11.

4 BRIDGE DECKS

Uniform thickness - slab deck (a) Variable thickness - slab deck

Voided slab deck (b) Desk with PCDG standard beam:

Concrete T-beam deck (c)

IIII
Steel concrete composite deck

Concrete box beam deck with twin cell (d) Steel concrete composite - box beam deck
(a) Slab (b) Pseudo slab (c) Beamn and slab (d) Cellular

Figure 11.16: Types of concrete bridge deck (Source: Rajagopalan, 2006)

 need a
Bridges are designed for movement of loads and personnel which
surface. As
surface for movement. This flat surface is called the deck
earlier the deck may consist of a slab, a beam and a slab, a grillage, a box
discussed
girder,
multi beam, etc.
The simplest form of concrete deck is a solid slab which may be reinforced on
prestressed. The weight of deck increases with the increase of span. The materiol
at the middle depth of the cross section could be removed. This has lead to th
formation of voided slab. Figure 11.16 shows different types of bridge decks.

11.4,1 Slab Decks

Slab decks behave like a flat plate. That is it is a structural continuum for
transfering moments, shears and torsion in all directions in the plane of the plate.
The deformation of the slab depends on the support conditions. Conventionally in
a bridge two sides are supported on bearings over piers and the other two sides will
be either free or stiffened by edge beams corresponding to elastic supports. For
spans up to 10 m concrete slab decks are used.

11.4.2 Voided Slab Decks

In general the flexural behaviour of a slab is such that the middle part of the
slab will not be subjected to any stress, but only its weight to the structure. Further
the weight increases with increase in span. In order to reduce the weight and lighter
the structure, voids of cylindrical or rectangular shapes are introduced at the middle
height of the cross-section.
The variation of stiffness is very small if the depth and width of the voids are
less than 60 %. Such an arrangement makes the deck to behave effectively as a
plate. If the void size exceeds 60 % of the depth, the behaviour of the deck will be
different because of local bending of the slab over the voids. In such a situation the
deck is generally considered as a cellular construction.

11.4.3 Beam and Slab Decks

Beam and slab deck comprises of number of longitudinal connected at
beams
the top by a slab. These beams if need be may be connected transversely
diaphragm or cross girder which provides stiffness for the deck.
 The deck may consist of (i) a
oast in-situ prestressed concrete beam or R.C.C beam wi.
reinforced concrete slab
on top or (ii) a steel-beam with
cast 1n-Slt
reinforced concrete slab on top. In this type of decks the
hy side or the beams are beams may be packed sid
situated reasonably farther away from each other. Thl
ovstem is simple and faster for
up to 25 m. construction which may be adopted for a spar

11.4.4 Box Girder Decks

When the space and widths increase the
bottom of the beam and slab are to be
tied at the bottom to keep the geometry. This has
lead to
Bccentric loads cause higher torsional forces which couldevolution
of Box Girders.
be better counteracted
bya box section. This is chosen for large
spans with wide decks. Based on the type
of construction method it could be used up to
150m span. In this type, cantilever
construction is one of the regularly adopted and accepted method of
construction.
11.5 CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUES OF BRIDGES
Depending on the bridge-structural behaviour, site conditions, time of
construction, aesthetic consideration, etc., different construction techniques are
adopted. The bridge-structure should be safe during erection stage,
during
completion and after completion.
In order to ensure the safety, the design and detailing of reinforcement of
bridges for proper load transfer has to be taken care of. This calls for analysis and
design for forces and deformations during erection stages also.
Bridge superstructure may be
L. Simply supported over piers
2. Continuous over piers
3. Monolithic with abutments only
4. Monolithic with piers
1he continuity of the bridge deck could be made for two span upwards.
 The simplest method of erecting a asuperstructure is that the spans are erected
requirement demands ue
with supports from the ground level. But the modern
limited area for erection of the superstructure.
conditions at site, for
Hence there is a need for techniques suiting to the
should enablo
IIyovers, road overbridges, river bridges, etc. Such procedures
erect the structure with no disturbance for running traffic in case of flyovers, for
the train movement in case of road overbridge and water flow in case of river
Two of the construction techniques are explained below.
bridges.
11.5.1 Span by Span Construction
In this type of construction bridge deck with precast "T'I girders and cast-in
situ ROC slab are used. In this case I' girders are pre-cast in a seperate casting
yard with good quality control. The I' girders may be reinforced or pre-stressed
concrete. If prestressing it could be by either type of tensioning. Pre-tensioning is
preferred if more number of girders are to be cast. These decks could be simply
supported or continuous over piers during service.
The pre-cast "1' girders are transported by trolleys to the span to be launched.
The overhead-launching truss has about a length 1to 4 times the length of span.
The launching truss is normally triangular in shape with its apex downwards and
is supported on two legs. One leg at the front end rests on a pier cap The rear leg is
located away at a distance slightly more than the span and is supported at deck
levelon the completed span. The front leg is connected to the running apex element
of the truss at two adjacent nodes and is in single plane. The rear leg is
split and in
two planes.
Each plane is a triangular truss. This is connected to the two
nodes at tne
top element of the launching truss. This
arrangement forms a gap between be
planes which is equal to the top width of the truss. These two
planes of rear leg aro
supported on two wheels. The T girder, wrich is pre-cast, is
trolley and the front end is picked up by the front monorail brought on sepera
crab moving on the
bottom chord (apex) of the triangular launching truss, The rear end is
up by the rear monorail crab, which is also also ples
is to be launched the I attached to the hottom chord. When
grder 1s moved forward into the span.
ERST 11.17
is
Thegirder then lowered on the pier cap. The lowering is achieved by use of
nenders and by hydraulic jacks.
This lowering is done in stages of l50 mm
Use of the hydraulic jacks. This
ght by
both
lowering is done continuously
ernatively by operating the jacks from front end'and from rear side.
shows the operations. Figure
11
20.0 m 49.0 m

+6.0 m
6.5 m 9.5 m
48.0 m 48.0m
Up, P2 P3
PSC girder being moved on launching span

Launching truss

P. WP,
P2 P3
Launching of PSC girder

P1 P P3
Auto launching
Rajagopalan, 2006)
Figure 11.17: Launching sequences (Source:
girder is lowered at the centre of the width of the pier. The
Lirst the I'
side-shifted to its position by sliding it through hydraulic jacks and
t S then sliding is done by resting the I'
both ends. The
rdersimultaneously
pushing from on
consisting of bottom steel plate with a wooden block
on a sliding device transversally. After completion
op.Only the wooden block on either side is pushed
launching truss is moved forward to
launching
he next of all the required girders, the
required number of girders in all spans, the
Span. After launching the cast-in-situ. This technique of construction
has slabs used
been
and Cross diaphragms are
for the last 30 years in India
for many bridges.
11.5.2 Cantilever Construction
for \ong spans
this construction technique segmental construction adopted for
are followed. Here the segments may be cast-in-situ or pre-cast. In case of
situ segment continuity between one segment to another is obtained by cast-in-
passive reinforcement. For pre-cast units prestressing is used to keep the providing
together with epoxy joint or dry joint. segments
To begin with, a segment over the pier extending alittle beyond pier face will
be cast-in-situ. This is done with supports from staging or with supports fromm t
ground surface or on brackets supported on the pier. After this the erection cent
proceeded with pre-cast segments or cast-in-situ segments. However, in both th
cases the segments have to be encast to the previous segment by prestressing th
the weight of the cantilever.
In case of pre-cast segments, holes are provided in the segments and thecables
are installed and prestressed at the free ends. In case of cast-in-situ segments the
decks are placed after the reinforced caging is completed. Using travelling
formwork,' all the segments will be cast with supports from the already erected
segments.
After thecompletion of adeguate curing and ensuring attainment of sufficient
strength by the segments pre-stressing is done and attached to the earlier segment.
Cantilever segrmnental construction by launching grider are done in phased manne
as detailed in Figure 11.18
(Rajagopalan, 2006).
Phase : Placing of Standard Girder
Pre-cast segments are placed using launching girders. The length oflaunching
girder is normally longer than the bridge spans. The
girder rests on two
although there are three legs. The central leg rests above the pier segmentSuprke
andthe
rear leg is anchored to the end of
the last cantilever.
2. Phase ll: Placing of the Pier Segment
Here girder will be resting on three Supports. The rear leg rests onthealready
completed adjacent deck. The central leg near the end of andthe
guide leg is carried by a the last cantilever
temporary bracket fixed at the front of the pier
 Carriage
Central leg Guide leg

43.00 m

Guide leg
2
Rear leg
Pier segment
Guide leg
Support
Temporary
bracket

36.00 m 43.00 m
|7.00 m I
79.00m

Rear leg

Temporary tower

43.00 m
36.00 m
79.00 m

cantilever construction (Source: Rajagopalan, 2006)

Figure 11.18: Stages of
3. Phase ll: Travelling of the Girder
The girder rolls on its back leg and on the carriage. This is connectedto
auxilliary steel plate or temporary tower. This in turn is placed on the pier sem
will.
During the process of travel of the girder, the rear leg and the central leg
on rails fixed on to the deck.

11.6 OFF-SHORE PLATFORMS

The oil exploration has started as early as 1900 and the oilexploration initialy
was started on land. As the need for oil has increased, there arose a need to find
new areas. Accordingly, during the middle of 20th century, oil exploration started
in near shore and medium range of water depths. Thus need for construction of
off-shore structures arose.

Although the main interest is still oil production related, offshore structures
are also widely used for energy production from ocean waves, in minning, in port
structures and in similar fields.

Off-shore structures may be classified into two major groups, viz., movable
off-shore structures and fixed off-shore structures. Types of movable off-shore
structures are: Jack-ups, Floating structures and semi submersibles.
The fixed off-shore structure is also called as fixed platform type.
The fixed type of platform shall exhibit a low natural period and deflection
against environmental loads. The fixed platform types are:
1. Fixed Jacked Structure

2. Concrete Gravity Structure

11.6.1 Fixed Jacked Structure

This is also called as Steel Template Siructure. «This consists of a tall vertical
section made of tubular steel member supported by piles driven into the sea bed
with a deck plated on top, providing space for crew,
guarters, a drilling risla
production facilities (Figure 11.19). The fixed platform is economically feasible
for installation in water depths up to 500 m. The template type of structures will
of tubular pits either driven through lags ofthejacket
be fixed to seated by means of
(main piles) or through resist sleeves attached to the bottom of the jacket.
 Figure 11.19: Fixed jacket

principle behind the fixed platform design is tO minimise the natural nerind
"he behaviour with the
seconds to avojd resonant waves (period
Structure
nthe.order to 25 4seconds). The structural and foundation configuration since
of 4below
0e concept (Nallayarasa, 2017)".
selected to achieve this
11.6.2 Concrete Gravity Structure
are mostly used in the areas where feasill:,
"Concrete gravity structures
structures are very common in areas with
pile installation
seated geological
is remote.
condition
These
either with rock outerop or sandy formation m8 strong
basically concrete shells assembled 1n circular array with ot
structures are
projecting to above water to support the deck and facilities.
columns
in water depths as muok
Concrete gravity platforms have been constructed
350 m (Nallayarasa, 2017)".
Derrick

Helicopter pad Flare stack

Quarters
H2 m;
Drillingand
production equipment
Columns

Oil storage
Caisson
Sand ballast

Figure 11.20: Concrete gravity structure

25.2 In- Situ Construction
R.C.Cframe mainly consist of columns, beams Equal to or
and slabs. In-situ construction activity of Greater than 60Omm
frame is same as in small buildings. However
the special feature of construction of tall build
ingsis the need for hoisting equipments. It in
Tie
volves lifting of materials and placing them at
required higher levels. Vertical transportation
is an important function of hoisting equipment
but it may involve some horizontal transporta
tion also Gin is a manually operated crane. Must have
This is used for the construction of 3-4 storey brace

buildings. Figure 25.1 shows a typical gin.

Mobile cranes are used for the construction
of bigger and higher buildings. These cranes
are mounted on mobile units which is a crawler
type or tyre wheel type. The width of vehicle
may be as much as 12m. Boonm length may
be 50m and the lifting capacity 20-200 tonnes.
Fig. 25.2shows typical mobile cranes. For the Fig .25.1 Atypical gin
construction of high risers tower cranes may be
msed These cranes may be fixed on
is limited. If material to be already Constructed structures. However their capacity
or elevating conveyors may be transported vertically and horizontally is more, belt
provided at the ends. They are
used. Belt cOnveyors consists of a belt conveyors
running over drums
idlers . Belts used are of rubber supported regular intervals by a series of
at
covered cotton or rayon laid in plies. rollers known as

(a)

Fig .25.2 (b)

Mobile cranes
26.3 In-situ Pre-Stressing in High Risers
Concrete 1s very weak in resisting tension, Hence in R.C.C design strength of concrete
in tension is taken as zero. Thus in flexural members concrete below neutral axs 1S 1o
resisting any load. It is used as a media to keep reinforcement at required distance. In
prestressed concrete, the compressive stresses are introduced in the zone in which tensile
stresses are expected due to load. This is achieved by prestressing. In prestressed high
tensile steel and high strength concrete are used. Full
Full use
use ofof concrete and use of high
strength materials result into reduction in the cross section of concrete members. The
reduction of self weight of structure is the greatest achievement in high rise building. For
Pre-tensioning beams and slabs strong bulk heads are built with steel frames, which are in
turn fixed to already built portion of the structure. At one end prestressing wires are fixed
using male and female cones. At the other end, wires are pulled with jacks. Concrete is
placed, compacted and cured. After concrete gains sufficient strength wires are plugged
and jackstaken out. Figure 25.3shows a typical pre-tensioning of beam/slab.
Bulk head Bulk head

Molds for members -Jack Movable

head

End ^ End
anchorage anchorage
Casting bed

Fig .25.3 Prestressing technique

25.4 Erecting Light Weight Components

Instead of carrying out in-situ construction a number of components of multistory buildings
may be precast on ground and lifted and joined in the final position. It is dificult to haul
large -size concrete elements because of their bulkiness. Near the construction site they may
cast and transported to the site.
Columns at the ground storey are placed on heads of foundations columns or foundation
pockets. After checking the verticality, their joints are welded and grouted. For lifting and
holding the elements in their positions cranes and temporary supports may be used. Next
beams and slab units may be placed and necessary weldingof connecting plates made. Then
the joint are grouted.
I:e clah construction is a popular method of construction. A
number of slabs are made
One over the other at ground hoor level, with separating media between them. The columns
are ertended and slabs are raised one by one. They are temporarily
grooved to column
brackets Extension of columns and raising of Slabs is continued till all slabs are
held at their final position. Then welding of plates, connecting slabs and columns temporarily
is carried
out. Thus the topmost slab 1s rst completed and then the lower slabs.
11.8 IN-SITU PRESTRESSED CONCRETE
Prestressed concrete is a modified or improved form of reinforced concrete. It
takes the full advantage of compressive strength of concrete and at the same time
eliminates the weakness of concrete in tension. Further the concrete is first
subjected tocompressive stresses before the external loads are applied. By inducing
tensile stresses external loads are counteracted.

11.8.1 Methods of Prestressing

The two methods commonly used for prestressing are:
1. Pre-tensioning method 2. Post-tensioning method

1. Pre-tensioning Method
concrete is
In this method, pre-tensioning the members is done before the membano
forms. If several
poured. The cables or tendons are prestressed in place in the
are to be cast the long-line nroooe
ith the same cross-section and identical tendons
process are given in Pigure l1.44 (a), (b) and io)
S enployed. The details of the
 Concrete members
Wires (or tendon)
Anchorage Forms Tendon
Casting bed Movable post
(Males and females cones) Jack

Anchor posts or abutment

Floor level 7

(a)Prestressing bed

Anchorage cone
(female) Oil pump
Metalsheet 'or'
flexible tube Cable Beam

Wires (or cables Plug(male)

or tendons)

Helical core

Plug 'or
Cone section
Piston Jack cylinder
(b) Sectional details at
cable or tendon (c) details of tension jack

Figure 11.44: Prestressing technique of method a, b and c

(Source: Arora and Bindra, 2005)

The tendons are consisting of small diameters of high tension steel wires whicn
are first stretched to the desired tension in the forms by hydraulic jacks and then
anchored at their ends. Concrete is now poured in the forms or moulds. When tue
concrete attains a strength of atleast 350 kg/cm? the tendons are released trou
their anchorages. The wires or tendons can not return to their original position
due to the bond with the concrete. This bond induces a compressive force on
member.

The wires at the lower part of the beam, if provided, have subjected to
compressive force which is eccentric and results the beam to hog thereby develops
stresses opposite to those that the loads will ca
Supportedslabs,
This method is commnonly adopted for prestressing simply
joints andbuilding frames and floors.
2.
Post-tensioning Method
Inthis method the cables or tendons or wires are placed in position before the
ncrete is poured. But the pre-stressing is done only after the concrete attains
the desired strength.
In this system, the cables are enclosed in ducts or metal sheets before
onereting which prevent them from bonding to concrete. Alternatively holes are
left in the concrete cast at site through which the cables are subsequently threaded
(Figure 11.42 (b) and (c)).
After the concreteattaining therequired strength the tendons or cables are
stretched through ducts or holes by special jacks acting against the end of the site
precast member. After completing the stretching of cables, they are anchored at
the ends of concrete member thereby increasing compressive stress in it. Now, in
order to prevent corrosion of cables and improve the overallload-carrying capacity
of the member the space around the cables are closed by forcing cement grout under
pressure.

Sometimes. the duct is formed of a material such as solid or inflable rubber or

plastic tubing which are extractable after lZ hours of concreting. The cables are
then placed in the duct.
rhis method is most suitable for in-situ concreting. It is particularly suitable
for works which have difficult accesS. Purther it is preferred for heavy structural
members such as bridge girders.
14.3 Slip Form Construction
continuous
Slip form construction is a method in which concrete is poured into a
moving formwork. Slip form construction activity started in early 20th century forbuilding
Slipform
circular silos by James Macdonald of Macdonald company in Chicago. Latter tthistechniqu
has been exended to rectangular silos also. This company constructed over 40 conetot
towers using Sip form method for microwave relay stations, By late 1960s this technique
was extended to construction of shear walls in residential and commercial buildings. This
construction technique has been extended to horizontal concreting work in tunnels also.
Fig.14.11 and 14.12 show the slip form construction work for circular silos ad rectangular
silos respectively.

Fig.14.5 Slip formwork for circular silo construction

Fia .14.6 Slip formwork tor rectangular silo construction

In vertieal slin form construction as tne conerete
S°ucture is extended in the vertical
directionthe form is moved upward by slipping it along the: already poured
jacks or hydraulic jacks are used for lifting. The movement of concrete. Screw
the concrete exposed below the:formwork attains the required formwork so adjusted that
is
of the fork andthe men and matena strength to withstand the load
over ll. n is construction concrete
nlonod tt the form and consolidated, yet quCk needs to he
seting
of form is of the enough to emerge from the form
with strength. The speed of movement order of
150mm-250mm
In this cconstruction concreting should take place full 24 hours of the per hour.
day from start to finish.
The advantages of slip forms are
1. The structure is built without joints.
2. The speed of construction is good.
3. There is a considerable saving in the cost of formwork.
Vacuum Concrete
It has been amply brought out inthe earlier discussion that high water/cement ratio is
harmful to the overall quality of concrete, whereas low water/cement ratio does not qve
concrete to be compacted hundred per cent.
workability and higher strength or very low workability and higher strengthGenerally,
do not gohighand
her
enough workability for
demand, This pro
in hand. Vacuum process of concreting enables to meet this conflicting
helps a high workable concrete to get high strength.
Inthis process, excesswater used for higher workability, not required for hydration an4
harmful in many ways to the hardened concrete is withdrawn by means of vacuum pump.
subsequent to the placing of the concrete. The process when properly applied, produces
concrete of quality. It also permits removal of formwork at an early age to be used in other
repetitive work.
Water tight regid
Expanded backing sheet
Metal
Vacuum
Rubber Pump
Seal

Water
Wire Gauge Concrete Separator
Fig. 12.15. General arrangement for
vacuum concrete process.
The equipment is shown in Figure 12.15. It essentially consists of a vacuum pump, water
separator and filtering mat. The filtering consists of a backing piece with arubber seal allroOund
the periphery. Asheet of expanded metal and then a sheet of wire gauge also forms partof
the filtering mat. The top of the
suction mat is Connected to the vacuum pump. Whenthe
vacuum pump operates, suction is created within the boundary of the Suction mat andthe
excess of water is sucked from the concrete through the fine wire gauge or muslin cloth.At
least one face of the difference of
Concrete must be open to the
pressure. The contraction of concrete atmosphere to create
caused bV loss of water must be
vibrated.
The vacUum processing can be carried out either from the top suface or from theside
surface. There will be only nominal difference in the efficiency of top processing orside
processing. It has been seen that the size ofthe mnat should not be less than 90cm x60cm.
Smaller mat was not found to be
effective.
Rate of Extraction of Water
The rate of extraction of water is dependent upon the workability of mix, maximumSie
of aggregate, proportion of fines and aggregate cement ratio. In general, the following
general tendencies are observed:
 amountof water which may be withdrawn is governed by the
The. initial workability
a amount of free water. Agreat reduction in the water/cement ratio can,
or the
therefore, be obtained with higher initial water/cement ratio.
the initial cement ratio is kept the same the amount of water which can be
(bl If
is increased by increasing the maximum aggregate size or reducingthe
amount of fines in the mix.
.a Although the depression of the water/cement ratio is less, the lower the initial water/
cement ratio, the final water/cement ratio is also less, the lower the initial value.
I Thereduction in thewater/cement ratio is very slightly less with mixes leaner than6
ro 1. but little advantage is gained vwith mixes richer than this.
lel The greater the depth of concrete processed the smaller is the depression of the
average water/cement ratio.
( The ability of the concrete to stand up immediately after processing is improved if a
fair amountof fine material is present, if the maximum aggregate size is restricted to
19 mm and if a continuous grading is employed.
gl Little advantage is gained by prolonging the period of treatment beyond 15 to 20
minutes and aperiod of 30 minutes is the maximum that should be used.
It isfound that there is a general tendency for the mix to be richer in cement near the
ocessing face. This may be due to the fact that along with water, some cement gets sucked'
nd deposited near the surface. It is also found that the water/cement ratio near the surface
ll be lower in value, anything from 0.16 to 0.30, than the original water/cement ratio.
ecause of the above reasons the vacuum processed concrete will not be of uniform strength.
ne simultaneous vibrations or the subseguent vibrations will reduce this shortcoming to some
Xtent and also increase the strength of the concrete. If vibration is not done, the continuous
apillary channels may not get disturbed and the strength Would not be improved in relation
0decreased water/cement ratio. Table 12.15 shows the comparisons of strength of processed
and unprocessed cubes.
13.4 Erection
Afer bolts are embedded in foundation concrete, the process of erection of steel structure
starts. The steps involved in the erection are

() Receiving parts of structure from workshop.

(ü) Lifing, placing and temporarily holding in place.
(iü) Temporarily bracing the system
(iv) Aligning and connecting the partsof the structure.
(v) Connecting cladding materials.
(vi) Applying final coat of paints.
In erection process the following points should be noted.
(a) The storage period at site should be minimum and at the same time work should not
be held for non-availability of component.
(b) Care should be taken to see that the steel components stored do not come in contact
with soil or stagnant
water.heer
(e) Stacking should be such that number of components and erection marks are easily
visible.
(0) The erection drawings should reach the site office wel1l in advance to plan the erection
sequence and material handling.
equired mechanical handling systems like tower crane, crane mounted onralls,
wng crane, pneumatic tire mounted crane and derric crane etc.should be kept in
working condition.
lemporary or permanent, should ensure safe load carrying capacity uring
erection.
 g) The components should be securely bolted and fastened.
workers and structure should be ensured during erection. For this the fol.
(n)saety of
lowing precautions should be taken.

" Make daily check on all lifting equipments.e

equipment is in good condition including scaffolding and lad.
"Check that all access
ders. erection and sheeting.
winds are dangerous during
Check weather conditions, strong
overhead electric lines before moving with a crane.E
Check for correct personal safety equin
erection have
Check that all workers involved in the 9 T M fas
iments such as hats, boots and hand gloyes.
available at site.
Check that all components are readily
site for temporary bracing.
Ensure thatthere are sufficient guy wires on
end.
" Erection should start from braced
Ensure that permanent bracing and flange stays are installed as work proceeds.
"
in drawings.
Ensure that right type of bolts are used as indicated
the panel, not on the ribs.
" When walking on the roof, step in the valleys of
work.
" Take out insurance policies prior to taking up erection

13.5 Support structures required for Heavy Equipments and

Conveyors
For erecting steel structures heavy equipments and conveyors are to be supported on already
built structural parts. In supporting them the following points should be checked.
Equipment or conveyor drums should be securely connected to already built column
or beam. The undue movements should be avoided.
/
" Part of the structure should be checked to take excess load from lifting of precast
prefabricated parts.
" Deflection of structural member should not exceed limiting value specified
CONCRETE PAVING TECHNOLOGY
Concrete pavement which is occasionally called rigid pavement is a concrete layer that is
in contact with traffics directly and it is used for different purposes and applications. The
concrete used for pavements can be modified and changed in various ways as per the
requirement. Not only does the concrete pavement need to be strong and durable but also it must
be workable and cost effective because it is commonly prone to severe environmental conditions.
Concrete pavements offer several advantages which is not possessed by bituminous pavement
designs, for example, it is considerably suitable for large points loads, withstand diesel spillage
and other aggressive materials, suitable for cases where sub-grade strength is low, resist high
temperature, and many more benefits. There are different types of concrete pavement which are
employed for various applications and these will be discussed in the following sections.
Types of Concrete Pavements -Construction Details and Applications
Following are the different types of concrete pavements and their applications and advantages:

 Jointed unreinforced concrete pavement

 Jointed reinforced concrete pavement
 Continuously reinforced concrete pavement
Jointed Unreinforced Concrete Pavement
Jointed unreinforced concrete pavement is composed of batch work of concrete slab
layers, which are small square units, connected by employing tie bars and dowels or joints that is
provided to prevent cracks. So, the joint layout detailing of jointed unreinforced concrete
pavement is important as it affects the design, construction, and services of the concrete
pavement.
The success of jointed unreinforced concrete pavements depends on the tensile strength
and flexural capacity of the concrete used which should withstand cracking and support imposed
loads. The size of concrete pieces or panels is dependent on the concrete shrinkage strain created
due to concrete hardening. Shrinkage strain creates tensile force in concrete and may cause
cracks unless the tensile strength of concrete is greater than the tensile stresses generated by
shrinkage strains. Designing, detailing and spacing of joints in the jointed unreinforced concrete
pavements are considerably significant and joints need to be organized in such a way that
produces square slab panels. This could be obtained when the 90 degree between longitudinal
joints and transverse joints are achieved. Additionally, the joint intervals in the jointed
unreinforced concrete pavement is dictated by concrete slab thickness. The joint spacing
increases as the thickness of the slab is increased and vice-versa. It is recommended to use steel
dowels in the joints otherwise the ability of the joints to contain movements will be declined and
eventually the slab thickness need to be increased.
Applications of Jointed Unreinforced Concrete Pavements
Jointed unreinforced concrete slabs can be used in different applications which include airfield
taxiway.
Jointed Reinforced Concrete Pavement
The jointed reinforced concrete pavement is a modified or developed version of jointed
unreinforced concrete pavement. It is used instead of plain concrete pavement when there is
doubt regarding materials and workmanship and differential settlement are anticipated. Not only
does thickness of jointed reinforced concrete pavement is thinner but also its joint spacing is
greater compared to that of jointed plain concrete pavement. Generally, reinforced concrete slab
with length of 10m are used but there are cases in which the slab length can reach up to 20m.
Jointed reinforced concrete pavement can be designed as crack free slabs or cracked slabs. The
embedded steel reinforcement controls cracking and improves concrete slab stiffness. By and
large, steel bars are installed in the middle of the slab but some designers locate reinforcements
at both slab faces. The most outstanding benefit of steel bar installation in the middle of the
jointed reinforced concrete pavement is balancing positive and negative moments equally and as
a result the slab is permitted to flex prior to cracking. Added to that, the application of doweled
joints in the jointed reinforced concrete pavement is a must because the spacing is large, which
means the movement in the joint cannot be controlled if dowel ties are not used. Commonly,
pavement slab thickness of 150mm is employed and it is influenced by number of practical
parameters such as required concrete cover.
Applications of Jointed Reinforced Concrete Pavement
The jointed reinforced concrete pavement is used in the case where huge concentrated loads are
expected and the designer has doubt about labor force who will build the concrete pavement.
Continuously Reinforced Concrete Pavement
This type of concrete pavement is built like long slab and reinforcement bars are placed at the
middle of the slab. The longitudinal reinforcements, which are maintained at their position by
transverse reinforcement bars, are employed to limit shrinkage cracks.
. It is required to provide anchors at the end of the continuous reinforced concrete slabs
otherwise huge ripple or bump will be formed at the beginning of bituminous materials due to
movements which are generated by temperature fluctuations.
Continuous reinforced concrete pavement operation is substantially influenced by cracks spacing
which is controlled by longitudinal reinforcement. Commonly, longitudinal reinforcement ratio
used in continuous reinforced concrete pavement is specified to be 6 percent of sectional area. If
spacing between cracks are considerably small then it is likely that concrete blocks fail in shear.
There are various types of finished that may be applied for instance whisper concrete and thin
bituminous wearing course on the surface finish of continuous reinforced concrete pavement.
Applications of Continuously Reinforced Concrete Pavement
Continuously reinforce concrete pavements may be employed for the construction of airfield
runways and highway projects and it is specifically cost effective when massive quantity of
aggregate is present at site.
ERECTION TECHNIQUES IN TALL CONCRETE STRUCTURES
Constructing tall structures like skyscrapers involves a variety of erection techniques to ensure
safety, efficiency, and structural integrity. Here are some common techniques used in erecting
tall structures:
Top-Down Construction: This method involves building the structure from the top downwards.
It starts with constructing the upper floors first and then gradually working downwards. This
technique minimizes the need for temporary support structures and can accelerate construction
schedules.
Slipforming: Slipforming is a continuous construction method where concrete is poured into a
continuously moving formwork. This technique is often used for constructing the cores of tall
buildings, such as elevator shafts and stairwells. It allows for rapid construction of vertical
elements with minimal interruption.
Climbing Formwork Systems: Climbing formwork systems are used to construct vertical
concrete elements such as walls and cores. The formwork is attached to the structure and then
hydraulically lifted or climbed up as each section of concrete is poured and cured. This method is
particularly suitable for tall structures where conventional formwork would be impractical.
Prefabrication and Modular Construction: Prefabrication involves manufacturing building
components off-site and then transporting them to the construction site for assembly. Modular
construction takes this a step further by constructing entire sections of a building off-site, which
are then lifted into place using cranes. Both techniques can significantly reduce construction time
and minimize work at height.
External Climbing Systems: External climbing systems are often used for constructing the
exterior facade of tall buildings. These systems consist of a framework that is attached to the
building and can be hydraulically lifted as construction progresses. This allows workers to install
facade elements such as glass panels or curtain walls at high altitudes safely.
Heavy Lifting Equipment: Tall structures often require heavy lifting equipment such as tower
cranes or mobile cranes to hoist materials and equipment to various levels. These cranes are
carefully positioned and erected during the initial stages of construction and play a crucial role in
the erection process.
Safety Measures: Safety is paramount in tall structure erection. Fall protection systems such as
guardrails, safety nets, and personal fall arrest systems are essential to protect workers at height.
Additionally, regular inspections, proper training, and adherence to safety protocols are critical
to ensuring a safe working environment.
These techniques, along with advances in technology and construction methods, continue to
evolve, allowing for the construction of increasingly taller and more complex structures around
the world.
POST TENSIONING OF SLAB
Post tension slab is a combination of conventional slab reinforcement and additional protruding
high-strength steel tendons, which are consequently subjected to tension after the concrete has
set. This hybridisation helps achieve the formation of a much thinner slab with a longer span
devoid of any column-free spaces.
In this article we study about the working principle, components, construction and advantages of
post tension slab.
Working Principle of Post Tensioning
We all know that concrete has a high compressive strength and steel has a high tensile strength,
and when their combination is used to bear loads, the efficiency increases manifold.

Fig. Typical Details of Post Tension Slab

When a heavy live load is brought upon a structure, its concrete slab undergoes tension, which
leads to the formation of cracks and ultimately deformation occurs. To mitigate this problem,
post tensioned steel tendons are inserted at the time of concreting and tensioned after concreting
with conventional rebars.
When these post tensioned steel tendons are stressed, the concrete is squeezed, in other terms, the
concrete is compacted which increases the compressive strength of the concrete and at the same
time the steel tendons that are pulled increase the tensile strength. As a result, the overall strength
of the concrete increases.
Components of Post Tensioning Slab
1. Ducts
Thin sheet metal pipes with claw coupling or welded overlapped seam supplied in lengths of 5
and 6 m respectively are used as a standard. Ducts are connected to each other by an external
screw coupling and sealed with PE tape. Plastic ducts are also available in the market these days
which are water tight , frictionless and fatigue resistant
 Fig. Type of Ducts used to encase steel tendons.
2. Tendons

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The basic element of a post-tensioning system is called a tendon. A post-tensioning tendon is
made up of one or more pieces of prestressing steel, coated with a protective coating, and housed
inside a duct or sheathing.

Fig. Steel tendons used in Post Tensioning of Slab.

The prestressing steel is manufactured as per the requirements of ASTM A-416 and typical
strand sizes are 0.50 and 0.60 inch in diameter. A typical steel strand used for post-tensioning
will yield about 243,000 psi. In contrast, a typical piece of rebar will yield about 60,000 psi.
3. Anchors
Anchors are used to anchor the tendons into the concrete while terminating or joining two
tendons. Main function of anchorage is to transfer the stressing force to the concrete once the
stressing process is completed.
 Fig. Slab Anchor.
Construction of Post Tensioned Slab
 The installation of post tensioning tendons in the concrete and stressing it requires skilled
labour and a personnel who are certified in doing the tensioning works.
 The tendons are laid down along with the conventional rebars. The position of laying of the
tendons is decided by the engineer. These tendons are encased in plastic or steel ducts so that
they do not come in contact with the water in concrete.
 One end of the tendons are anchored with the help of anchor and the other end is left open
with plastic pocket former, where the tendons are stressed. Couplers are used in between if
any construction joint is formed.
 Concrete is poured and the alignment of these tendons are taken care of so as to let their
positions unaltered. Once after the concrete has achieved its 75% of strength , that is around
20 - 23 days, these tendons are stressed with the help of stressing jacks.
 The tensioning is done to a force equal to 80% of a strand's tensile strength. For a typical ½-
inch grade 270 strand, the strand is tensioned to a force of 33,000 pounds. As the tensioning
comes into effect, the steel gets elongated, and the concrete is compressed.
 When the proper tensioning force is reached, the prestressing steel is anchored in place. The
anchors are designed to provide a permanent mechanical connection, keeping the steel in
tension, and the concrete in compression.
 The extra tendons that are left out at one end are trimmed and non shrink grouting is put in
the anchor pocket.
Advantages of Post Tension Slab
1. Architectural Benefits
Post-Tensioned Slab has an advantage over others as it makes a very efficient base for floor
design with thin slabs and columnless spaces in larger spans. It provides an architect the freedom
to work freely with his designs.
2. Commercial Spaces
Post-tensioning results in thinner concrete slabs making the valuable savings in floor to floor
height available as additional floors.This can provide extra rentable space within the same
overall building height.
3. Reduces Deadload
As the post-tensioned slabs have lesser thickness, the quantity of concrete and reinforcement
used is reduced upto 20% - 30% when compared to conventional concrete slabs.
4. Structural Durability
Post-Tensioned slabs show reduced cracking, improved durability and lower maintenance
costs. Their deflection can be controlled by varying the amount of post-tensioning to balance any
portion of applied loads immediately after stressing.
5. Popularity
The demand for Post-Tensioned slabs, throughout the world, continues to increase because of the
significant benefits for developers, architects, engineers, contractors and end users.

AERIAL TRANSPORTATION
Helicopters:
Transportation of Personnel and Equipment: Helicopters are incredibly versatile in
transporting construction personnel, engineers, and equipment to remote or inaccessible
construction sites. They can reach areas where traditional ground transportation is impractical or
impossible due to rugged terrain, lack of roads, or other obstacles.
Material Delivery: Helicopters facilitate the rapid delivery of critical construction materials
such as concrete, steel beams, or prefabricated components directly to construction sites. This is
particularly valuable in situations where conventional transportation methods are hindered or
delayed.
Aerial Surveys and Inspections: Helicopters are used for aerial surveys and inspections of
construction sites. They provide a bird's-eye view, enabling engineers and project managers to
assess site conditions, plan construction activities, monitor progress, and identify potential
challenges or safety hazards.
Specialized Operations: Helicopters are employed in specialized construction operations, such
as installing rooftop equipment, hoisting heavy machinery onto tall buildings, or transporting
construction crews to offshore platforms or remote mountain sites.
Drones:
Aerial Mapping and Surveying: Drones equipped with high-resolution cameras and LiDAR
sensors are utilized for aerial mapping and surveying of construction sites. They capture detailed
imagery and data, which are used to create accurate 3D models, topographic maps, and terrain
analyses, aiding in site planning and design.
Progress Monitoring: Drones provide real-time aerial imagery and video footage, allowing
project managers to monitor construction progress, identify potential bottlenecks or delays, and
make informed decisions to keep projects on schedule and within budget.
Inspections and Quality Control: Drones conduct routine inspections of construction sites,
infrastructure, and buildings, detecting defects, safety hazards, or deviations from design
specifications. They enable close-up visual inspections of hard-to-reach or hazardous areas
without the need for scaffolding or personnel to work at height.
Documentation and Marketing: Aerial photography and videography captured by drones are
valuable for documenting construction milestones, creating marketing materials, and showcasing
completed projects to clients, investors, and stakeholders.
Aerial Cranes:
Heavy Lift Operations: Aerial cranes are specialized helicopters equipped with powerful lifting
equipment, such as hooks, slings, or cargo nets. They are capable of lifting heavy loads,
including construction materials, machinery, or prefabricated components, to remote or
challenging construction sites.
Remote Access: Aerial cranes provide access to construction sites in remote, mountainous, or
offshore locations where traditional cranes or ground-based equipment cannot operate. They are
commonly used in industries such as oil and gas, mining, and infrastructure development.
Emergency Response: Aerial cranes play a crucial role in emergency response and disaster
relief efforts by transporting personnel, equipment, and supplies to disaster-affected areas and
supporting search and rescue operations.
Aerial Work Platforms:
Elevated Access: Aerial work platforms, such as cherry pickers, boom lifts, or scissor lifts,
provide safe and efficient elevated access for construction work at height. They are used for tasks
such as building maintenance, installation of building facades, windows, or signage, painting,
plastering, and finishing work.
Versatility: Aerial work platforms come in various configurations and sizes to suit different
construction requirements. They can be deployed indoors or outdoors, on flat surfaces or rough
terrain, and provide flexible maneuverability to reach difficult-to-access areas.
Safety: Aerial work platforms enhance safety by eliminating the need for scaffolding or ladders
and reducing the risk of falls or accidents associated with working at height. They are equipped
with safety features such as guardrails, harness attachment points, and emergency descent
systems to protect workers.
In summary, aerial transportation plays a critical role in modern construction practices, offering
unprecedented access, efficiency, and safety in a wide range of construction activities. From
helicopters and drones for aerial reconnaissance and material delivery to aerial cranes and work
platforms for heavy lifting and elevated access, these technologies contribute to the successful
execution of construction projects, even in the most challenging environments.
ERECTION OF LIGHT WEIGHT STRUCTURES