted in mercury poisoning. While cat, dog, pig, and human deaths
continued over more than 30 years, the government and company did little to prevent
the pollution. Fluorosis: People suffer from a disease called fluorosis after consuming
 water containing fluorine for sufficiently a long time. Quantity of fluoride in water is
only 1 ppm. Diseases caused by fluorosis are: Back pain and cannot easily bend. Joints
get stiffened as so movement of joints is impaired. Teeth are the worst effected and a
brown coating appears on the enamel of teeth giving bad appearance. Persons with
fluorosis cannot erect freely.
CONTROL MEASURES OF WATER POLLUTION:
1. Drinking water should be boiled, cooled and then used.
2. Disinfection of drinking water should be done by using chemicals like bleaching powder.
3. Pesticides and insecticides should be prevented from nearby use of water lakes, ponds and
pools.
4. Drainage water should not be allowed to mix with drinking water.
5. Drainage system should be maintained properly.
6. Chlorination process is to be adopted for drinking water. For 1 liter of water 30 - 40 mg of
chlorine is to be added to get perfect disinfection. It kills bacteria, fungi, fungal spores and
other microbes also.
SOIL POLLUTION
Soil is the thin layer of organic and inorganic materials that covers the Earth's rocky
surface. The Soil pollution is defined as the build-up in soils of persistent toxic compounds,
chemicals, salts, Radioactive materials, or disease-causing agents, which have adverse effects on
plant growth and animal health. Productive soils are necessary for agriculture to supply the world
with sufficient food.
Causes of soil pollution include:
1. Seepage from a landfill
2. Discharge of industrial waste into the soil
3. Percolation of contaminated water into the soil
4. Rupture of underground storage tanks
5. Excess application of pesticides, herbicides or fertilizer
6. Solid waste seepage
7. Deforestation and Soil Erosion
The most common chemicals involved in causing soil pollution are:
a) Petroleum hydrocarbons
b) Heavy metals
c) Pesticides
d) Solvents
Types of Soil Pollution
1. Agricultural Soil Pollution and pollution due to urban activities
a) Pollution of surface soil
 b) Pollution of underground soil
2. Soil pollution by industrial effluents and solid wastes
a) Pollution of surface soil
b) Disturbances in soil profile
EFFECTS OF SOIL POLLUTION
1. Agricultural:
a) Reduced soil fertility
b) Reduced nitrogen fixation
c) Increased erosion
d) Larger loss of soil and nutrients
e) Deposition of silt in tanks and reservoirs
f) Reduced crop yield
g) Imbalance in soil fauna and flora
2. Industrial:
a) Dangerous chemicals entering underground water
b) Ecological imbalance
c) Release of pollutant gases
d) Release of radioactive rays causing health problems
e) Increased salinity
f) Reduced vegetation
3. Urban:
a) Clogging of drains
b) Inundation of areas
c) Public health problems
d) Pollution of drinking water sources
e) Foul smell and release of gases
f) Waste management problems
CONTROL MEASURES OF SOIL POLLUTION
1. Reducing chemical fertilizer and pesticide use: Applying bio-fertilizers and manures can
reduce chemical fertilizer and pesticide use. Biological methods of pest control can also
reduce the use of pesticides and thereby minimize soil pollution.
2. Reusing of materials: Materials such as glass containers, plastic bags, paper, cloth etc. can
be reused at domestic levels rather than being disposed, reducing solid waste pollution.
3. Recycling and recovery of materials: This is a reasonable solution for reducing soil
pollution. Materials such as paper, some kinds of plastics and glass can and are being
recycled. This decreases the volume of refuse and helps in the conservation of natural
resources. For example, recovery of one ton of paper can save 17 trees.
 4. Reforesting: Control of land loss and soil erosion can be attempted through restoring forest
and grass cover to check wastelands, soil erosion and floods. Crop rotation or mixed
cropping can improve the fertility of the land.
5. Solid waste treatment: Proper methods should be adopted for management of solid waste
disposal. Industrial wastes can be treated physically, chemically and biologically until they
are less hazardous. Acidic and alkaline wastes should be first neutralized; the insoluble
material if biodegradable should be allowed to degrade under controlled conditions before
being disposed.
MARINE POLLUTION
Pollution of oceans is damaging the marine environment and is becoming a major problem.
Marine environment is interesting for various reasons such as Sea food; Navigation; Adventure;
Tourism etc. Marine Pollution is harmful and its danger can be identified in a variety of ways.
Sources & causes of marine pollution:
1. Marine Oil Pollution: Oil is basically an important pollutant which destroys marine
environment. The various sources of oil pollution are: Run-off oil from streets; disposal of
lubricants from machines; Off shore oil and gas exploitation from off-shore drilling;
blowouts at off-shore drilling rigs; oil escaping under high pressure from a bore hole in the
ocean floor.
2. Other sources from land: The major sources of marine pollution originating from the land
vary from country to country. Effluents are discharged either directly into the sea or enters
the coastal waters through rivers.
3. Effects of Marine Pollution:

Sl. Source Effects

No.

1 Sewage & run- off from forestry Depletes oxygen in water causes killing of fishes

2 Sediments from mining Sediments clog in the gills of fishes

3 Sewage from municipalities Contaminate sea food towns; cities etc

4 Industrial discharge pesticides Cause disease in coastal marine life from

farms

5 Oil from off shore drilling Low level contamination kills larvae whereas high
industries/ automobiles level contamination causes
death for sea fishes

6 Litter (rubbish), waste, plastics Marine life disturbs

7 Hot water from power plants Kills corals.

Prevention & control measures of Marine pollution:
1. Improving existing sewage disposal facilities
2. Ensuring individual houses have sewage disposal systems (such as septic tanks).
3. Large resorts should use and manage their own packaged treatment plants.
4. Marine planning and management should be considered as processes such as land – sea
interaction; inter disciplinary co-operation; participation of public & private sector
organizations; balance between protection and development public participation
5. Oil tankers are double hulled (two layered bottom) to reduce the chance of oil leakage
6. Recycling facilities for used oil.
NOISE POLLUTION
Sound is a form of energy that is capable of causing disturbances in human beings. Ears
are the hearing organs in human beings. A thin membrane is called Tympanum (or) ear drum
receives the vibrations produced by sound to a limited extent. Human ear is capable of perceiving
about 85 decibels of sound. Beyond the limit, the ear drum cannot bear sound.
SOURCES OF NOISE:
Noise is an unwanted sound and noise pollution occurs through different sources:
1. Vehicles produce noise that leads to noise pollution.
2. Automobile industry is another source of noise pollution.
3. Noise pollution is very common in industrial areas where machines are working for
factories making more noise.
The sources of noise are more in urban and industrial areas, than in rural areas. The sources of
noise may be stationary or mobile. The stationary sources include industries, loud speakers, mining
operations, use of machineries, TV, Radio and Grinders etc. The mobile sources include Road
Traffic, Highway Noise, Railway Traffic and Air Traffic.
A. Stationary sources:
i. Industrial noise: The main categories of industrial activity that are particularly relevant
to the study of noise are the following: Product fabrication, Product assembly, Power
generation by means of generators, Combusting process in furnaces (burning of gases)
ii. Noise from construction works: Construction noise, a major source of noise pollution
is emitted by construction equipment. The sources of noise are dozers excavators, front
end loaders, soil compactors, cranes, air compressors, concrete vibrators, riveting steel
structure during the casting, dismantling of construction materials etc... c) Noise from
other sources: These include sources such as sirens, barking dogs, ambulances, Police
vehicles, Fire engines etc.
B. Mobile sources:
i. Road traffic: Of all sources of noise pollution, road traffic is the most prevalent and
perhaps the most source of noise pollution. More people are exposed to noise from
 motor vehicles and the noise depends on various factors such as Road location, Road
design, Vehicle standards, Driver behaviors, Horns, Traffic density.
ii. Railway traffic: Noise from railway traffic is not serious nuisance as compared to the
road traffic noise. The level of noise associated with rail traffic is related to the type of
engine, the speed of the train, track type and condition. The majority of noise emitted
by trains is produced by the engine (or) by the interaction of wheels with the tracks,
horns, warning signals at crossings etc.
iii. Air traffic: The noise of air craft is different from that of road traffic in the sense it is
intermittent. Noise is maximum during takeoff and landing. Noise made by jet planes
is more disturbance than that of propeller driven air craft. Supersonic air craft produce
noise at high levels due to its intensity.
EFFECTS OF NOISE:
1. Annoyance (Feeling slightly angry): One of the most important effects of noise on human
is annoyance. Due to this breathing rate affects.
2. Noise- induced hearing loss: Exposure to noise for a long enough duration result in damage
to the inner ear and thus decreases one’s ability to hear. The louder the noise the less time
it takes to cause hearing loss.
3. Effects on sleep: Noise disturbs sleep. It has been found that the cases related to various
levels of noise are associated with sleep disturbances. Sleep disturbance by noise depends
on the characteristics of the noise such as frequency, loudness and whether the noise is
continuous or intermittent.
4. Other effects: There are many other effects of noises such involve aggression (ready to
attack). People may turn mad and nerves may not function normally, People may be
deformed in many ways including increased stress and strain, nonfunctioning of hands,
legs etc. due to noise pollution if exposed continuously.
CONTROL MEASURES:
Noise pollution could be controlled by either reducing the noise at the source or by
preventing its transmission. The first step in the prevention of noise pollution is to control the noise
at source itself. The second step is to prevent its transmission.
If the noise levels are not able to bring down to the desired levels in some cases, the only
alternative is to follow:
a) Avoiding horns except in emergency situations.
b) Sound proof or eco-generators and turning down the volume of stereos.
c) Conducting the awareness programs.
THERMAL POLLUTION
Thermal pollution is also known as heat pollution and occurs when heat is released into water or
air that produces undesirable effects. Thermal pollution is also the addition of excess undesirable
heat to water that makes it harmful to human, animal or aquatic life.
Sources of Thermal Pollution: Various sources of thermal pollution include Thermal Power Plants;
Nuclear Power Plants; Petroleum Refineries; Steel Plants; Metallurgical industries; Paper Mills;
Chemical Plants. Coal fired power plants constitute major sources of thermal pollution. Nuclear
plants discharge much heat and also traces of toxic radioactive substances. Many industries use
water for cooling purpose and thus the heat effluents are finally discharged into water.
Temperature and its effects: Temperature plays an important role in determining the conditions in
which living things can survive. Birds and mammals require a narrow range of body temp for
survival whereas aquatic species can exist at a certain range of temperatures. Thermal pollution
increases water temperature causing a change (lowering) of dissolved oxygen levels. This disrupts
and causes decay of plant and animal species.
Management of Thermal Pollution: Thermal Pollution is controlled by the following methods:
1. Cooling Towers are designed to control the temperature of water which transfers some of
the heat from the water to the surrounding atmosphere by evaporation. There are two types
of cooling towers namely wet cooling towers and dry cooling towers.
2. Cooling ponds are employed for thermal discharges. Heated effluents on the surface of
water in cooling ponds maximize dissipation of heat to the atmosphere.
3. Artificial lakes are manmade bodies of water which offer possible alternative. The heating
effluents are discharged into lake at one end and the water for cooling purpose may be
withdrawn from the other end.
NUCLEAR HAZARDS
Radioactivity is the phenomenon of emission of energy from radioactive isotopes (i.e., unstable
isotopes), such as Carbon-14, Uranium-235, Uranium-238, Uranium-239, Radium-226, etc. The
emission of energy from radioactive substances in the environment is often called as 'Radioactive
Pollution'.
Sources/causes of nuclear hazards:
The sources of radioactivity are both natural and man-made.
1. Natural sources: Emissions from radioactive materials from the Earth's crust. People have
been exposed to low levels of radiation from these natural sources for several millennia.
But it is the man-made sources which are posing a threat to mankind.
2. Man-Made Sources: The man-made sources of radioactivity are nuclear wastes (i.e., waste
material that contains radioactive nuclei) produced during the:
a) Mining and processing of radioactive ores;
b) Use of radioactive material in nuclear power plants;
 c) Use of radioactive isotopes in medical, industrial and research applications; and
d) Use of radioactive materials in nuclear weapons.
The greatest exposure to human beings comes from the diagnostic use of X-rays, radioactive
isotopes used as tracers and treatment of cancer and other ailments.
Effects of nuclear hazards:
i. Radiations may break chemical bonds, such as DNA in cells. This affects the genetic
make-up and control mechanisms. The effects can be instantaneous, prolonged or
delayed types. Even it could be carried to future generations.
ii. Exposure at low doses of radiations (100-250 rads), men do not die but begin to suffer
from fatigue, nausea, vomiting and loss of hair. But recovery is possible.
iii. Exposure at higher doses (400-500 rads), the bone marrow is affected, blood cells are
reduced, natural resistance and fighting capacity against germs is reduced, blood fails
to clot, and the irradiated person soon dies of infection and bleeding.
iv. Higher irradiation doses (10,000 rads) kill the organisms by damaging the tissues of
heart, brain, etc.
v. Workers handling radioactive wastes get slow but continuous irradiation and in course
of time develop cancer of different types.
vi. Through food chain also, radioactivity effects are experienced by man.
But the most significant effect of radioactivity is that it causes long range effects, affecting the
future of man and hence the future of our civilization.
Control measures:
On one hand, the peaceful uses of radioactive materials are so wide and effective that modern
civilization cannot go without them; on the other hand, there is no cure for radiation damage. Thus,
the only option against nuclear hazards is to check and prevent radioactive pollution. For this:
a) Leakages from nuclear reactors, careless handling, transport and use of radioactive fuels,
fission products and radioactive isotopes have to be totally stopped;
b) Safety measures should be enforced strictly;
c) Waste disposal must be careful, efficient and effective;
d) There should be regular monitoring and quantitative analysis through frequent sampling in
the risk areas;
e) Preventive measures should be followed so that background radiation levels do not exceed
the permissible limits;
f) Appropriate steps should be taken against occupational exposure; and
g) Safety measures should be strengthened against nuclear accidents.
 SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT
Solid wastes are the material that arises from various human and economic activities. Ever
increasing population growth, urbanization and industrialization are contributing to the generation
of solid waste in huge quantities.
Waste is enviable; waste is by product of human activity which has lack of use. The term waste
refers to the useless material generated from different sources such as household, public places,
hospital, commercial center, construction sites and production of waste from industries.
Waste can be classified through various methods on the basis of physical state (solid, liquid and
gaseous) and then within solid waste (according to its original use packaging waste, food waste
etc.) material (glass, paper etc.) physical properties, domestic, commercial, biodegradable, non-
biodegradable etc. Solid wastes have prevailing characteristics which sets them apart from the
liquid and gaseous wastes.
The characteristics are that the waste remains highly visible in the environment. Liquid wastes are
quickly relegated to sewer and are out of sight and gaseous wastes disperse in to the atmosphere.
Accumulation of large quantities of solid wastes is having an adverse impact on the environment.
There are many waste types defined by modern systems of waste management, notably including:
1. municipal solid waste (MSW)
2. construction waste and demolition waste (C&D)
3. institutional, commercial and industrial waste (IC&I)
4. medical waste (also known as clinical waste)
5. hazardous waste, radioactive waste and electronic waste
6. biodegradable waste
Waste management is the collection, transport, processing, recycling or disposal, and monitoring
of waste materials. The term usually relates to materials produced by human activity, and is
generally undertaken to reduce their effect on health, the environment or aesthetics. Waste
management is also carried out to recover resources from it. Waste management can involve solid,
liquid, gaseous or radioactive substances, with different methods and fields of expertise for each.
Effects
1. Health Hazard: If solid wastes are not collected and allowed to accumulate, they may create
unsanitary conditions. This may lead to epidemic outbreaks. Many diseases like cholera,
diarrhea, dysentery, plague, jaundice, or gastro-intestinal diseases may spread and cause
loss of human lives. In addition, improper handling of the solid wastes is a health hazard
for the workers who come in direct contact with the waste.
 2. Environmental Impact: If the solid wastes are not treated properly, decomposition and
putrefaction may take place, causing land and water pollution when the waste products
percolate down into the underground water resources. The organic solid waste during
decomposition may generate obnoxious odors. Stray dogs and birds may sometimes invade
garbage heaps and may spread it over the neighborhood causing unhygienic and unhealthy
surroundings.
Control measures
An integrated waste management strategy includes three main components
1. Source reduction: Source reduction is one of the fundamental ways to reduce waste. This
can be done by using less material when making a product, reuse of products on site,
designing products or packaging to reduce their quantity. On an individual level we can
reduce the use of unnecessary items while shopping, buy items with minimal packaging,
avoid buying disposable items and also avoid asking for plastic carry bags.
2. Recycling: Recycling is reusing some components of the waste that may have some
economic value. Recycling has readily visible benefits such as conservation of resources
reduction in energy used during manufacture and reducing pollution levels.
3. Disposal: Disposal of solid waste is done most commonly through a sanitary landfill or
through incineration. A modern sanitary landfill is a depression in an impermeable soil
layer that is lined with an impermeable membrane. The three key characteristics of a
municipal sanitary landfill that distinguish it from an open dump are:
a) Solid waste is placed in a suitably selected and prepared landfill site in a carefully
prescribed manner.
b) The waste material is spread out and compacted with appropriate heavy machinery.
c) The waste is covered each day with a layer of compacted soil. The problems with older
landfills are associated with groundwater pollution. Pollutants seeping out from the
bottom of a sanitary landfill (leachates) very often percolate down to the groundwater
aquifer no matter how thick the underlying soil layer.
4. Vermi–Composting: Nature has perfect solutions for managing the waste it creates, if left
undisturbed. The biogeochemical cycles are designed to clear the waste material produced
by animals and plants. All dead and dry leaves and twigs decompose and are broken down
by organisms such as worms and insects, and is finally broken down by bacteria and fungi,
to form a dark rich soil-like material called compost.
These organisms in the soil use the organic material as food, which provides them with nutrients
for their growth and activities. These nutrients are returned to the soil to be used again by trees and
other plants. This process recycles nutrients in nature. This soil can be used as a manure for farms
and gardens.
ROLE OF INDIVIDUALS IN PREVENTION OF POLLUTION
The role of an individual in maintaining a pollution free, pure and congenial environment and in
preserving its resources is actually the need of the hour. Individuals can, however, play an
important role in abatement of air, water, soil or noise pollution in the following simple manners:
1. Use low-phosphate, phosphate-free or biodegradable dishwashing liquid, laundry
detergent, and shampoo.
2. Don't use water fresheners in toilets.
3. Use manure or compost instead of commercial inorganic fertilizers to fertilize gardens and
yard plant.
4. Use biological methods or integrated pest management to control garden, yard, and
household pests.
5. Don't pour pesticides, paints, solvents, oils, or other products containing harmful chemicals
down drain or on the ground. Contact the authorities responsible for their disposal.
6. Recycle old motor oil and antifreeze at an auto service center that has an oil recycling
program
7. If you get water from a private well or suspect that municipal water is contaminated, have
tested by an EPA certified laboratory for lead, nitrates, trihalomethanes, radon, volatile,
organic compounds and pesticides.
8. Run water from taps for several minutes every morning before using the water for drinking
or cooking. Save it and use it to water plants. If you have a septic tank, monitor it yearly
and have it cleaned out every three to five years by a reputable contractor so that it won’t
contribute to groundwater pollution. Do not use Septic tank cleaner, which contain toxic
chemicals that can kill bacteria important to sewage Decomposition and that can
contaminate groundwater if systems malfunction.
9. Support ecological land-use planning in your community.
10. Get to know your local water bodies and form watchdog groups to help monitor, protect,
and restore them.
Hazardous waste
According to USEPA, hazardous waste is defined as any solid, liquid or gaseous substance which,
by reasons of any physical, chemical, reactive, toxic or infectious characteristics, causes danger to
health or environment when improperly treated, stored, transported or disposed off.
Sources of Hazardous Waste:
Sources of hazardous wastes include industries, petroleum refineries, transportation, coke-ovens,
blast furnace sludges, scrubbing sludges and biological waste generating laboratories, thermal and
nuclear power plants and nuclear reactors etc.
Classification of Hazardous Wastes:
1. A simple approach to classify hazardous wastes is to consider these wastes into general
categories such as toxic, inflammable and radioactive etc. Such a classification system
helps the fire service to properly deal with the hazardous wastes under emergencies.
2. Many countries (e.g., UK, France, Germany and Netherlands) follow a Supplementary
classification system for hazardous substances along with the general classification
system. However, in Japan, the four types of wastes viz. sludges, slags, acidic waste and
alkaline wastes, which contain any of the 9 materials (e.g., Cd, As, Hg, Pb, Cr (VI), CN,
Se, PCBs and organic phosphates) beyond permissible limits, are considered to be
hazardous.
3. The best way to classify the hazardous wastes is on the basis of algorithms that consider
toxicity corrosivity, persistence, inflammability, quantity of waste involved, the extent of
hazard to the environment and ultimate effects on living organisms.
4. In the US, the hazardous wastes are classified as per the Federal Register of May 19, 1980.
The USEPA considers the following five basic criteria for classifying hazardous wastes:
(i) Whether the material falls under the category of solid wastes as defined by the
Resource Conservation and Recovery Act of 1976? The term solid waste
includes semi-liquids, liquids and contained gaseous materials as well.
(ii) Whether the waste has been legally discarded? This stipulation is applicable to
the wastes that are stored or treated prior to disposal but not to those to be
recycled.
(iii) Whether the waste is specifically excluded by the regulations? For instance,
municipal solid wastes, agricultural wastes and animal manures are excluded.
(iv) Whether the waste has toxic or hazardous characteristics. That is, whether it has
the potential to increase the mortality or illness or whether it poses a substantial
threat to human health or environment on the basis of hazardous characteristics
such as corrosivity, inflammability, toxicity or explosiveness.
As regards human toxicity, a waste is considered to be hazardous if:
(a) It has an oral LD 50 toxicity equal to or greater than 50 mg/kg (i.e., LD 50 is the lethal
dose of the toxic waste at which 50% of the experimental animals die as a result of oral
ingestion).
(b) It has an inhalation LC 50 toxicity of 2 mg/kg (LC 50 is the lethal ambient concentration
of the toxic material in mg/L of air causing 50% mortality to test rats during 4 hour
inhalation).
As regards the hazard to health or the environment, the following standard tests quantified by EPA
are considered:
i. Ignitability that is, whether the waste causes or enhances fire.
ii. Corrosivity that is, whether the waste destroys the tissues or metal.
iii. Toxicity that is, whether the substance pollutes water supplies and threatens the health.
 iv. Reactivity that is, whether the substance reacts violently or causes explosion.
As far as toxicity to the ground water is concerned, the 14 contaminants viz., 8 metals (Pb, Cd,
Hg, As, Cr, Ba, Se, Ag), 4 pesticides (Lindane, endrin, toxaphene, methoxychlor) and 2 herbicides
(2, 4-D and 2, 4, 5-T) are considered to be hazardous.
(v) Whether the waste is listed as hazardous?
Wastes which are known to be hazardous (carcinogenic and mutagenic etc.) but not amenable to
Extraction Procedure Toxicity Test are listed in three categories.
(i) Spent solvents used for degreasing.
(ii) Process wastes from wood preservation or manufacture of halogenated hydrocarbons.
(iii) Discarded products like mercury compounds, toluene, xylene etc. and their containers.
Management of Hazardous Wastes:
The main objective of hazardous waste management plan is to eliminate or reduce the hazardous
waste through process changes or resource recovery. The waste must be accounted for from its
origin to ultimate disposal. This cradle to grave concept is followed by USA and Canada.
The major components of a hazardous waste management plan are as follows:
1. Inventory: All the industries producing more than 100 kg of hazardous wastes per month
should be registered. An inventory of such waste generating agencies and the quantity of
waste produced per month should be prepared.
2. Storage: The hazardous waste generating plants should equip themselves with special on-
site tanks, chemically resistant containers or basins for storage of waste.
3. Transport: The wastes must be transported by suitable tanker trucks, flat-bed trucks or rail
cars of the approved disposal sites.
4. Spillage: A well publicized emergency plan should be prepared to deal with unexpected
spillage or accidental release of contaminants during transport to prevent environmental
damage and public health hazard.
5. Disposal: The wastes should be transported to a physical and chemical treatment plants for
processing or concentration or hauled directly to an approved hazardous waste treatment
facility for final disposal.
6. Waste Exchange: When on-site recycling or recovery of waste is not feasible, the
possibility of waste exchange should be explored. Transferring wastes from large industries
to smaller ones which are able to reuse low purity oils, acids, alkalies, solvents or recover
valuable metals and other materials from concentrated wastes, can also be considered.
E- waste:
E-waste or Electronic waste is any electrical or electronic equipment that’s been discarded. This
includes working and broken items that are thrown in the garbage or donated to a charity reseller,
their components, consumables, parts, and spares.
E-waste is particularly dangerous due to toxic chemicals that naturally leach from the metals inside
when buried.
It is divided into 21 types under two broad categories:
(a) Information technology and communication equipment. Examples: Cell phones,
Smartphones, Desktop Computers, Computer Monitors, Laptops. Circuit boards, Hard Drives
(b) Consumer electrical and electronics. Examples: microwaves, heaters, remote controls,
television remotes, electrical cords, lamps, smart lights, treadmills, smartwatches, heart
monitors, etc.
Leftover technology:
Today, a growing amount of e-waste is not considered only to be products that have stopped
working or become obsolete.
Technology is advancing at such a fast pace that a lot of electronic devices that still work fine are
the ones considered obsolete. The updated versions of the devices replace the older ones which
then become e-waste.
Harmful effects of e-waste:
Electronics contain toxic substances – therefore they must be handled with care when no longer
wanted or needed.
The consequences of improper e-waste disposal in landfills or other non-dumping sites pose
serious threats to current public health and can pollute ecosystems for generations to come. When
electronics are improperly disposed of and end up in landfills, toxic chemicals are released,
impacting the earth’s air, soil, water, and ultimately, human health.
Effects on Air quality:
Contamination in the air occurs when e-waste is informally disposed of by dismantling, shredding,
or melting the materials, releasing dust particles or toxins, such as dioxins, into the environment
that cause air pollution and damage respiratory health.
Chronic diseases and cancers are at a higher risk to occur when burning e-waste because it also
releases fine particles, which can travel thousands of miles, creating numerous negative health
risks to humans and animals.
The negative effects on air from informal e-waste recycling are most dangerous for those who
handle this waste, but the pollution can extend thousands of miles away from recycling sites
The air pollution caused by e-waste impacts some animal species more than others, which may be
endangering these species and the biodiversity of certain regions that are chronically polluted.
Over time, air pollution can hurt water quality, soil, and plant species, creating irreversible damage
to ecosystems.
Effects on Soil
When the improper disposal of e-waste in regular landfills or in places where it is dumped illegally,
both heavy metals and flame retardants can seep directly from the e-waste into the soil, causing
contamination of underlying groundwater or contamination of crops that may be planted nearby
or in the area in the future. When the soil is contaminated by heavy metals, the crops become
vulnerable to absorbing these toxins, which can cause many illnesses and doesn’t allow the
farmland to be as productive as possible.
Effects on Water
After soil contamination, heavy metals from e-waste, such as mercury, lithium, lead, and barium,
then leak through the earth even further to reach groundwater.
When these heavy metals reach groundwater, they eventually make their way into ponds, streams,
rivers, and lakes. Through these pathways, acidification and toxicity are created in the water, which
is unsafe for animals, plants, and communities even if they are miles away from a recycling site.
Clean drinking water becomes problematic to find.
Acidification can kill marine and freshwater organisms, disturb biodiversity, and harm ecosystems.
If acidification is present in water supplies, it can damage ecosystems.
Effects on Humans
Electronic waste contains toxic components that are dangerous to human health, such as mercury,
lead, cadmium, polybrominated flame retardants, barium, and lithium.
The negative health effects of these toxins on humans include brain, heart, liver, kidney, and
skeletal system damage. It can also considerably affect the nervous and reproductive systems of
the human body, leading to disease and birth defects.
Improper disposal of e-waste is unbelievably dangerous to the global environment, which is why
it is so important to spread awareness on this growing problem and the threatening aftermath.
To avoid these toxic effects of e-waste, it is crucial to properly re-cycle, so that items can be
recycled, refurbished, resold, or reused.
Concerning global data on e-waste
1. 20 to 50 million metric tons of e-waste are disposed of worldwide every year
2. Cell phones and other electronic items contain high amounts of precious metals like gold
or silver.
3. A large number of what is labelled as “e-waste” is not waste at all, but rather whole
electronic equipment or parts that are readily marketable for reuse or can be recycled for
materials recovery.
4. Only 12.5% of e-waste is currently recycled.
5. E-waste leads to data theft hence adding to security woes.
E-waste and the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development
In 2015, the United Nations General Assembly adopted the Sustainable Development
Goals (SDGs) as an outline for the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. In order to end
poverty, protect the planet, and ensure prosperity for all 17 goals and 169 targets were set to be
achieved in the next 13 years.
The environment is an integral part of each of the goals, with e-waste specifically linking
to a number of these targets. Increasing levels of e-waste globally pose challenges for the
implementation of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. Hence it requires an efficient
approach and coordinated action by the UN system to support the countries in their efforts to
manage their e-waste in a sustainable manner and to minimize the creation of e-waste.
SDG Target 3.9: By 2030, substantially reduce the number of deaths and illnesses from
hazardous chemicals and air, water, and soil pollution and contamination.
SDG Target 8.3: Promote development-oriented policies that support productive
activities, decent job creation, entrepreneurship, creativity, and innovation, and encourage the
formalization and growth of micro, small and medium-sized enterprises, including through access
to financial services.
SDG Target 8.8: Protect labor rights and promote safe and secure working environments
for all workers, including migrant workers, in particular, women migrants, and those in precarious
employment.
SDG Target 11.6: By 2030, reduce the adverse per capita environmental impact of cities,
including by paying special attention to air quality and municipal and other waste management.
SDG Target 12.4: By 2020, achieve the environmentally sound management of chemicals
and all wastes throughout their life cycle, in accordance with agreed international frameworks, and
significantly reduce their release to air, water, and soil in order to minimize their adverse impacts
on human health and the environment.
SDG Target 12.5: By 2030, substantially reduce waste generation through prevention,
reduction, repair, recycling, and reuse.
Important international agreements related to e-waste:
International Convention for Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL)
MARPOL addresses pollution from ships by oil; by noxious liquid substances carried in bulk;
harmful substances carried by sea in packaged form; sewage, garbage; and the prevention of air
pollution from ships.
The Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes
and their Disposal (1989)
The Basel Convention aims to protect human health and the environment against the
adverse effects resulting from the generation, management, transboundary movements, and
disposal of hazardous and other wastes. Among key provisions of the Basel Convention are
environmentally sound management, transboundary movement, waste minimization, and waste
disposal practices aimed at mitigating adverse effects on human health and the environment.
The Nairobi Declaration and decision IX/6 was adopted by the 9th meeting of the
conference of the parties to the Basel Convention in 2006 and gave a mandate to the secretariat of
the Basel Convention to implement a work plan for the environment sound management of e-
waste.
Montreal Protocol on Ozone Depleting substances (1989)
The Montreal Protocol is an international treaty that aims to protect the ozone layer by
phasing out the production and use of ozone-depleting substances (ODS). ODS,
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), and hydrochlorofluorocarbon (HCFCs) as refrigerants are still used
in some refrigerators and air conditioners. Waste refrigerators and air conditioners will also likely
contain CFCs or HCFCs.
United Nations Framework on Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)
Although not directly involved in e-waste, UNFCCC has been active as part of the e-waste
from toxic to the green initiative. Through the initiative, waste pickers in India have been trained
to collect electronic waste, such as computers and mobile phones, for safe disposal and recycling.
Rotterdam Convention on Prior Informed Consent Procedure for certain hazardous
chemicals and pesticides in international trade (1998)
The Rotterdam Convention promotes shared responsibilities in relation to the international
trade of certain hazardous chemicals in order to protect human health and the environment from
potential harm. It also calls on exporters of hazardous chemicals to use proper labelling, to include
directions on safe handling, and to inform purchasers of any known restrictions or bans.
The Durban Declaration, 2008
The declaration called for an African regional platform/forum on e-waste alongside
international bodies. The requirements of the declaration are as follows: countries must review
existing legislation, improve their compliance with legislation and amend existing legislation
regarding e-waste management.
E-waste generation in India
According to the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB), India generated more than 10
lakh tonnes of e-waste in 2019-20, an increase from 7 lakh tonnes in 2017-18.
But the e-waste dismantling capacity has not been increased from 7.82 lakh tonnes since 2017-18.
In 2018, the Ministry of Environment had told the tribunal that 95% of e-waste in India
is recycled by the informal sector and scrap dealers unscientifically dispose of it by burning or
dissolving it in acids.
E-Waste Management Rules, 2016
The Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC) notified the E-Waste
Management Rules, 2016 by replacing the E-waste (Management & Handling) Rules, 2011.
• Over 21 products (Schedule-I) were included under the purview of the rule. It included
Compact Fluorescent Lamp (CFL) and other mercury-containing lamps, as well as other
such equipment.
• For the first time, the rules brought the producers under Extended Producer Responsibility
(EPR), along with targets. Producers have been made responsible for the collection of E-
waste and its exchange.
• Various producers can have a separate Producer Responsibility Organisation(PRO) and
ensure collection of E-waste, as well as its disposal in an environmentally sound manner.
• The Deposit Refund Scheme has been introduced as an additional economic instrument
wherein the producer charges an additional amount as a deposit at the time of sale of the
 electrical and electronic equipment and returns it to the consumer along with interest when
the end-of-life electrical and electronic equipment is returned.
• The role of State Governments has been also introduced to ensure the safety, health, and
skill development of the workers involved in dismantling and recycling operations.
• A provision of penalty for violation of rules has also been introduced.
• Urban Local Bodies (Municipal Committee/Council/Corporation) has been assigned the
duty to collect and channelize the orphan products to authorized dismantlers or recyclers.
• Allocation of proper space to existing and upcoming industrial units for e-waste
dismantling and recycling.
Way forward:
E-waste management is a great challenge for governments of many developing countries
such as India. This is becoming a huge public health issue and is exponentially increasing by the
day.
To separately collect, effectively treat, and dispose of e-waste, as well as divert it from
conventional landfills and open burning, it is essential to integrate the informal sector with the
formal sector.
The competent authorities in developing countries need to establish mechanisms for
handling and treatment of e-waste safely and sustainably.
Increasing information campaigns, capacity building, and awareness are critical to
promoting environment-friendly e-waste management programs.
More efforts are required on the improvement of the current practices such as collection
schemes and management practices to reduce the illegal trade of e-waste.
Reducing the number of hazardous substances in e-products will also have a positive effect
in dealing with the specific e-waste streams since it will support the prevention process.
 Waste disposal
Waste segregation can be defined as the process of identifying, classifying, dividing and sorting
of garbage and waste products in an effort to reduce, reuse and recycle materials.
In order to segregate waste appropriately, it is important to correctly identify the type waste that is
generated. For the purposes of waste segregation at source, waste is identified and classified into
the following categories depending on their biological, physical and chemical properties:
• Dry Waste – Refers to all items that are not considered wet/soiled items. This includes
both recyclable and non-recyclable materials. Dry waste includes items such as bottles,
cans, clothing, plastic, wood, glass, metals and paper.
• Wet Waste – Refers to all items that are organic like food items, soiled food wrappers,
hygiene products, yard waste, tissues and paper towels, as well as any other soiled item
that would contaminate the recyclables.
• Sanitary Waste – Refers to all liquid or solid waste originating solely from humans and
human activities. (Can also include items from medical waste)
• Hazardous Household Waste – Refers to all household products that contain corrosive,
toxic, ignitable, or reactive ingredients, other than used oil.
• E-Waste – Refers to all kinds of electronic waste.
• Hazardous Waste – Refers to all items, products and by-products that contain corrosive,
toxic, ignitable or reactive ingredients.
• Inert Waste – Refers to waste items that are neither chemically or biologically reactive
nor decompose easily.
Significance of Waste Segregation
Waste segregation is critical because of the fact that certain types of wastes can be hazardous and
can contaminate the environment if not managed correctly. (Some of these types of waste may
also have the potential to cause disease or get into water supplies or contaminate the land with
different types of leachates.)
When waste is unsegregated, it may get contaminated with different types of waste being stored
together. Such waste cannot be treated or managed and most of the time end up being dumped into
local dump yards or landfills. With waste segregation, management of different types of wastes
becomes possible. This directly results in reduced amounts of waste being dumped at dump yards
or landfills.
Waste Segregation is always step one for all types of waste management solutions that may be
implemented either on individual level or community level.
Colour Codes for Bins
For ease of waste segregation, the disposal bins are colour coded.

Type of Waste Color of Bin

Wet Waste Green
Dry Waste Blue
Sanitary Waste Red
E-Waste Black or Grey
Hazardous Waste Black

Placement of Bins for Waste Segregation at Source

The best way to segregate waste is to segregate it at source. To enable this, it is always
recommended to place the right type of bin in the respective area.

Areas Wet Dry Sanitary Waste E- Hazardous Waste

Waste Waste Waste
Bedroom

Kitchen

Toilets

Living Room

Dining Room

Common Areas

Collection Area
List of items and the category to segregate them by
Here is a list of waste items that have been generated by almost everyone at one point or the other.
Waste Item Waste Category
Vegetable Peels Wet Waste
Fruit Peels Wet Waste
Rotten Vegetables Wet Waste
Rotten Fruits Wet Waste
Left over food Wet Waste
Mango Seeds Wet Waste
Used Tea Bags Wet Waste
Used Coffee Powder from Filter Wet Waste
Egg Shells Wet Waste
Rotten Eggs Wet Waste
Coconut Shells Wet Waste
Tender Coconut Shells Wet Waste
Used Leaves & Flowers Wet Waste
from Puja
Spoiled Spices Wet Waste
Floor Sweeping Dust Wet Waste
Meat & Non-Veg Food Remains Wet Waste
Bones Wet Waste
Mop Stick Dry Waste
Used Mop Cloth Dry Waste
Toilet Cleaning Brush Dry Waste
Brush & Scrubs used for Cleaning Dry Waste
Used & Dirty Floor Mats Dry Waste
Bottles & Container of Pesticides Dry Waste
Mosquito Repellent Refill Bottles Hazardous Household Waste
Mosquito Repellent Mats Hazardous Household Waste

Government Directives on Waste Segregation

Several government departments, pollution control boards and the National Green Tribunal have
made Waste Segregation at Source Mandatory across the country in efforts to promote
decentralized waste management.
 Waste disposal
Waste disposal means removing, discarding, recycling or destroying unwanted materials called
waste that is produced from agriculture, domestic usage or industrial products. Following the
correct methods for waste disposal will ensure lesser pollution and hazards for the environment.
Proper waste management is necessary with steps involving the proper collection of waste and
scientific treatments that may contribute less to water pollution, soil pollution and air pollution.
Wastes can be of numerous types and much of the waste generated today is non-biodegradable
waste. Globalization and industrialization have contributed to this hugely. The dumps with harmful
substances in the waste can release toxic fumes and smoke. Therefore, the correct disposal for the
particular kind of waste is necessary, for example burning all kinds of wastes may lead to the above
problem and cause harm to bodies. Also, dumping into rivers and filling land depressions without
proper administration is not encouraged. Wastes including plastics, batteries, sanitary and oil
products should be properly disposed of. Doing so may result in a hazardous environment and a
polluted atmosphere.
Waste management is an important term associated with waste disposal and both go hand in hand
for maintaining a clean environment. Thus, the waste disposal definition should also include a
waste management system. The 7 R’s associated with waste management are Refuse, Repurpose,
Reduce, Reuse, Rot, Recycle and Rethink. Following each of these steps in the process of waste
disposal will help enormously to live hygienically and healthily. It is necessary not only for us but
also for the next generations to come. It also prevents waste disposal workers, employees in landfill
facilities, and other related workmen to reduce risks associated with improper handling of wastes.
It may cause blood infections, respiratory and growth problems, skin irritations, etc. Therefore,
waste disposal should not be dependent upon the workers, rather the concern should start from
every home. Waste segregation should be followed everywhere including homes and commercial.
Segregating biodegradable waste, non-biodegradable and toxic products should be followed.
Methods of Waste Disposal
The various methods of waste disposal known are as follows:
1. Landfill
2. Incineration
3. Biogas Generation
4. Composting
5. Waste compaction
6. Vermicomposting
1. Landfill: In this process, the waste type involves non-reusable and non-recyclable
substances which are spread in a thin layer in specific low-lying lands or areas. These areas
are dug deep where waste is disposed inside then a layer of soil will be used to cover it
back. These areas are declared unfit for activities like construction of buildings for the next
 20 years. That site can be made use for building parks or playgrounds in the near future. It
is one of the hugely adopted methods of waste disposal in a bulk manner.
2. Incineration: Incineration is the treatment of waste or waste disposal by the means of
burning where the garbage turns into the incombustible matter like gases and ashes.
Incinerators are believed to be environmentally very dangerous as the resultants are heavy
metals, which are placed in landfills ultimately making air, water, and soil polluted.
However, there are numerous benefits associated with this process including decreased
waste quantity, production of power and heat, pollution reduction, no transportation of
waste required, control over noise and odor, and elimination of chemical and harmful
germs.
3. Generation of Biogas: Food items, animal waste, municipal waste, vegetable/fruit peels
and organic industrial wastes are biodegradable waste which means these can be
decomposed by bacteria or other organisms. Using these wastes, biogas is produced at
small as well as a large scale where bacteria, fungi, and other microbes easily degrade the
substances. The organic biodegradable matter that is broken down or has to be decomposed
serves as food for microorganisms. The biogas production process can happen
anaerobically i.e. without oxygen as well as aerobically i.e. with oxygen. The outcome is
biogas which is used as a fuel and the remains are used as manure in fields or plantations.
Biogas is a mixture of gases, primarily methane and carbon dioxide. This kind of waste
disposal method is beneficial as the wastes are utilized in production of something useful.
4. Waste Compaction: Waste compaction involves a proper technique that includes
shredding the waste into smaller pieces, pushing to mix properly and placing it in such a
way to fill voids. Waste compaction results in reducing the amount and size of waste that
ultimately results in less pollution of the environment. Recycling is also one of the best
methods to reduce waste and it can be performed for cans, plastic bottles, cardboards,
paper, metal, textiles, electronics, batteries, tires, etc. Reusing these kinds of wastes is
possible through recycling.
5. Composting: Composting is one of the waste disposal methods that begin from our
kitchen. It deals with all organic materials including food scraps, garden waste, fruits and
vegetable peels. When these substances are buried and left under the soil for some days,
those decay under the action of bacteria, fungi and other microorganisms. As a result,
decomposition takes place and a humus-like substance called compost is formed. It is
highly beneficial to be used as manure or fertilizer as it is nutrient-rich that can replenish
the soil to grow crops or plants. It’s also known to enhance the water retention capacity of
the soil and is the best alternative to harmful chemical fertilizers.
6. Vermicomposting: Also known as vermiculture, vermicomposting is one of the waste
disposal methods and it is performed by the decomposition process using white worms, red
wigglers, earthworms and other worms to break the organic matter like vegetable or food
 waste. Vermicast is the end product generated as a result of breakdown of organic waste
by earthworms. Vermicompost or vermicast is highly water-soluble that acts as an excellent
source of nutrients and thus used as fertilizer. It is often mixed with soil in a standard ratio
or added as a liquid fertilizer.
While driving along a highway, we notice heaps of garbage on the side of the road. In India, open
dumping is the most popular trash disposal method. The waste heaps are frequently exposed to the
elements and the environment. They rarely have a scant covering, which attracts pests and vermin.
These landfills are occasionally subjected to open burning, which can emit harmful gases and
smoke. There have also been cases where there has been enough heat created to cause spontaneous
combustion. Waste is occasionally dumped illegally into rivers and canals or used to fill land
depressions without sufficient consultation. In the long run, these methods cause a slew of issues.
These can include everything from soil degradation to harmful chemicals leaking into subsurface
water sources. As a result, correct waste disposal measures should be used to avoid such instances.

Environmental impact Assessment (EIA)

Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is a process of evaluating the likely environmental
impacts of a proposed project or development, taking into account inter-related socio-economic,
cultural and human-health impacts, both beneficial and adverse.
UNEP defines Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) as a tool used to identify the
environmental, social and economic impacts of a project prior to decision-making. It aims to
predict environmental impacts at an early stage in project planning and design, find ways and
means to reduce adverse impacts, shape projects to suit the local environment and present the
predictions and options to decision-makers.
Environment Impact Assessment in India is statutorily backed by the Environment Protection
Act, 1986 which contains various provisions on EIA methodology and process.
History of EIA in India
The Indian experience with Environmental Impact Assessment began over 20 years back. It started
in 1976-77 when the Planning Commission asked the Department of Science and Technology to
examine the river-valley projects from an environmental angle.
Till 1994, environmental clearance from the Central Government was an administrative decision
and lacked legislative support.
On 27 January 1994, the then Union Ministry of Environment and Forests, under the
Environmental (Protection) Act 1986, promulgated an EIA notification making Environmental
Clearance (EC) mandatory for expansion or modernisation of any activity or for setting up new
projects listed in Schedule 1 of the notification.
The Ministry of Environment, Forests and Climate Change (MoEFCC) notified new EIA
legislation in September 2006.

• The notification makes it mandatory for various projects such as mining, thermal power
plants, river valley, infrastructure (road, highway, ports, harbours and airports) and
industries including very small electroplating or foundry units to get environment
clearance.

• However, unlike the EIA Notification of 1994, the new legislation has put the onus of
clearing projects on the state government depending on the size/capacity of the project.
The EIA Process
EIA involves the steps mentioned below. However, the EIA process is cyclical with interaction
between the various steps.
▪ Screening: The project plan is screened for scale of investment, location and type of
development and if the project needs statutory clearance.
▪ Scoping: The project’s potential impacts, zone of impacts, mitigation possibilities and
need for monitoring.
▪ Collection of baseline data: Baseline data is the environmental status of study area.
▪ Impact prediction: Positive and negative, reversible and irreversible and temporary and
permanent impacts need to be predicted which presupposes a good understanding of the
project by the assessment agency.
▪ Mitigation measures and EIA report: The EIA report should include the actions and
steps for preventing, minimizing or by passing the impacts or else the level of
compensation for probable environmental damage or loss.
▪ Public hearing: On completion of the EIA report, public and environmental groups living
close to project site may be informed and consulted.
▪ Decision making: Impact Assessment Authority along with the experts consult the
project-in-charge along with consultant to take the final decision, keeping in mind EIA and
EMP (Environment Management Plan).
▪ Monitoring and implementation of environmental management plan: The various
phases of implementation of the project are monitored.
▪ Assessment of Alternatives, Delineation of Mitigation Measures and Environmental
Impact Assessment Report: For every project, possible alternatives should be identified,
and environmental attributes compared. Alternatives should cover both project location
and process technologies.
 o Once alternatives have been reviewed, a mitigation plan should be drawn up for the
selected option and is supplemented with an Environmental Management Plan
(EMP) to guide the proponent towards environmental improvements.
▪ Risk assessment: Inventory analysis and hazard probability and index also form part of
EIA procedures.

Stakeholders in the EIA Process

 ▪ Those who propose the project
▪ The environmental consultant who prepare EIA on behalf of project proponent
▪ Pollution Control Board (State or National)
▪ Public has the right to express their opinion
▪ The Impact Assessment Agency
▪ Regional centre of the MoEFCC
Salient Features of 2006 Amendments to EIA Notification
▪ Environment Impact Assessment Notification of 2006 has decentralized the environmental
clearance projects by categorizing the developmental projects in two categories,
i.e., Category A (national level appraisal) and Category B (state level appraisal).

o Category A projects are appraised at national level by Impact Assessment Agency

(IAA) and the Expert Appraisal Committee (EAC) and Category B projects are
apprised at state level.
o State Level Environment Impact Assessment Authority (SEIAA) and State Level
Expert Appraisal Committee (SEAC) are constituted to provide clearance to
Category B process.
After 2006 Amendment the EIA cycle comprises of four stages:
➢ Screening
➢ Scoping
➢ Public hearing
➢ Appraisal
Category A projects require mandatory environmental clearance and thus they do not undergo
the screening process.
Category B projects undergo screening process and they are classified into two types:
Category B1 projects (Mandatorily requires EIA).
Category B2 projects (Do not require EIA).
▪ Thus, Category A projects and Category B, projects undergo the complete EIA process
whereas Category B2 projects are excluded from complete EIA process.
Importance of EIA
▪ EIA links environment with development for environmentally safe and sustainable
development.
▪ EIA provides a cost-effective method to eliminate or minimize the adverse impact of
developmental projects.
▪ EIA enables the decision makers to analyse the effect of developmental activities on the
environment well before the developmental project is implemented.
 ▪ EIA encourages the adaptation of mitigation strategies in the developmental plan.
▪ EIA makes sure that the developmental plan is environmentally sound and within the limits
of the capacity of assimilation and regeneration of the ecosystem.
Shortcomings of EIA Process
▪ Applicability: There are several projects with significant environmental impacts that are
exempted from the notification either because they are not listed in schedule I, or their
investments are less than what is provided for in the notification.
▪ Composition of expert committees and standards: It has been found that the team
formed for conducting EIA studies is lacking the expertise in various fields such as
environmentalists, wildlife experts, Anthropologists and Social Scientists.
▪ Public hearing:
o Public comments are not considered at an early stage, which often leads to conflict
at a later stage of project clearance.
o A number of projects with significant environmental and social impacts have been
excluded from the mandatory public hearing process.
o The data collectors do not pay respect to the indigenous knowledge of local people.
▪ Quality of EIA: One of the biggest concerns with the environmental clearance process is
related to the quality of EIA report that are being carried out.
▪ Lack of Credibility: There are so many cases of fraudulent EIA studies where erroneous
data has been used, same facts used for two totally different places etc.
▪ Often, and more so for strategic industries such as nuclear energy projects, the EMPs are
kept confidential for political and administrative reasons.
o Details regarding the effectiveness and implementation of mitigation measures are
often not provided.
o Emergency preparedness plans are not discussed in sufficient details and the
information not disseminated to the communities.
Way Forward
▪ Independent EIA Authority.
o Sector wide EIAs needed.
o Creation of a centralized baseline data bank.

▪ Dissemination of all information related to projects from notification to clearance to local

communities and the general public.
▪ Applicability: All those projects where there is likely to be a significant alteration of
ecosystems need to go through the process of environmental clearance, without exception.
▪ No industrial developmental activity should be permitted in ecologically sensitive areas.
▪ Public hearing: Public hearings should be applicable to all hitherto exempt categories of
projects which have environmental impacts.
▪ The focus of EIA needs to shift from utilization and exploitation of natural resources to
conservation of natural resources.
▪ It is critical that the preparation of an EIA is completely independent of the project
proponent.
▪ Grant of clearance: The notification needs to make it clear that the provision for site
clearance does not imply any commitment on the part of the impact Assessment agency to
grant full environmental clearance.
▪ Composition of expert committees: The present executive committees should be replaced
by expert people from various stakeholder groups, who are reputed in environmental and
other relevant fields.
▪ Monitoring, compliance and institutional arrangements:
o The EIA notification needs to build within it an automatic withdrawal of
clearance if the conditions of clearance are being violated and introduce more
stringent punishment for noncompliance. At present the EIA notification limits
itself to the stage when environmental clearance is granted.
o The composition of the NGT needs to be changed to include more judicial persons
from the field of environment.
o Citizen should be able to access the authority for redressal of all violation of the
EIA notification as well as issues relating to non-compliance.
▪ Capacity building: NGOs, civil society groups and local communities need to build their
capacities to use the EIA notification towards better decision making on projects.
 Environmental Management System
Environmental management system (EMS) refers to the management of an organization's
environmental, programs in a comprehensive, systematic, planned and documented manner. It
includes the organizational structure, planning and resources for developing, implementing and
maintaining policy for environmental protection.
More formally, EMS is "a system and database which integrates procedures and processes for
training of personnel, monitoring, summarizing, and reporting of specialized environmental
performance information to internal and external stakeholders of a firm.
The most widely used standard on which an EMS is based
International Organization for Standardization (ISO) 14001. Alternatives include the EMAS.
An environmental management information system (EMIS) is an information technology solution
for tracking environmental data for a company as part of their overall environmental management
system.
An EMS can also be classified as
• a system which monitors, tracks and reports emissions information, particularly with
respect to the oil and gas industry. EMSs are becoming web-based in response to the EPA's
mandated greenhouse gas (GHG) reporting rule, which allows for reporting GHG
emissions information via the internet.
• a centrally controlled and often automated network of devices now frequently wireless used
to control the internal environment of a building. Such a system namely acts as an interface
between end user and energy (gas/electricity) consumption.
Brief history of environmental management systems
In 1992, BSI Group published the world's first environmental management systems standard, BS
7750. Prior to this, environmental management had been part of larger systems such as
Responsible Care. BS 7750 supplied the template for the development of the ISO 14000 series in
1996, by the International Organization for Standardization, which has representation from
committees all over the world (ISO) (Clements 1996, Brorson & Larsson, 1999). As of 2010, ISO
14001 is now used by at least 223149 organizations in 159 countries and economies.
BSI Group
BSI Group, also known as the British Standards Institution (BSI), is the national standards body
of the United Kingdom. BSI produces technical standards on a wide range of products and services,
and also supplies certification and standards-related services to businesses.
BSI Group headquarters building in Gunnersbury, West London, featuring the BSI Group logo.
BSI Group was founded as the Engineering Standards Committee in London in 1901. It
subsequently extended its standardization work and became the British Engineering Standards
Association (BESI) in 1918, adopting the name British Standards Institution in 1931 after
receiving a Royal Charter in 1929. In 1998 a revision of the Charter enabled the organization to
diversify and acquire other businesses, and the trading name was changed to BSI Group.
The Group now operates in 182 countries. The core business remains standards and standards
related services, although the majority of the Group's revenue comes from management systems
assessment and certification work.
ISO 14000 Standard
ISO 14000 is a family of standards related to environmental management that exists to help
organizations:
(a) minimize how their operations (processes, etc) negatively affect the environment (i.e. cause
adverse changes to air, water, or land)
(b) comply with applicable laws, regulations, and other environmentally oriented requirements
and (c) continually improve in the above.
The current version of ISO 14001 is ISO 14001:2015 which was published in September 2015.
ISO 14000 is similar to ISO 9000 quality management in that both pertain to the process of how a
product is produced, rather than to the product itself. As with ISO 9001, certification is performed
by third-party organizations rather than being awarded by ISO directly. The ISO 19011 and ISO
17021 audit standards apply when audits are being performed.
The ISO 14000 family includes most notably the ISO 14001 standard, which represents the core
set of standards used by organizations for designing and implementing an effective Environmental
Management System (EMS). Other standards included in this series are ISO 14004, which gives
additional guidelines for a good EMS, and more specialized standards dealing with specific aspects
of environmental management. The major objective of the ISO 14000 series of norms is "to
promote more effective and efficient environmental management in organizations and to provide
useful and usable tools that are cost-effective, system-based, and flexible, and reflect the best
organizations and the best organizational practices available for gathering, interpreting, and
communicating environmentally relevant information".
ISO 14000 series is based on a voluntary approach to environmental regulation. The series includes
the ISO 14001 standard, which provides guidelines for the establishment or improvement of an
EMS. The standard shares many common traits with its predecessor, ISO 9000, the international
standard of quality management, which served as a model for its internal structure (National
Academy Press 1999), and both can be implemented side by side. As with ISO 9000, ISO 14000
acts both as an internal management tool and as a way of demonstrating a company's
environmental commitment to its customers and clients.
ISO 14001 standard
ISO 14001 sets out the criteria for an Environmental Management System (EMS). It does not state
requirements for environmental performance, but maps out a framework that a company or
organization can follow to set up an effective EMS. It can be used by any organization that wants
to improve resource efficiency, reduce waste, and drive down costs. Using ISO 14001 can provide
assurance to company management and employees as well as external stakeholders that
environmental impact is being measured and improved. ISO 14001 can also be integrated with
other management functions and assists companies in meeting their environmental and economic
goals. ISO 14001, as with other ISO 14000 standards, is voluntary, with its main aim to assist
companies in continually improving their environmental performance, while complying with any
applicable legislation. Organizations are responsible for setting their own targets and performance
measures, with the standard serving to assist them in meeting objectives and goals and in the
subsequent monitoring and measurement of these.
The requirements of ISO 14001 are an integral part of the European Union's Eco-Management and
Audit Scheme (EMAS).
Eco-Management and Audit Scheme (EMAS)
The Eco-Management and Audit Scheme (EMAS) is a voluntary environmental management
instrument, which was developed in 1993 by the European Commission. It enables organizations
to assess, manage and continuously improve their environmental performance. The scheme is
globally applicable and open to all types of private and public organizations. In order to register
with EMAS, organisations must meet the requirements of the EU-EMAS-Regulation. Currently,
more than 4,600 organisations and more than 7,900 sites are EMAS registered.
Goals of EMS
The goals of EMS are to increase compliance and reduce waste.
• Compliance is the act of reaching and maintaining minimal legal standards. By not being
compliant, companies may face fines, government intervention or may not be able to
operate.
• Waste reduction goes beyond compliance to reduce environmental impact. The EMS helps
to develop, implement, manage, coordinate and monitor environmental policies. Waste
reduction begins at the design phase through pollution prevention and waste minimization.
At the end of the life cycle, waste is reduced by recycling.
• To meet these goals, the selection of environmental management systems is typically
subject to a certain set of criteria: a proven capability to handle high frequency data, high
performance indicators, transparent handling and processing of data, powerful calculation
engine, customised factor handling, multiple integration capabilities, automation of
workflows and QA processes and in-depth, flexible reporting.
Features of EMS
An environmental management system:
• Serves as a tool, or process, to improve environmental performance and information
mainly "design, pollution control and waste minimization, training, reporting to tom
management, and the setting of goals."
• Provides a systematic way of managing an organization’s environmental affairs.
• Is the aspect of the organization's overall management structure that addresses immediate
and long-term iron of its products, services and processes on the environment. EMS assists
with planning, controlling and monitoring policies in an organization.
 • Gives order and consistency for organizations to address environmental concerns through
the allocation of resources, assignment of responsibility and ongoing evaluation of
practices, procedures and processes.
• Creates environmental buy-in from management and employees and assigns
accountability and responsibility.
• Sets framework for training to achieve objectives and desired performance.
• Helps understand legislative requirements to better determine a product or service's
impact, significance, priorities and objectives.
• Focuses on continual improvement of the system and a way to implement policies and
objectives to meet a desired result. This also helps with reviewing and auditing the EMS
to find future opportunities.
• Encourages contractors and suppliers to establish their own EMS.

The PDCA Cycle

An EMS follows a Plan-Do-Check-Act (PDCA), Cycle. The diagram shows the process of first
developing an environmental policy, planning the EMS, and then implementing it. The process
also includes checking the system and acting on it. The model is continuous because an EMS is a
process of continual improvement in which an organization is constantly reviewing and revising
the system.
This is a model that can be used by a wide range of organizations from manufacturing facilities to
service industries to government agencies.
Example Of EMS: A Case Study
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Environment Management in India

Need of Environment Management in India
Environment Management systems are needed in India because:
1. India is the world's fourth largest (6.4%) and second fastest growing producer of
greenhouse gases.
2. Delhi, Mumbai and Chennai are three of the world's ten most polluted cities.
3. Two-thirds of city dwellers lack sewerage; one-third lack portable, clean water.
4. India's urban population grows equivalent to another New York City every year.

Trends in Environment in India

Impact Assessment and Planning (IAP)
Assessing environmental and social impacts prior to setting up operations and obtaining
environmental approval from the authorities is almost mandatory in most project categories. IAP
assessment may be required for not only newly constructed facilities, but also for operations that
will be undertaken in a current building.

Environment Liability and Clean-up

Foreign invested has resulted in more current and historic environmental liabilities associated with
property transactions in India.

Sustainability and Regulatory Compliance

The increasing desire of Indian companies to meet world-class standards has led to establishing
companies in India to take on sustainability initiatives.

Climate Change
While India still lags the West in coming up with efficient regulation based on the development
versus environment database, there is an increasing awareness in India that climate change needs
to be checked to control its effect on the environment.

Objectives of Environment Management in India

1. Conservation of Critical Environment Resources: Environment management becomes
essential to conserve critical ecosystems and resources, and invaluable natural and made-
made heritage, which are essential for life support, livelihoods, economic growth and
human well-being.
2. Intra-generation Equity: To ensure equitable access to environmental resources and
quality for all sections of society, and in particular, to support poor communities.
3. Environmental Governance: To apply the principles of good governance with respect to
transparency, rationality, accountability, and reduction in time and costs, to the
management and regulation of use of environmental resources.

Water Resource Management

Groundwater
The stage of ground water development in India is 61%. The development of ground water in
different areas has not been uniform. Intensive development of ground water in certain areas in the
country has led to over-exploitation leading to decline in the level of ground water and sea water
intrusion in coastal areas. Out of 5842 numbers of assessment administrative units, 802 units are
'over-exploited', 169 units are 'critical', 523 units are 'semi-critical', 4277 units are 'safe' and 71
units are 'saline'. Government of India, through the Department of Drinking Water and Sanitation,
has taken significant steps to manage groundwater through the National Rural Drinking Water
Programme (NRDWP).
• NRDWP provides grants for construction of rural water supply schemes with special
attention on water-stressed and water quality affected areas, rainwater harvesting and
groundwater recharge measures. It promotes conjunctive use of surface, groundwater and
rooftop rainwater harvesting and actively supports convergence with other development
programmes such as the MNREGS and Watershed Development Programmes. Support
 activities include setting up of State Water and Sanitation Missions and Water and
Sanitation Support Organisations at State level, and community involvement in water
quality monitoring.
• Andhra Pradesh Farmer Managed Groundwater Systems (APFAMGS) project's primary
focus is behavioral change leading to voluntary self-regulation. In seven drought prone
districts of Andhra Pradesh, thousands of farmers have voluntarily taken a number of steps
to reduce groundwater pumping, for tiding over the problem of groundwater depletion. The
"main aim of the project include capacity building of the farmers in the catchment
Hydrological Units (HUs) on water budgeting and collective decision making. Farmers
have the rainwater gauge to measure the rainfall in their areas and also use long rope scale
to measure the depth of groundwater in observation wells. This helps them in making
efficient decision for using groundwater.
• National Water Mission and the National Drinking Water and Sanitation Council prepare
a convergent approach with the Ministries of Water Resources, Agriculture. Environment
and Forests, Power, Industry and others. The Central Ground Water Authority is requested
to regulate drilling of non-drinking water supply wells in over-exploited blocks. The Water
Quality Assessment Authority, Central Pollution Control Board and the National River
Conservation Directorate identify and take steps for suitable prevention and regulation of
pollution of drinking water sources.
• Drip and sprinkler irrigation systems in water stressed areas are useful in conserving
groundwater. Irrigation sprinklers are sprinklers used for irrigating agriculture, crops,
vegetation, or for recreation, as a cooling system, or for the control of airborne dust,
landscaping and golf courses. The sprinkler system irrigates the field and thus it is widely
used in sandy areas as it checks the wastage of water through seepage and evaporation.
• Best groundwater management process include monitoring of ground water levels and
rainfall, monitoring and regulating over-abstraction of ground water in over-exploited
regions water efficient agricultural practices, recycling and reuse of wastewater, water
treatment by industry, and environmental water protection from industrial effluents,
fertilizers, pesticides and untreated sewage. Stress need to be laid on the roles of Irrigation
and Agriculture Departments in increasing efficiency of water use in agriculture.
• Rooftop Rain Water Harvesting is the technique through which rain water is captured from
the roof catchments and stored in reservoirs. Harvested rain water can be stored in sub-
surface ground water reservoir by adopting artificial recharge techniques to meet the
household needs through storage in tanks. The Main Objective of rooftop rain water
harvesting is to make water available for future use. Capturing and storing rain water for
use is particularly important in dry land, hilly, urban and coastal areas.
• Hariyali is a watershed management project, launched by the Central Government, which
aims at enabling the rural population to conserve water for drinking, irrigation fisheries
and afforestation as well as generate employment opportunities.
Water Quality Management
• Scientists at the Indian Institute of Technology-Madras (IIT-M) have developed Amrit, a
low-cost arsenic filter using nano-filtration technology. This technology can be used for
removing arsenic from drinking water.
• Corporate Water Stewardship focuses on to use of water that is socially equitable,
environmentally sustainable and economically beneficial, achieved through a stakeholder-
inclusive process that involves site and catchment-based actions. Good water stewards
understand their own water use, catchment context and shared risk in terms of water
governance, water balance, water quality and important water-related areas.
• ECO-India, a three-year project, is co-funded by the European Commission's Seventh
Framework Programme (FP7) and the Indian Department of Science and Technology
(DST). It is focused on developing innovative and sustainable approaches for producing
potable water at a community level. The first rural community deployment is set for West
Bengal, India. The FP7 consortium will develop energy efficient systems for advanced
filtration and disinfection of drinking water supplies from surface-water ponds and
groundwater tube wells with arsenic contamination, using Dry den Aqua and Trust water
technology. In addition, UFZ will lead the development of field-deployable arsenic sensors
for screening tube-wells.
• Inland water quality-monitoring network is operated under a three-tier programme, Global
Environment Monitoring System (GEMS), Monitoring of Indian National Aquatic
Resources System (MINARS) and Yamuna Action Plan (YAP). Water samples are being
analysed for 28 parameters consisting of 9 core parameters, 19 other physico-chemical and
bacteriological parameters apart from the field observations. Bio-monitoring is also carried
out on specific locations. In view of limited resources, limited numbers of organic pollution
related parameters are monitored for micro pollutants (toxic metals and POPs).

Recycling Waste Water

Recycling the world's waste water, almost all of which goes untreated would ease global water
shortages while protecting the environment. People have been using fresh water faster than nature
can replace it, contributing in some regions to hunger, disease, conflict and migration. Two-thirds
of humanity currently live in zones that experience water scarcity at least one month a year. Half
of those people are in China and India. Besides reducing pollution at the source, policy initiatives
must focus on removing contaminants from waste water flows, reusing water, and recovering
useful by-products. The potential for reusing liquid waste can be understood by the fact that
astronauts on the International Space Station drink recycled urine and use it wash up. In Jordan
and Israel, 90% and 50% of agricultural water, respectively, has been recovered for reuse. Besides
being recycled, waste water can also be a rich source nutrients, minerals and energy. Harvesting
phosphorus from urine supplied by urine-diverting toilets reduces waste water's nutrient load.
More than a fifth of global phosphorus demand worldwide could be met by recycled human urine
and feces. Waste can also be converted into fuel.

Creating a More Resilient Environment to Climate Change

There is a need to create more resilient environment to adapt to climate change. A coalition of
nations, river basin organizations, business and civil society can be made for more resilient to
climate impacts. This concept was seen with the creation of the international Paris Pact on Water
and Climate Change Adaptation to make water systems more resilient to climate impacts. The
"Water Resilience Focus" event under the Lima to Paris Action Agenda on climate change also
focused on other key partnerships and coalitions to make river basins, lakes, aquifers and deltas
more resilient to climate change and reduce human interference with oceans.
Climate changes, along with unsustainable use of water, are causing widespread impacts on
societies and economies, creating droughts, floods and warming which affect all water systems
and trigger negative and often fatal impacts. This concept highlights individual commitments to
implement adaptation plans, strengthening water monitoring and measurement systems in river
basins and promoting financial sustainability and new investment in water systems management.

The Delta Coalition includes 12 countries (Colombia, Egypt, Indonesia, Japan, South-
Korea, Mozambique, Myanmar, Netherlands, Philippines, Vietnam, France and
Bangladesh) to bring deltas to global policy discussions, build partnerships and focus
on action, aiming to increase resilience for almost 250 million people in deltas in these
12 countries.

Managing River Ganga

Ganga is an important Indian river which sustains a large pool of aquatic life. The degrading
condition of Ganga is a major concern and needs an immediate action plan to save it from further
ecological damage. Several steps have been taken by the government to ensure healthy
environment of Ganga.
The National Green Tribunal has banned camping activity in the entire belt of Kaudiyala to
Rishikesh on the banks of river Ganga in Uttarakhand. Rafting does not cause any serious pollution
river or environment. NGT prohibits the use of any plastic items in the entire belt and restricts
using mechanized riverbed mining in the Ganga till Haridwar.
Ganga project activities include ghat and crematoria construction/ repair, river front beautification,
installation and repair of sewage treatment plants (STPs). Ganga pollution can be controlled by
treating the effluents coming from tanneries, sugar mills, distilleries and other industrial units in
Uttar Pradesh's Kanpur.

Introducing Water Management Topics in Curriculum

Rajasthan River Basin and Water Resources Planning Authority has incorporated geo-tagging and
advanced scientific techniques for water conservation works and aims to include water
conservation lesson in school syllabus. New generation need to learn and understand importance
of water conservation right from the beginning. The curriculum should be designed in such a way
that it imparts a detail information on the importance of water conservation along with the methods
and technology to be used for water conservation.

Pollution Control
Industrial pollution control
1. Pollution charge: Charge system will levy a fee or tax on the amount of pollution a firm
or source generates. It is important for the firm to reduce emissions to the point, where its
marginal abatement cost is equal to the tax rate. The charge system encourages the
industries to reduce the pollutants further. The charges thus collected can form a fund for
restoration of the environment. Another form of pollution charge is a deposit refund
system, where consumers pay a surcharge when purchasing a potentially polluting product,
and receive a refund on return of the product after useful life span at appropriate centers.
The concept of extended producers' responsibility brought in to avoid accumulation of
dangerous products in the environment.
2. Tradable permits: Under this system, firms that achieve the emission levels below their
allotted level may sell the surplus permits. The firms which are required to spend more to
attain the required degree of treatment/allotted levels, can purchase permits from others at
lower costs and may be benefited.
3. Government subsidy reduction: Subsidies can provide incentive to address
environmental problems. However, it has been reported that the subsidies encourage
economically inefficient and environmentally unsound practices, and often leads to market
distortions due to differences in the area. However, in the national interest, subsidies are
important to sustain the expansion of production. In such cases, the subsidy may be
comparable to the net social benefit.
4. Eco-labelling: Eco-labelling is the practice of supplying information on the environmental
characteristics of a product or service to the general public. These labelling schemes can
be grouped into three types.
5. Wastewater treatment: Segregation at source of pollutant generation is important.
Preliminary treatment involves a number of unit processes to eliminate undesirable
characteristics of wastewater. Processes include use of screen, grit chambers for removal
of sand and large particles for grinding of coarse solids, pre-aeration for odour control and
removal of oil.

1. Emission Control: The revised emission standards for thermal power plants were notified
with respect to Paniculate Matter (PM), Sulphur Dioxide (SO2), Nitrogen Oxide (NOx),
Mercury (Hg) and water consumption on December 7, 2015, and shall come into force
from December 6, 2017. The government had taken other steps to clean up the environment
in areas adjoining thermal power plants. It included installation of continuous
emission/effluent monitoring systems (CEMS), revised norms for fly ash utilisation,
industry specific action plans for critically polluted areas where significant number of
thermal power plants are located and development of green belt in surrounding areas.
2. Effluent Treatment Plants: Recently, the Supreme Court of India has ordered industries
to set up Effluent Treatment Plants or (ETPs). These are used by leading companies in the
pharmaceutical and chemical industry to purify water and remove any toxic and non-toxic
materials or chemicals from it. These plants are used by all companies for environment
protection. An ETP is a plant where the treatment of industrial effluents and waste waters
is done. The ETP plants are used widely in industrial sector, for example, pharmaceutical
industry, to remove the effluents from the bulk drugs. During the manufacturing process
of drugs, varied effluents and contaminants are produced. The effluent treatment plants are
used in the removal of high amount of organics, debris. dirt, grit, pollution, toxic, non-toxic
 materials, polymers etc. from drugs and other medicated stuff. The ETP plants use
evaporation and drying methods, and other auxiliary techniques such as centrifuging,
filtration, incineration for chemical processing and effluent treatment.
3. Corporate Investments: State-owned Gujarat Alkalies and Chemicals Limited has made
an agreement with specialty chemicals maker Evonik Industries for setting up a multi-
million hydrogen peroxide and propylene oxide project at Dahej in Gujarat. This project
would be based on an innovative, environment-friendly HPPO technology. The world's
first facility to manufacture carbon foam batteries will be set up at Bavia near Ahmedabad,
Gujarat. Firefly Energy India is planning to build a plant to produce carbon foam batteries.
State Bank of India has invested in the Carbon Disclosure Project, which is an organisation
based in the United Kingdom which works with shareholders and corporations to disclose
the greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions of major corporations.

Corporate social responsibility (CSR) represents the policies, practices and initiatives a
company commits to in order to govern themselves with honesty and transparency and have a
positive impact on social and environmental wellbeing. The Indian government has been trying to
make it mandatory for companies to spend at least 2% of net profitability on CSR. A mutually
time targeted programme is implemented under Corporate Responsibility for Environment
Protection (CREP)

Air Quality Management

1. Use of BS-IV vehicles
The Supreme Court ruled that health of citizens was more important than commercial interests of
auto makers as it banned the sale and registration of Bharat Stage (BS)-III emission norm-
compliant vehicles from 1 April, 2017 Bharat Stage or BS norms are standards for vehicular
emissions. They lay down the permissible levels of pollutants that come out of the exhaust pipes
of motor vehicles. The aim is to check air pollution and emissions that lead to global warming.
India is set to enforce a new generation of vehicular pollution norms on 1 April, 2017 called BS
IV. Only BS IV compliant vehicles can be manufactured, sold and registered, across the country
after April 1. Centre for Science and Environment, estimates that the transition will lead to a
significant decrease in PM emissions. Emissions can fall by as much as 80% from new trucks and
by 50% from cars. Reductions in Hydrocarbon and
NOx
emissions from may come down by 41-80 % depending on the engine size. The difference
between BS III and BS IV is that the latter are stricter and permit lower quantities of pollutants to
be emitted by vehicles.
 Norms CO(g/km) HC (Hydro carbons) + RSPM (Respirable Sulphur
Carbon NOx Suspended Particulate Content in
Monoxide Nitrogen Oxides (g/km) Matter) Diseset
BS I 2.72 0.97 0.14 NA
BS II 2.2 0.5 0.08 500 PPM
BS III 2.3 0.35 (Combined) 0.050 100 PPM
BS IV 1.0 0.18 (Combined) 0.025 50 PPM

1. Ahmedabad's Air Action Plan

It has been developed using the suggestions and best practices prescribed by civic experts, medical
practitioners and community leaders, both national and international (Mexico City, Beijing and
Los Angeles). It is based on two strategies - a city-wide air quality monitoring system, called Air
Quality Index (AQI), and a broad public information and education campaign called Air
Information & Response (AIR) Plan. The Air Action Plan is modeled on the Heat Action Plan that
was first implemented by Ahmedabad in 2013 and has now been scaled to 11 cities across India.
Its aim was to protect communities from heat stress and longer, more intense heat waves that were
becoming increasingly frequent due to climate change.
2. Roll-on Roll-Off (RORO) Service
This service was launched in the National Capital and included a multi-modal transportation model
aimed at reducing Delhi's air pollution. The RO-RO have a direct impact on its air ambient quality
and the capital would breathe clean air. According to plans, heavy commercial vehicles passing
through Delhi will be loaded on flat railway wagons at railway terminals outside the capital and
will get unloaded at the other end of the city. RO-RO service aims to reduce carbon emission and
congestion on the roads of the NCR as about 66,000 diesel trucks pass through Delhi and its
adjoining areas in a day.
3. Central Pollution Control Board
The government agency is implementing the Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act 1981
to restore air quality. It is a statutory organisation under the Ministry of Environment, Forest and
Climate Change (MoEF&CC). It was established in 1974 under the Water (Prevention and Control
of pollution) Act, 1974. CPCB runs nation-wide programs of ambient air quality monitoring
known as National Air Quality Monitoring Programme (NAMP). The network consists of 621
operating stations covering 262 cities/towns in 29 states and 5 Union Territories of the country.
Under N.A.M.P., four air pollutants vi., Sulphur Dioxide (S02), Oxides of Nitrogen as N02,
Suspended Particulate Matter (SPM) and Respirable Suspended Paniculate Matter (RSPM/ PM10)
have been identified for regular monitoring at all the locations. The monitoring of meteorological
parameters such as wind speed and wind direction, relative humidity (RH) and temperature were
also integrated with the monitoring of air quality.
4. Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) as Automobile
Fuel in Delhi and some other cities most of the public transport is running on CNG instead of
diesel. CNG happens to be a very viable alternative to traditional fuels particularly for use in the
automobile industry. Being low in pollutants, high in calorific value and heat yield, economical
and available in abundance globally, CNG is the perfect alternative fuel for most automobiles.
CNG is environment friendly as it reduces vehicular exhaust emissions significantly. Carbon
Monoxide emissions are reduced to a maximum of 90 % and Hydrocarbon emissions by 60% as
compared to vehicles that use Petrol.
Carbon Dioxide emissions, a cause for global warming, are also reduced significantly by 10%.
There is the Closed Loop kit where the exhaust gases are inspected by the sensors and the volume
of intake gas is tweaked accordingly to minimize pollution.
5. National Air Quality Index
A colour-coded national air-quality index has been used to monitor the air quality. The Ministry
for Environment, Forests & Climate Change launched 'The National Air Quality Index' (AQI) to
judge the air quality. The formulation of the index was a continuation of the initiatives under
Swachh Bharat Mission. Air pollution has been a matter of environmental and health concerns,
particularly in urban areas. Central Pollution Control Board along with State Pollution Control
Boards has been operating National Air Monitoring Program (NAMP) covering 240 cities of the
country. In addition, continuous monitoring systems that provide data on near real-time basis are
also installed in a few cities.
6. Graded Response To Air Pollution
A graded response highlights the actions required to be taken as and when the concentration of
pollutants, in this case particulate matter, reaches a certain level. At the current level of pollution
lying between poor and moderate, the measures that are to be enforced under the plan include strict
ban on garbage burning, closing brick kilns, mechanised sweeping of roads, enforcing ban on fire-
crackers among others. If pollution increases to the next level, very poor, tougher measures are to
be enforced including hiking parking fees by up to 4%, banning diesel generator sets and increasing
frequency of metro. In this plan, odd-even car rationing scheme and halt on construction activities
may be implemented across Delhi-NCR if air quality remains at the emergency level for 48-hours.
7. Cess on Diesel Vehicles
Cess on diesel vehicles will lead to the reduction in air pollution. The Environment Pollution
(Prevention and Control) Authority (EPCA) for the National Capital Region (NCR) has
recommended to levy a green cess of 20-22% on diesel vehicles. EPCA recommended a cess of
20 % on the cost of vehicles with engines that are smaller than 1,500cc in size, and 22% on those
over l, 500cc. The main reason behind EPCA's recommendation is to remove the existing incentive
for buying diesel vehicles. Removing the fuel price differential, through the imposition of ECC
(environment compensation charge) will be a step in removing the incentive for diesel vehicles.
This is needed to reduce public health risk as diesel emissions are among the more harmful
pollutants.
 8. Hybrid and Electric Vehicles
Hybrid and electric vehicles are relatively much less polluting than the traditional petrol and diesel
vehicles. The National Electric Mobility Mission Plan (NEMMP) aims to achieve national fuel
security by promoting hybrid and electric vehicles in India. There is an ambitious target to achieve
6-7 million sales of hybrid and electric vehicles year on year from 2020 onwards. Government has
launched Faster Adoption and Manufacturing of (Hybrid &) Electric Vehicles (FAME India)
scheme under NEMMP. The aim of the Government through this scheme will be to allow hybrid
and electric vehicles to become the first choice for the purchasers so that these vehicles can replace
the conventional vehicles and thus reduce liquid fuel consumption in the country from the
automobile sector.
9. Ethanol as a Fuel
Which is produced from sugarcane, maize, wheat, etc., can be mixed with gasoline to form
different blends. As the ethanol molecule contains oxygen, it allows the engine to more completely
combust the fuel, resulting in fewer emissions and thereby reducing the occurrence of
environmental pollution. Since ethanol is produced from plants that harness the power of the sun,
ethanol is also considered as renewable fuel. Ethanol Blended Petrol (EBP) programme was
launched in January, 2003 which aimed to promote the use of alternative and environment friendly
fuels and to reduce import dependency for energy requirements.

Air Quality Monitoring App

The government of Rajasthan has introduced mobile application RajVayu for sharing
information about air quality index of Jaipur, Udaipur and Jodhpur. The app was
launched on the World Environment Day (5th June). With this, Rajasthan becomes first
state in country to launch such app for sharing information about air quality index of
cities. RajVayu app gathers information based on the data collected by sophisticated air
quality monitoring equipment and weather sensors. The app has been built by Rajasthan
State Pollution Control Board (RSPCB) jointly with Indian Institute of Tropical
Meteorology (IITM). It can share details about the air quality, such as levels of pollutants
likes
SOx
,
NOx
, CO, Ozone particles and Particulate Matter (PM) with the city residents and tourists. It
can also provide information about temperature, wind speed, humidity, weather forecast
and advisories. This app is based on the System of Air Quality and Weather Forecasting
Research (SAFAR-India) which is presently connected in Delhi, Mumbai and Pune. The
services of this application would be expanded other cities in the state including in Ajmer,
Alwar, Bhiwadi, Kota and Pali. Another application named 'Drishti' has been launched
for monitoring of pollution levels in industrial regions.
Noise Pollution
Noise pollution has major mental impact on living organism. Several initiatives have been taken
to control noise pollution from various sources. The Union Ministry of Road Transport &
Highways has made it mandatory for all automobile manufacturers to provide emission and noise
pollution details for every vehicle they produce by April 2017. The ministry has amended Form
22 under the Central Motor Vehicles Act, 1989 through which manufacturers provide the initial
certification of compliance of vehicles. It will include pollution standards, safety standards of
component quality and road-worthiness certificate for all vehicles. The Union Ministry of Road
Transport & Highways wants to award five star ratings to vehicles based on their emission and
noise pollution standards.

Amended Form 22: It makes mandatory for all automobile manufacturers to provide emission
and noise pollution deals for every vehicle including makers of electric rickshaws and electric
carte. It will include the engine number, chassis number and emission norm of the vehicle. It will
apply to all vehicles including petrol, CNG, LPG, electric, diesel and hybrid. Automobile
manufacturers need to specify the levels of each pollutant like carbon monoxide, hydro carbon,
non-methane
HC, HC+, PM
etc. for petrol and diesel vehicles. They will also have to specify the sound level for horn and pass-
by noise values of all vehicles. Earlier, Form 22 only certified that the vehicle in question complied
with the provisions of the Motor Vehicles Act, 1989.
Oil Degrading Bacteria
Scientists have found three new strains of oil-degrading bacteria in Kochi, Kerala.
Earlier, laboratory tests of these new strains conducted were successful. The field trials
will be conducted by the Malabar Botanical Garden and Institute of Plant Sciences
(MBGIPS), Kozhikode and Bharat Petroleum Corporation Limited (BPCL). The study
will allow the development of bioremediation agents to clean up petroleum pollutants
from the environment.
Enzymes in oil-degrading bacteria (microorganisms) can degrade and utilise
hydrocarbons as a source of carbon and energy. Scientists from successfully isolated key
hydrocarbon-degrading enzyme produced by the bacteria. The three new strains isolated
by MBGIPS include two species of Burkholderia and one species of Pseudomonas. These
oil-degrading bacteria have been sequenced and submitted to the Genebank database on
organisms.

World Bank' Aid to Minimize Coal Use

The global development lenders such as World Bank and
Asian Development Bank (ABD) should provide help countries including India to shift away from
coal for energy purpose. The idea of funding was proposed by the World Coal Association to
finance countries to help them to shift to more efficient technologies so that they can meet their
COP21 commitments. Coal is needed to meet energy demands. Even if countries opt for renewable
energy, they are not going to do away with coal in overall energy mix. In absence of any funding,
countries invest in inefficient sub-critical thermal plants, which have much higher CO2 and
particulate matter (PM) emissions. The aid by global development lenders will help countries to
adopt super critical and ultra-super critical (USC) plants technologies.
Benefits of Aid:
• Super critical and ultra-super critical (USC) plants technologies are capable of substantially
reducing CO2 emissions and virtually eliminate PM emissions.
• The aid will help countries in reducing their emissions from coal, rather than reducing coal
itself and meet target provided in Intended Nationally Determined Contributions (INDCs).
• The target of Paris Agreement on Climate Change about reducing the emissions from coal
power plants can be achieved.

Forest Fire Mitigation

Parliamentary Standing Committee on Science and Technology released its report on forest fires
which revealed that the frequency of forest fires across Central Indian forests and the Himalayan
Pine Forest have increased by 55% in 2016. The States of Odisha, Chhattisgarh, and Madhya
Pradesh accounted for l/3rd of the forest fires. The Committee said that Chir pine needles, which
are highly inflammable due to its high resin content, are main factor in occurring and spreading of
forest fires. Incidents of fire in broad leaves forests were found to be minimal. The Committee also
suggested that a national policy on managing forest fires should be prepared.

Major Recommendations to Prevent Forest Fire

• Planting of broad tree leaves in forests, and after a period of five years, systematic
replacement of chir pine trees in forests by broad leaves.
• Procurement of sweeping machines to clear roadsides of chir pine needles and dry leaves
in vulnerable areas.
• Advocated large-scale incentives and programmes (including under the MGNREGA) to
collect pines for use as fuel, and other incineration.
• A dedicated toll-free number for reporting incidents of forest fire in each state.
• Using corporate social responsibility funds for creating awareness campaigns on forest
fires.
• Training on fire brigade officers of all states and equipping them with forest fire equipment
so that in the event of forest fires they do not have to depend on outside agencies like
NDRF.
• Creating ponds and other water harvesting structures within the forest to reduce river bank
erosion and providing a handy tool for supply of water to douse forest fires.
Waste Management
Around 62 million tonnes of waste is generated annually in the country at present, out of which
5.6 million tonnes is plastic waste, 0.17 million tonnes is biomedical waste, hazardous waste
generation is 7.90 million tonnes per annum and 15 lakh tonne is e-waste. The responsibility of
waste generators has been introduced to segregate waste into three categories - Wet, Dry and
Hazardous Waste. The waste generator need to pay 'User Fee' to the waste collector and a 'Spot
Fine' for littering and non-segregation. In case of hilly areas, land for construction of sanitary
landfills in the hilly areas should be identified in the plain areas, within 25 kilometers. Waste
processing facilities will have to be set up by all local bodies having 1 million or more population
within two years.

Some of the developments in the waste management sector in India are given below:
• The source segregation of waste has been made compulsory to channelize the waste to
wealth by recovery, reuse and recycle.
• No person is allowed to throw, bum, or bury the solid waste generated by him, on streets,
open public spaces outside his premises, or in the drain, or water bodies.
• All hotels and restaurants need to segregate biodegradable waste and set up a system of
collection or follow the system of collection set up by local body to ensure that such food
waste is utilized for composting/biomethanation.
• Resident Welfare and market Associations, gated communities and institution with an area
>5,000 sq. m are required to segregate waste at source- in to valuable dry waste like plastic,
tin, glass, paper, etc. and handover recyclable material to either the authorized waste
pickers or the authorized recyclers, or to the urban local body.
• The bio-degradable waste should be processed, treated and disposed through composting
or bio-methanation within the premises as far as possible. The residual waste shall be given
to the waste collectors or agency as directed by the local authority.
• New townships and Group Housing Societies have been made responsible to develop in-
house waste handling, and processing arrangements for bio-degradable waste.
• The developers of Special Economic Zone, industrial estate industrial park to leave at least
5 % of the total area of the plot or minimum 5 plots/ sheds for recovery and recycling
facility.
• All industrial facilities using fuel and located within 100 km from a solid waste based
Refused derived fuel (RDF) plant shall make proper arrangements within six months from
the date of notification of these rules to replace at least 5 % of their fuel requirement by
RDF so produced.
• High calorific wastes to be used for co-processing in cement or thermal power plants.
National Solid Waste Association of India (NSWAI)
National Solid Waste Association of India (NSWAI) has been formed on 25th January 1996. It is
also a member of the International Solid Waste Association (ISWA), and provides forum for
exchange of information and expertise in the field of Solid Waste Management at the international
level.

The objectives of NSWAI are as follows:

• Inculcating solid waste management as a profession. Conduct research and development
in solid waste management.
• Development of expertise in solid waste management
• Development of good solid waste management ideas.
• Development of standards in solid waste management.
• Improvement in law and its enforcement in the field of Solid Waste Management.
• Awareness and community involvement in Solid Waste Management.
• Professional recognition nationally and internationally and to get affiliation to the
International Solid Waste Association.
• Development of a National Policy on Solid Waste Management in India.

Soil Management
Soil plays a vital role in sustaining life by forming a growing medium for plants which is the
primary source of energy and clean air. Vegetation cover prevents soil erosion, so more focus need
be put on plantation of trees. Soil management can be achieved through the following ways:
• Efforts have been made to stabilize sand dunes in western Rajasthan by the Central Arid
Zone Research Institute (CAZRI).The Central Soil Conservation Board, set up by the
 Government of India, has prepared a number of plans for soil conservation in different
parts of the country. These plans are based on the climatic conditions, configuration of land
and the social behavior of people. Even these plans are fragmental in nature. Integrated
land use planning therefore, seems to be the best technique for proper soil conservation.
• Organic farming is an alternative agricultural system which originated early in the 20th
century in response to rapidly changing farming practices. Organic agriculture continua to
be developed by various organic agriculture organizations today. As of 2007 over 60
countries regulate organic farming. In 2005, International Federation of Organic
Agriculture Movements (IFOAM) created the Principles of Organic Agriculture, an
international guideline for certification criteria.
• Bio-fertilizer offers an economically attractive and ecologically sound means of reducing
external inputs and improving the quality and quantity of internal sources. Bio-fertilizer is
microorganism's culture capable of fixing atmospheric nitrogen when suitable crops are
inoculated with them. The main inputs are microorganisms, which are capable of
mobilizing nutritive elements from non-usable form to usable form through biological
process. These are less expensive, eco-friendly and sustainable. The beneficial
microorganisms in the soil that are greater significance to horticultural situations are
biological nitrogen fixers, phosphate solubilisers and mycorrhizal fungi. Liquid bio-
fertilizer is considered as an effective alternative to the lignite based bio-fertilizer.
• Many initiatives have been made to combat desertification and mitigate the effects of
drought through national action programs that incorporate long-term strategies supported
by international cooperation and partnership arrangements.

United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification has proposed Science-Policy Interface (SPI)
to facilitate a two-way science-policy dialogue and ensure the delivery of policy-relevant
information, knowledge and advice on desertification/land degradation and drought (DLDD). The
SPI is composed of 20 members and three observers, who are mostly scientific experts.

Biodiversity Management
Eco-Sensitive Zone
An Eco-Sensitive Zone (ESZ) has been proposed by the government in Sanjay Gandhi National
Park in Mumbai. ESZ acts as a buffer for further protection around Protected Areas (PAs) such as
National Parks and Wildlife sanctuaries. Activities around such areas are regulated and managed
so as to protect the environment. ESZ is notified under Section 3 of the Environment (Protection)
Act, 1986 by the Union Ministry of Environment and Forest. Many states have opposed ESZ
because of presence of minerals and resources side by side. Local people in many areas are also
opposed to ESZ for loss of livelihood due to restriction placed by it on various activities.
Guidelines on ESZ classify activities under three categories:
Prohibited: Commercial mining, setting of saw mill, setting of industries causing pollution,
establishment of major hydroelectric projects.
Regulated: Establishment of hotels and resorts, felling of trees, erection of electrical cables,
drastic change of agricultural systems.
Permitted: Agriculture and horticulture practices by local communities, rain water harvesting,
organic farming, etc.
Drone to Monitor Tigers
Conservation drones are being used to monitor tiger reserves. Besides monitoring of tiger
population in the reserves, the unmanned aircraft would collect and transmit visual data on animal
movements, poaching activities and instances of forest fire from inaccessible forest terrains on a
real-time basis. The drones could be used for the management of habitats and species. The use of
drones was suggested by the National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA) and the Wildlife
Institute of India (WII), Dehradun. Drones were earlier used for conservation programmes in the
forests of Assam and Madhya Pradesh. Drones were used in Panna Tiger Reserve. In April 2013,
the test flight of a small aircraft, Maja, was undertaken in Kaziranga Tiger Reserve. Later, in
January 2014, three other drones were tested in Panna Tiger Reserve, where WII has initiated a
long-term tiger reintroduction and monitoring project.

Access and Benefit Sharing (ABS) Mechanism

Under this mechanism, a pan of the profit earned from exploiting natural resources can be used for
conserving natural resources. The National Biodiversity Authority proposed this mechanism for
biodiversity conservation. The board had earlier issued notices to more than 1,100 manufacturers
and traders of Ayurvedic drugs that are commercially utilising these bio resources. Many of the
companies use these natural plants and products as ingredients in medicinal and other products.
95% of the ABS amount shall is transferred to the account of the Biodiversity Management
Committee (BMC) of the respective region.