1.

0 Phrases

1.1 Definition of Phrase

A phrase is a word or group of related words within a sentence that complements the overall structure of
the sentence. It lacks both the subject and the object and that can occupy the same slot in a sentence as a
single word. It does not give complete meaning.

Examples

 Alfred laughed. (noun as subject)

 My Grandfather laughed. (noun phrase as subject)
 The old man laughed. (noun phrase as subject)

 She kicked John hard. (noun as direct object)

 She kicked John's leg hard. (noun phrase as direct object)
 She kicked John's sore leg hard. (noun phrase as direct object)

 He bought Theresa some flowers. (noun as indirect object)

 He bought his mother some flowers. (noun phrase as indirect object)
 He bought his girlfriend's mother some flowers. (noun phrase as indirect object)

 Sandra laughed. (verb as predicator)

 Sandra was laughing. (verb phrase as predicator)
 Sandra will be laughing. (verb phrase as predicator)

 She sings beautifully. (adverb as adverbial)

 She sings absolutely beautifully. (adverb phrase as adverbial)
 She sings so very beautifully. (adverb phrase as adverbial)

1.2 Types of Phrases

There are various types of phrases; they are :

1. Noun Phrase
2. Verb Phrase
3. Prepositional Phrase
4. Adverb Phrase
5. Adjective Phrase
6. Gerund Phrase
7. Infinitive Phrase
8. Participial Phrase
1.2.1 Noun Phrases

A noun phrase is any phrase that has a noun as its head and that can occupy the same slot as a single noun
or pronoun in a larger phrase or in a sentence. It contains a noun and other associated words (usually
determiners and modifiers) which modify the noun.

 Dogs frighten me. (noun)

 Big dogs frighten me. (noun phrase)

 She ran outside to play. (pronoun)

 The little girl ran outside to play. (noun phrase)

 Don’t touch that. (pronoun)

 Don’t touch those books. (noun phrase)

 She carne with Margaret. (noun)

 She carne with her elder sister. (noun phrase)

Functions of Noun Phrases

1. Noun phrases functioning as SUBJECT slot in a sentence:

 More heavy rain is expected later.
 A rather fat, middle-aged man was staring at her.
 The entire male population of the village was in love with her.

2. Noun phrases functioning as DIRECT OBJECT slot in a sentence:

 The old lady was wearing a thick woolen coat.
 I don't much like modern pop music.
 The waiter brought two glasses of beer.

3. Noun phrase functioning as an INDIRECT OBJECT:

 I gave the old beggar money for a cup of tea.
 Tom took his wife some flowers.
 I've lent your brother my car.
 She promised her children a trip to the zoo.

4. Noun phrase functioning as SUBJECT-COMPLEMENTS:

 John is a gifted teacher.
 That's a very good idea.
 The rain was a great relief.
 She'll make him a good wife.
 Noun phrase functioning as OBJECT-COMPLEMENTS:

 We consider John a very good teacher.

 They've elected me chairman.
 He made her his personal assistant.
 We named our daughter Elizabeth.

Noun phrase functioning as COMPLEMENT (OR OBJECT) OF A PREPOSITION in a

prepositional phrase:

 You're in great danger.

 They watched the river level rising with growing alarm.
 Do stop scraping your knife and fork on your plate.

Noun phrase functioning in APPOSITION

 My neighbour, Mr. Massaquoi, is flying to the USA next week. (my neighbour = Mr. Massquoi)
 John Milton, the famous poet, was born in this house. (John Milton = the famous poet)
 He, the cause of all my problems, got off scot-free while I, the victim, was fined Le 1, 000.( He =
the cause of all my problems, I = the victim)

1.2.2 Verb phrase

A verb phrase is a group of two or more words that can function in a sentence in the same way as a single
verb.

 We looked for you everywhere. (verb)

 We have been looking for you everywhere. (verb phrase)
 I read some very interesting books. (verb)
 I have read some very interesting books. (verb phrase)
 Eric knew what to do. (verb)
 Eric should have known what to do. (verb phrase)

The head of a verb phrase is the main verb or lexical verb in that phrase, the word that carries the main
meaning of the phrase:

 I have been reading some very interesting books.

 Eric should have known what to do.
 My aunt might be coming tomorrow.
 My uncle will definitely be here, though.

The other words in a verb phrase are auxiliary verbs or 'helping' verbs:

 I have been reading some very interesting books.

 Eric should have known what to do.
 I would tell you if I knew.
 I don't know.
  I haven't decided yet.

Auxiliary verbs are used to indicate tenses:

 He is going. (present continuous tense)

 We will go. (future tense)
 They have gone. (present perfect tense)

Auxiliary verbs are also used to indicate permission, intention, possibility, necessity, emphasis, etc:

He can go. I shall go. We might go.

You must go. She should go. They did go.

Auxiliary verbs are usually divided into two groups: the primary auxiliaries be, have and do, and the
modal auxiliaries can, could, may, might, shall, should, will, would and must.

Also usually included among the modal auxiliaries are dare, need, ought to and used to:

 I daren't tell her that.

 You needn't leave.
 We ought to be on our way.
 They used to live next door to us.

Notice that be, have and do can be both auxiliaries and lexical verbs:

 Maria was in the garden. (Lexical verb, a 'Linking verb')

 Maria was singing. (auxiliary verb - the main verb is 'singing')
 The Wangs have a new car. (Lexical verb)
 The Wangs have crashed their new car. (auxiliary verb - the main verb is 'crashed')
 We did lots of interesting things on our holiday. (Lexical verb describing an action)
 We didn't see anything interesting. (auxiliary verb - the main verb is 'see')

If there is an adverb in a sentence, it often stands between the auxiliary verb and the main verb:

 The Wangs have just crashed their new car.

 People have often told me that it is hard to learn English.
 I was only joking.

A verb may be followed by a complement consisting of a prepositional phrase:

 They based the film on a true story.

 Tom suffers terribly from migraines.

NOTE: The first or only auxiliary verb in a verb phrase is sometimes known as the operator

Operators
The first or only auxiliary verb in a verb phrase is sometimes known as the operator.

 She was speaking to Jean.

 They have spent all their money.
 John has been wasting his time.
 They should have come before breakfast.

The operator has a very important role in English grammar, as a key element in the formation of
interrogative sentences and negative sentences (sentences formed with not or -n't).

In interrogative sentences, the operator moves to a position in front of the subject:

 Was she speaking to lean?

 Have they spent all their money?
 Has John been wasting his time?
 Should they have come before breakfast?

In negative sentences, not and -n't follow the operator (and -n't is in fact attached to it):

 She was not speaking to lean.

 They haven't spent all their money.
 John has not been wasting his time.
 They shouldn't have come before breakfast.

Functions of Verb Phrase

The only function of a verb phrase is to fill the verb or predicator slot in a sentence i.e. to express the
action in the sentence:

1.2.3 Prepositional phrase.

A prepositional phrase consists of a preposition, object of preposition (noun or pronoun) and may also
consist of other modifiers.
e.g. on a table, near a wall, in the room, at the door, under a tree

A prepositional phrase starts with a preposition and mostly ends with a noun or pronoun. Whatever
prepositional phrase ends with is called object of preposition. A prepositional phrase functions as an
adjective or adverb in a sentence.

Examples.
A boy on the roof is singing a song. (As adjective)
The man in the room is our teacher. (As adjective)
She is shouting in a loud voice. (As adverb)
He always behaves in a good manner. (As adverb)
1.2.4 Adverb phrases

An adverb phrase is a group of words that has an adverb as its head.

 She got out of bed very slowly.

 I get along very well with her.
 There's such a demand, we can't make these pens fast enough.
 She could so easily have believed what he was telling her.
 Please walk more quickly.

The head of an adverb phrase is the adverb that carries the main meaning of the phrase:

 very slowly
 very well
 fast enough
 so easily
 more quickly

The words most commonly found along with adverbs in adverb phrases are also adverbs, such as very,
slightly, extremely, really. fairly, quite, pretty, so, enough, etc.

These adverbs modify the main adverbs (the heads of the phrases) by increasing or weakening their force:

She was behaving extremely oddly.

I was walking very slowly.

She was laughing slightly uneasily.

His heart was beating rather irregularly.

Functions of Adverb Phrases

 Adverb phrases mostly function as adverbials. For example, an adverb phrase may be an
adjunct, saying how, when, how much, etc. something happens or applies:
 I don't think john is behaving entirely rationally.
 She plays well but her brother pays even better.
 I so often feel that no-one is listening to me.
 You're not thinking very clearly, are you?
 I don't think I have checked this thoroughly enough.

 Adverb phrases also function as disjuncts, commenting on the rest of the sentence:
 Quite frankly, I don't want to know your reasons.
  Oddly enough, Sue didn't seem to recognize us.
 She is quite obviously lying.
 Very sensibly, she didn't give the man her address.

 An adverb phrase may be a conjunct, linking two sentences or two parts of a sentence:
 I know you only wanted to help. Even so, I don't think you should have got involved in
the argument.
 She might agree. Then again, she might not.
 She may not disapprove of what we're doing but even then she may not actually help us.

 Another function of adverb phrases is, like adverbs, to modify adjectives, adverbs, and other
word-groups, for example to say how much or how little something is the case:
 I know only too well how you feel.
 You're singing far too loudly.
 The holiday was over much too soon.
 I know all too well the consequences of drug abuse.

Adverb Phrases and Adverbial Phrases

An adverb phrase is sometimes called an adverbial phrase but, to avoid confusion, the two terms are best
kept separate.

An adverb phrase is a phrase that has an adverb as its head:

Functions

 I know her quite well.

 The traffic is moving awfully slowly.
 I do think we're doing this unnecessarily carefully.

An adverbial phrase, on the other hand, is any phrase that can function as an adverbial in a sentence.
Adverb phrases can, of course, function as adverbials, but so can prepositional phrases and noun phrases:

Noun phrases that function as adverbials:

 I’ll visit Susan tomorrow morning.

 She moved out the very next day.
 We'lI come back next week.
 Are you going to sit there all day?
 I feel tired all the time.
 Every night she would go to sleep hoping never to wake up again.

Prepositional phrases that function as adverbials:

 Did you meet anyone interesting in town?

 They stood watching from a safe distance.
 School starts again on Tuesday.
  Joe was sitting under a chestnut tree.
 I've never felt so awful in my whole life.
 I thought he behaved with great dignity.

NOTE: Noun phrases and prepositional phrases can therefore be classed along with adverb phrases as
'adverbial phrases'.

1.2.5 Adjective Phrases and Adjectival Phrases

Adjective Phrases

An adjective phrase is any phrase that has an adjective as its head and that can occupy the same position
as a single adjective in a noun phrase or fill the same slot as a single adjective in a sentence.

 Her behavior was unbelievable. (adjective)

 Her behavior was absolutely unbelievable. (adjective phrase)

 We considered her behavior unacceptable. (adjective)

 We considered her behavior completely unacceptable. (adjective phrase)

 It was a happy marriage. (adjective)

 It was a very happy marriage. (adjective phrase)

The head of an adjective phrase is the adjective in that phrase:

 absolutely unbelievable
 quite good
 really easy
 strong enough

The words most commonly found along with adjectives in adjective phrases are adverbs, such as very,
slightly, extremely, really, fairly, quite, pretty, so, enough, etc.

Adverbs in adjective phrases modify the adjectives, that is, they increase or weaken their force:

 She was really angry.

 I was very surprised.
 She was slightly annoyed.
 I was somewhat surprised.

Functions of Adjective Phrases

Like adjectives, adjective phrases have two main functions.

 Adjective phrases modify nouns:

 a very exciting proposal
 a surprisingly easy exam
  a good enough result

 Adjective phrases function as subject-complements or object-complements:

 Her proposal was very exciting.
 The results were good enough.
 You've made us very proud.
 That was awfully silly of you, wasn't it?
 Let's consider the subject pretty well closed.
 Pat the fruit completely dry with some kitchen paper.

Adjective Phrases and Adjectival Phrases

Adjective phrases are sometimes called adjectival phrases but, to avoid confusion, the two terms are best
kept separate.

An adjective phrase is a phrase that has an adjective as its head:

 I was absolutely amazed at what I saw.

 The dog was extremely protective of the baby.
 She was wearing quite ridiculous shoes.
 Can't you find something more sensible to do?

An adjectival phrase, on the other hand, is any phrase that can function like an adjective, for example by
modifying a noun. Not only adjective phrases, therefore, but also noun phrases, prepositional phrases, and
other types of phrase can be classed as 'adjectival phrases':

 We had a five-hour delay at the airport.

 It was very much a last-minute decision.
 This is a good example of a 15th-century castle.
 Our company believes in on-the-job training.
 We've done an in-depth survey.
 I must have reliable, up-to-date information.
 I need a fast-acting medicine.

An adjective or adjective phrase that precedes the noun it modifies is said to be attributive

 a green cal'
 a very large dog

An adjective or adjective phrase that functions as a complement is said to be predicative:

 His new car is green.

 Their dog is absolutely enormous.
Notice that adjective phrases preceding the nouns they modify do not need hyphens:

 an absolutely incredible idea

 a strong enough piece of wood
 a widely held belief
 socially unacceptable behavior

The other types of adjectival phrases are hyphenated when they precede the nouns they are modifying:

 an up-to-date report
 a slow-moving vehicle

However, sometimes a hyphen is added between an adverb ending in –Iy and an adjective when what is
being expressed is felt to be a single idea:

 mentally-handicapped children
 a Iightly-boiled egg

And if the adverb is well, better, best, ill, worse or worst, or any adverb (such as fast or little) that might
be confused with an adjective because it doesn't end in -ly, then there must be a hyphen:

 a well-known writer
 the best-Ioved make of car
 an ill-conceived plan
 a fast-acting medicine
 a little-known fact

In other positions, hyphens are not needed:

She is well known as a writer.

1.2.6 The Infinitive

The infinitive is that form of verb which is not influenced by the person and the number of the subject.
For example,

1. He always finds fault with me.

2. They always find fault with me.

3. He always tries to find fault with me

4. They always try to find fault with me.

In sentences 1 & 2, the verb find has he and they as its subjects, respectively, and is limited by the person
and number of the subjects. Therefore, in these sentences, the verb 'find' is the finite verb. However, in
sentences 3 & 4, 'to find' merely names the action denoted by the verb find, and is, therefore, not limited
by the person and number of the subjects. Here, it is called the infinite verb or the infinitive.
Thus, the verb in this mood does not have any number or person.

Form: to + verb (to walk, to go)

 The word 'to' is often used with the infinitive.

1. I want to go for a walk.

2. I like to walk on wet grass, early morning.

 Infinitive is also used without 'to', sometimes. After verbs like bid, let, make, dare, see, hear, etc.,
'to' is not used.

1. I made him run.

2. I will not let you go.

 Infinitive is also used without 'to', after verbs like shall, will, do, did, should, would, must, can,
could, may, might, etc.
1. You shall do it
2. You may go.

Uses of the infinitive

(a) The infinitive, with or without 'to', can be used as a noun as follows:

 Subject of the verb.

1. To find fault with others is very easy.
2. To err is human; to forgive, devine.

 Object of a transitive verb.

1. I do not want to go.
2. He likes to dance.

 Complement of the verb.

1. His passion is to drive fast.
2. He appears to be a bright boy.

 Object of a preposition.
1. The exam is about to begin.
2. The train is about to leave.

 Complement of the object.

1. I saw him go.
2. I cannot see him cry.
 Note: The infinitive, thus used as a noun, is called the Simple Infinitive.

(b) The infinitive, with or without 'to', can also be used as follows:
 To qualify a Noun.
1. This shop is to let.
2. This is the time to study.

 To qualify a Verb to express purpose.

1. She cried to see the horrifying sight.
2. We eat to live.

 To qualify an Adjective.
1. The students are eager to learn.
2. She is too week to walk.

 To qualify a sentence as a whole.

He was really disturbed, so to speak.
 To introduce a parenthesis.
I am – to tell you the fact – tired of such activities.

Note: The infinitive thus used is called the Gerundial or Qualifying Infinitive.

(c) The infinitive may be active or passive, as follows:

 Active Infinitive.
I want to write a letter.

 Passive Infinitive.
I want a letter to be written.

(d) The infinitive may be used with an introductory 'it':

Generally, 'it' is used as the subject of a sentence and is followed by an infinitive.
1. It can be dangerous to drive fast.
2. It is not safe for you to travel at this time.

Infinitive Phrase

An infinitive phrase consist of an infinitive (to + simple form of verb) and modifiers or other words
associated to the infinitive. An infinitive phrase always functions as an adjective, adverb or a noun in a
sentence.

Examples.
He likes to read books. (As noun/object)
To earn money is a desire of everyone. (As noun/subject)
 He shouted to inform people about fire. (As adverb, modifies verb shout)
He made a plan to buy a car. (As adjective, modifies noun plan)

1.2.7 The Gerund

‘ Verb + ing’, when functions like a noun is called Gerund. Thus, a gerund is that form of the verb
which ends in -ing, and has the force of a Noun and a Verb. For example,

1. I like reading novels.

2. Walking is his hobby.

3. Swimming is good for health.

4. I dream of becoming a doctor.

In these sentences, the words reading, walking, swimming and becoming are Gerunds, as they are formed
from the verb read + ing, walk + ing, swim + ing and become + ing, respectively, and function as the
noun. That is why, they are also known as verbal nouns.

Uses of the Gerund

(a) The Gerund being a verb-noun may be used as follows:

 Subject of a verb.
1. Swimming is good for health.
2. Smoking is injurious to health.

 Object of a transitive verb.

1. I like playing chess
2. He enjoys reading poetry.

 Object of a preposition.
1. Children are fond of playing.
2. I have an aversion to fishing.

 Complement of the verb.

1. Seeing is believing.
2. What I most like is sleeping.

(b) Both the Gerund and the Infinitive have the force of a noun and a verb, so they are used in a similar
manner. In sentences, either of the two may be used without any special difference in meaning, as
follows:

1. Teach me to swim. Teach me swimming.

2. To walk is good for health. Walking is good for health.

(c) The Gerunds are always preceded by the possessive case of nouns and pronouns, as follows:

1. Please don't mind my leaving early.

2. All depends on Deepak's passing the examination.

(d)Some Gerunds are used as compound nouns, as follows:

walking-stick, frying-pan, writing-table, etc.

Gerund Phrase

A gerund phrase consists of a gerund (verb + ing) and modifiers or other words associated with the
gerund. A gerund phrase acts as a noun in a sentence.

Examples
I like writing good essays. (As noun/object)
She started thinking about the problem. (As noun/object)

He started writing the report. (As noun/object)

Sleeping late in night is not a good habit. (As noun/subject)
Weeping of a baby woke him up. (As noun/subject)

Cheating in the exam is indecent . . (As noun/subject)

1.2.8 The Participle

A Participle is a word which is partly a Verb and partly an Adjective. For example,

1. We saw a girl carrying a basket of roses.

2. A rolling stone gathers no moss.

3. He is an experienced teacher.

4. The injured boy was taken to the hospital.

5. Having eaten his food, the boy went out.

In sentences 1 & 2, the words carrying and rolling are verbs and are being used in these sentences as
adjectives to qualify the nouns girl and stone, respectively. These are the examples of Present Participle,
which represents an action that is going on.
Form of Present participle: verb + Ing, having the force of an adjective.

In sentences 3 & 4, the words experienced and injured are verbs and are being used in these sentences as
adjectives to qualify the nouns teacher and boy, respectively. These are the examples of Past Participle,
which represents a completed action.

Form of Past participle: verb + -ed / -d / -t / -en / -n, having the force of an adjective.

In sentence 5, the word having is the Perfect Participle and the word eaten is the Past Participle. The
Perfect participle represents an action that was completed at some past time.

Uses of the Participle

(a) The Present Participle is used to form the Continuous Tenses of the verb, as follows:

1. I am working.

2. He is going.

(b) The Past Participle is used to form the Perfect tenses (Active Voice) with tenses of the verb have:

1. I have worked.

2. He has gone.

(c) The Passive Voice is formed from the Past Participle with tenses of the verb be:

1. The snake was killed by Mohan.

2. The child was scolded by the mother.

Participle Phrase

A participle phrase consists of a present participle (verb + ing), a past participle (verb ending in -ed or
other form in case of irregular verbs) and modifiers or other associate words. A participle phrase is
separated by commas. It always acts as an adjective in a sentence.

Examples
The kids, making a noise, need food. (modifies kids)
I received a letter, mentioning about my exam. (modifies letter)
The table, made of steel, is too expensive. (modifies table)
We saw a car, damaged in an accident. (modifies car)
2.0 CLAUSES

2.1 DEFINITION OF CLAUSE

A CLAUSE is a group of words containing a SUBJECT and a PREDICATE. CLAUSES that can stand
alone are called INDEPENDENT CLAUSES; CLAUSES that do not express a complete thought and
cannot stand alone are called DEPENDENT CLAUSES.

2.2 TYPES OF CLAUSES

There are two types of clauses; they are:

 1. Independent Clause
2. Dependent Clause

2.2.1 INDEPENDENT CLAUSES (the simple sentence)

An independent clause is another name for a simple sentence. An independent clause has a subject and a
verb, expresses a complete thought, and can stand alone as a complete sentence because it doesn't depend
on anything else to complete the thought.

Examples:

subject verb

1. Alfred and Eric lived in Paris for a time.

subject verb

2. Martha Jackson was a remarkable woman.

subject verb verb

3. Socrates drank hemlock and died.

subject verb

4. The cat clawed its way to the top of the tree.

COMMAS JOIN INDEPENDENT CLAUSES

Independent clauses can be written as individual sentences, or they can be joined as one sentence. One
way to join them is by using a comma and coordinating conjunction after the first independent clause.
Two or more independent clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction (and, but, or, for, nor, yet, or so)
make up a compound sentence.

Examples:

1. Muheijei wrote a research paper on motivation. He submitted it for publication. (Two independent
clauses.)

2. Muheijei wrote a research paper on motivation, and he submitted it for publication. (Compound
sentence. The same two independent clauses are joined by a comma and the coordinating
conjunction and.)

Note: Be careful that what follows the word and (or any other coordinating conjunction) is an
independent clause. If not, then do not use a comma.

Example:
Muheijei wrote a research paper and submitted it for publication.

(No comma is needed because submitted it for publication is not an independent clause; it does not
have its own subject).

2.2.2 DEPENDENT CLAUSES

A dependent clause has a subject and a verb but cannot stand alone grammatically. A dependent clause is
dependent because it’s connecting word (because, if, so, which, that, etc.) links it to an independent
clause.

A dependent clause can function as a noun, adjective, or adverb.

Examples:

s v s v

1. I know that wheat grows in Kansas. (noun)

s s v v

2. The car which rolled over the cliff was a pink Cadillac. (adjective)

s v s v

3. He retired early because he had made so much money. (adverb)

4.2.2.1 TYPES OF DEPENDENT CLAUSE

There are three types of dependent clause; they are:

1. Noun Clause
2. Adjective Clause
3. Adverb Clause

2.2.2.1.1 NOUN CLAUSES

A noun clause is a dependent clause. A noun clause can be a subject, a direct or indirect object, or an
object of a preposition. Noun clauses can begin with "wh- question" words (what, which, when, where,
who, whom) and question words like (how, if, that).

Examples:
 Noun Noun Clause

Subject 1. His whereabouts are unknown. 1. Where he lives is unknown.

Direct Object 2. I don't know that man. 2. I don't know who he is.

Indirect Object 3. The security officer gave the students the key. 3. The security officer

gave whoever wanted it the key.

Object of Preposition 4. He isn't interested in geometry. 4. He isn't interested in what

the class is studying.

A noun clause begins with a subordinator that connects the clause to the main clause. The following is a
list of subordinators used to introduce noun clauses:

how where what, whatever whose, whosever

that whether, if who, whoever which, whichever

when why whom, whomever

Examples:

Note: The subordinator is in italics. The noun clause including the verb and any helping verb is
underlined.

The laboratory aide reported that all the students had completed the experiment.

The students asked when the psychology reports were due.

Mrs. Peterson asked whether the secretaries had ordered the office supplies yet.

2.2.2.1.2 ADJECTIVE CLAUSES (who/which/that clauses)

An adjective clause is a dependent clause. An adjective clause modifies a noun or a pronoun. An adjective
clause begins with who, whom, which, that, whose, when, where, why and follows the word it modifies.

Examples:

David, who has been with the company five years, is our new director.

noun adjective clause

The time when our plane arrives is 4:00 p.m.

noun adjective clause

The house where Lincoln lives as a young man was in Springfield, Illinois.

noun adjective clause

The diamond ring which the thief stole was worth a million dollars.

adjective noun adjective clause

An adjective clause, like an adverb clause, begins with a subordinator. The subordinator connects the
adjective clause to the word in the main clause it modifies: it stands for this word.

2.2.2.1.3 ADVERB CLAUSES (because/if/when clauses)

An adverb clause is a dependent clause. An adverb clause modifies a verb, an adjective, another adverb,
or a sentence.

Adverb clauses always begin with a subordinator. The subordinator is a connecting word which explains
the relationship between the adverb clause and main clause. It tells the reader what kind of information is
added by the adverb clause. The following subordinators are often used to begin adverb clauses:

after Before Though whatever

although even it Unless whenever

as even though Until wherever

as if as far as as soon as whether

because Since as well as while

An adverb clause can answer any of the following questions: When? Where? How? To what degree?
and Under what condition?

Examples of adverb clauses answering a question:

Cinderella lost her shoe after the clock struck twelve. (when did she lose her shoe?) (after...twelve)

Mary hid the key where no one could find it. (where did she hide it?)

My sister drove so fast that she got a ticket. (how fast did she drive?)

The bush is as high as the fence. (to what degree?)

The fire will burn the forest unless it rains. (under what condition?).
Note: Because the subordinator is always the first word of an adverb clause, you can identify the
adverb clause very easily:

...First: Find the subordinator.

...Second: Identify the words that provide the kind of information signaled by the subordinator.

...Third: Remember, the whole adverb clause may often be placed before or after the main clause.

...Fourth: After you identify the adverb clause or clauses, what remains in the complex sentence will be
the main clause.

Examples: Each subordinator is bold-faced, and the whole adverb clause is underlined.

1. Joanne had to develop many money-management skills when she served as treasurer of her senior
class.

2. As Mike worked on his research project for his English class, he learned to gather information from
sources on the Internet.

2.2.2.1.4 ESSENTIAL AND NONESSENTIAL CLAUSES

An essential clause or phrase (also called a restrictive, or necessary clause or phrase) appears after a
noun and is essential in the sentence to complete the meaning. An essential clause or phrase cannot be
moved to another sentence or omitted because the meaning of the sentence would change.

Note: Essential clauses and phrases are not set off by commas. Clauses starting with that are
almost always essential.

Examples: Compare the meaning of the following two sentences with and without the clause after the
noun people:

People who can speak more than one language are multilingual.

People are multilingual.

Using the that clause versus taking the that clause out:

Please repair all the windows that are broken.

Please repair all the windows. (the meaning of the sentence changes).
A nonessential clause or phrase (also called a nonrestrictive or unnecessary clause or phrase) adds extra
information but can be removed from a sentence without disturbing the meaning. The information can be
put in another sentence.

Examples: Compare the following two sentences to see if the primary meaning of the sentence remains
the same even after the clause is removed:

My cousin Michael, who lives in New York, is coming for a visit over Thanksgiving vacation.

My cousin Michael is coming for a visit over Thanksgiving vacation.

The who clause is nonessential because it adds information about where Jim lives but is not necessary.

Note: A pair of commas is necessary when nonessential clauses and phrases appear within a sentence.
Only one comma is needed when non-essential clauses and phrases appear at the end of a sentence.

Examples:

The computer, a revolutionary advance in communication technology, has made typewriters obsolete.
(clause appears in the middle of the sentence)

Consumers are now spending millions of dollars on computers, a revolutionary advance in

communication technology. (clause appears at the end of the sentence)