HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT OF MICROBIOLOGY.

From the earliest times, before the discovery of microorganisms, living organisms were thought to
have originated from non-living matter. This is termed the Theory of Spontaneous Generation.
The earliest microscopic observations were made by the Italian, Francesco Stelluti between 1625
and 1630. He studied bees and weevils using a microscope.
However, it was Robert Hooke that was the first to make a known description of cells and
microorganisms. He studied a tiny slice of cork using lenses and he saw cellular structures of plant
and fungi. In 1665, he published Micrographia that contained the diagrams of his findings. His
lenses were too poor to see bacteria cells.
Antonio Van Leeuwenhoek was the first to give extensive, accurate observations of
microorganisms and for this, he is known as the “father of microbiology”. In 1676, by using his
simple microscope, he observed microscopic organisms in rain water which he termed
“animalcules”. He made sketches of bacterial and protozoan cells in his work.

Robert Hooke's Drawing of a Leeuwenhoek's "animalcules"

Tissue and Lens Used
 The Conflict over Spontaneous Generation.

1745
1688
John Needham proposed that
Francesco Redi disputes the
organic matter could give life to
spontaneous generation of maggots
non-living matter

1861
1765-1776
Louis Pasteur disproves
Lazzaro Spallanzani improved on
spontaneous generation using the
and faults Needham's experiment
famous 'swan neck' experiment

Redi's Experiment
Needham's Experiment

Spallazani's Experiment
Pasteur's 'swan neck' Experiment
 Recognition of the Relationship between Microbes and Diseases.

1546 1882 1884

Girolamo Fracastoro Walther Hesse -Koch's postulates was
suggested that disease developed the use of published
were caused by invisible agar as a medium for
organisms which he -Hans Gram developed
culturing organisms. Gram staining
called 'seminaria'
1882
1835
Robert Koch 1887
Agostino Bassi showed discovered the causative
that the silk worm Richard Julius Petri
agent of tuberculosis to
disease was caused by a developed the petri dish
be Mycobacterium
fungus. tuberculosis.

1867 1876-1877
Joseph Lister Robert Koch showed
developed a system of that anthrax was caused
antiseptic surgery. by Bacillus anthracis.

Koch’s Postulates
Robert Koch proposed a criteria to help establish a causal relationship between a microbe and a
disease. These criteria are collectively known as Koch’s postulates and they are as follow:
1. The microbe must be present in every case of the disease but absent from healthy
organisms.
2. The suspected microbe must be isolated and grown in a pure culture.
3. The same disease must result when the isolated microorganism is inoculated into a healthy
host.
4. The same microbe must be isolated again from the diseased host.
While Koch’s postulates prove very useful, there are some shortcomings. For instance, some
organisms (like Mycobacterium leprae, the causative agent of leprosy) cannot be isolated in a pure
culture.
Contributions to Immunological Studies, Techniques for Studying Microbial
Pathogens and Environmental Microbiology.

1887 - 1890 1889

1798
Sergei Winogradsky Martinus Beijerinck
Edward Jenner introduced studied sulfur and nitrifying isolated aerobic nitrogen-
cowpox vaccination for bacteria. fixing bacteria
smallpox.

1885
1890
Louis Pasteur developed
1857 rabbies vaccine. He also Emil von Behring and
developed vaccines for Shibasabura Kitasato
Pasteur described developed antitoxins to
fermentation. chicken cholera and anthrax
working with Roux and diptheria and tetanus
Chamberland respectively.

1880 - 1909 1884

Paul Ehrlich developed Elie Metchnikoff
methylene blue, salvansan discovered phagocytosis.
(a targeted drug for
syphilis) and the side chain The autoclave was
theory. developed.

Modern History of Microbiology.

 In 1929, Alexander Fleming discovered that the fungus Penicillum produced what he
called penicillin, the first antibiotic that could successfully control bacterial infections.
Subsequent to penicillin, lysozymes and enzymes that inhibit the growth of few bacteria
was discovered. Fleming’s work set the foundation for the discovery of other antibiotics.
However, he was not able to isolate penicillin in large quantities.
 1933: Invention of the electron microscope
 1937: First division of living organisms into prokaryotes and eukaryotes.
 1940: Beadle and Tatum proposed the “one gene, one enzyme (or protein)” hypothesis,
which states that each enzyme that acts in a biochemical pathway is encoded by a different
gene.
 1943: Selman Waksman discovered streptomycin (the first effective treatment for
tuberculosis)
 1944: Oswald Avery discovered that the DNA is a genetic material of which genes and
chromosomes are made.
 1946: Joshua Lederberg and Edward Tatum discovered bacteria conjugation, a process
by which bacteria establish genetic materials.
 1953: James Watson and Francis Crick discovered the DNA structure to be a double
helix.
 1960: Jacob and Monod proposed the operon model in bacteria. Their discoveries centered
on the genetic control of enzyme and virus synthesis.
 1977: Carl Woese divides prokaryotes into bacteria and archaea.
 1979: Insulin synthesized using recombinant DNA.
 1983 – 1984: HIV was isolated and identified by Luc Montagnier and Robert Gallo.
 CLASSIFICATION OF MICROORGANISMS.
R.H. Whittaker in 1969 proposed the classification of living things into five (5) kingdoms namely:
Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae and Animalia. Microorganisms are members of the first three
kingdoms. Microorganisms can be prokaryotic or eukaryotic.
Basically, microorganisms can be classified into five groups:
1. Bacteria
2. Protozoa
3. Fungi
4. Algae
5. Viruses
A more accurate classification would include two more groups; archaea and prions but for the
course of this class we would discuss the five groups mentioned above. Bacteria and archaea are
prokaryotes; protozoa, algae and fungi are eukaryotes; while viruses and prions are acellular
particles.
NOTE:
A prokaryotic cell lacks a membrane bound nucleus and distinct organelles. They are the most
primitive form of life and range from 0.1 – 5.0 µm in diameter. On the other hand, eukaryotic cells
are higher cells and possess a membrane bound nucleus and organelles.

BACTERIA
They are microorganisms with a cell structure simpler than that of many other organisms. They
are single celled and lack a nuclear membrane. Their genetic information is stored in a single loop
of DNA. However, some bacterial cells contains an extra organelle similar to the nucleus called
plasmid. The plasmid is an extra circle of genetic material that gives the bacteria an edge over
other bacteria. For example, it may contain a gene that would make the bacteria resistant to an
antibiotic. While many bacteria contain plasmids, it is important to note that not all bacteria do.
Bacterial cells are capable of utilizing different organic and inorganic compound as a food sources.
Also, they have adapted to survive in almost all available ecological habitats. They are present in
soil, water, air and are inhabitants of other living organisms, including humans.
Some bacteria are pathogenic while some play beneficial roles in the ecosystem such as cycling
elements in the biosphere, breaking down dead organic matter and producing vitamins.
Additionally, some bacteria are used in the preparation of foods, chemicals and antibiotics. They
range in size from 0.3µm to 5.0µm. Bacteria are members of the kingdom Monera.
 Bacteria Cell

Assignment
Write out the functions of the different organelles found in a bacteria cell.
Shapes and Arrangement of Bacteria Cells.
1. Cocci: They are round, oval or spherical in shape. The cells can be arranged singly (micro
coccus), in pairs (diplococci), in chains (streptococci), irregular grape like clusters
(staphylococci), in box like cubical pockets (sarcina) and in pair of four cells in same plane
(tetrads). Examples are Staphylococcus aureus, Neisseria gonorrhea etc.
2. Bacillus: These are straight rods; cylindrical or ellipsoidal in shape. They occur singly
(microbacillus); in pairs (diplobacilli); in chains (streptobacilli) or in parallel palisade like
arrangement. Examples are Bacillus anthracis, Mycobacterium tuberculosis etc.

3. Spirilla: These are cork screw shaped bacteria i.e. they are helically curved with a twist.
They are spiral or spring like with multiple curvature and terminal flagella e.g.
Helicobacter pylori.
4. Vibro: They are curved, comma shaped bacteria. Most are motile with a single flagellum
at one end e.g. Vibrio cholera.
 5. Spirochetes: They have a spiral shape with a flexible cell wall. Their motility mechanisms
are based on structures called axil filaments and they are capable of contracting their shapes
e.g. Treponema pallidum.

PROTOZOA
They are single-celled, non-photosynthetic, eukaryotic organisms. They belong to the kingdom
Protista. They are distinguished from other eukaryotic organisms by their ability to move at some
stage of their life cycle and by their lack of cell wall.
Characteristics of Protozoa
1. Protozoa are unicellular, non-photosynthetic microbes.
2. They lack a cell wall.
3. They occur in colonies, with each colony having independent individual cells.
4. Some are parasitic while others are free living.
5. They are mostly found in moist habitats.
6. They have various locomotory organelles i.e. pseudopodia, flagella, cilia etc.
7. They divide by binary fission, schizogony or budding. Some members are able to carry out
both asexual and sexual reproduction.
8. They are primary consumers in food chains in aquatic environment. They feed on bacteria,
yeast, fungi and algae. Due to this property, they are utilized in the degradation of
biological and industrial waste.
Examples of protozoa includes amoeba, paramecium, euglena, plasmodium etc.
 Reproduction in Protozoa

Algae
Algae are eukaryotic organisms that have no true roots, stems or leaves but do have chlorophyll
and other pigments for carrying out photosynthesis; due to these features they are referred to as
plant-like. They belong to the kingdom Protista (alongside protozoa). They could be unicellular
(e.g. plankton, diatom etc.) or multicellular (e.g. giant kelp, brown algae etc.). Multicellular algae
are ribbon like filaments with or without branches. Most algae cells have a thin and rigid cell wall.
Additionally, they have a discrete nucleus, starch grains and a vacuole.
In algae, reproduction can be sexual or asexual (binary fission, fragmentation or production of
spores). Algae are classified based on the type of pigment present, nature of stored food, the
composition of cell walls and the number or arrangement of flagella.
Examples of algae includes: spirogyra, volvox, kelps etc.
Biological and Economic Importance of Algae.
1. They are primary producers, thus, important to sustain life.
2. They are used in the production of fermented food such as yoghurt, cream etc. They can
also be used in the food industry as food additives to improve taste and quality.
3. They are used as binding agents in soil to help protect against natural processes such as
erosion.
4. Algae are utilized in the pharmaceutical industry for the production of drugs, drug carriers
etc.
5. Agar, a well-known solidifying agent used in the preparation of microbiological media is
obtained from algae.
6. Algae can also be utilized in the cosmetic industry for the production of lotions, ointments
etc.
7. They are capable of causing diseases. They either cause disease directly or produce toxins
that are sometimes lethal.

Sexual and Asexual (spore formation) Reproduction in Algae

 Fragmentation (a Type of Asexual Reproduction) in
Spirogyra (an algae)

Spirogyra (a multicellular algae) Sea kelp (a multicellular algae)

 Fungi
Fungi are eukaryotic, spore-bearing organisms that lack chlorophyll. Organisms found in this
kingdom are distinguished from all other living organisms by their principal mode of vegetative
growth and nutrient intake. They grow from the tips of their filaments (hyphae) and are capable of
digesting organic matter externally before absorbing it. Fungi can vary in size from microscopic
organisms (like yeast) to macroscopic organisms (e.g. mushrooms) that can be seen with the
unaided eye.
Some fungi species can live in terrestrial and aquatic habitats as free-living organisms; others form
parasitic or symbiotic relationships with different organisms and are capable of causing diseases
in humans. Species of organisms found in the kingdom ‘Fungi’ includes yeast, molds and
mushrooms (others are smuts, rusts and mildews).
Most fungi have a rigid cell wall that encloses a mass of branched, tubular filaments called hyphae
(singular hypha). The hyphae connects into a complicated network called the mycelium which
makes up the thallus (i.e. the undifferentiated body of the typical fungus). The part of a fungus
generally visible is called the fruiting body or sporophore and this can vary in size, shape, colour
and longevity. Some fungi (e.g. yeast) do not form a mycelium but grow as individual cells that
multiply by budding or fission. These fungal cells lack the rigid polymer called chitin in their cell
wall. Members of this kingdom that possess hyphae and mycelium reproduce by spore formation.
Yeast.
These are multicellular fungi that have a single nucleus. They typically are about 0.075mm in
diameter and are mostly spherical shape. Most yeast reproduce asexually by budding while others
reproduce by binary fission. Yeast cells are usually non-motile, lacking organelles for locomotion
such as the flagella.
Mold.
The thallus of a mold consist of tiny branches of thread like filaments called hyphae. These hyphae
form the mycelium which are tangled mass or tissue like aggregate. They often appear as a fuzzy
or powdery growth on surfaces.

Diagram of a mold showing hyphae & mycelium Bread Mold (Rhizopus)

Mushroom.
Mushrooms are macroscopic with a distinctive cap and stem which makes up the fruiting body.
They also consist of mycelium and hyphae that are usually found underground. Some species are
edible while others are poisonous.

Some fungi can express themselves phenotypically as two different morphological forms e.g. some
fungi grow as molds at room temperature in the laboratory and as a budding yeast in tissue (or at
37°C). Such fungi possessing this characteristics is referred to as a dimorphic fungi and the term
describing this process is dimorphism.
Importance of Fungi.
1. Fungi act as decomposers, breaking down organic matter and releasing carbon, nitrogen,
oxygen and phosphorus into the atmosphere and soil.
 2. They are utilized in the food industry and at home in the production/making of bread, wine,
beer and certain cheeses.
3. Fungi can be eaten directly as food e.g. mushrooms.
4. Fungi are utilized in the production of antibiotics e.g. the green mold, Penicillium notatum
produces penicillin.
5. They are important research tool in the study of fundamental processes such as cytology,
genetics, biochemistry and microbiology.
6. They are also used in the production of some organic acids, enzymes and vitamins.
7. They cause diseases in humans, plants and animals.

Mushroom Mushroom

Virus
Viruses are described as acellular infectious agents that require the presence of a host cell in order
to multiply. Viruses have been found to infect all types of cells- humans, animals, plants, bacteria,
yeast, protozoa & archaea (e.g. a bacteriophage is a type of virus that infects and destroys bacteria
cells). Viruses are not classified in any of the five kingdoms because they have both living and
non-living characteristics. Outside of a host cell, they cannot reproduce and carry out metabolic
processes. The ineffective, extracellular form of a virus is called a virion.
Viruses are very small ranging in size from 20nm to 250/400nm. Due to their size, they cannot be
seen by an ordinary light microscope but only by the electron microscope (they are said to be ultra-
microscopic). Viruses predominantly have two shapes namely:
1. Rods or filaments.
2. 20-sided icosahedral polygons
Viruses contain a genetic material (either DNA or RNA) surrounded by a protein coat called a
capsid which may in turn be surrounded by a spiky lipid envelope. They are referred to as
quintessential parasites because they depend on their host cell for almost all of their life
sustaining functions, including generating energy and synthesizing their nucleic acid and proteins
from the host cell’s nucleotides and amino acids. Additionally, some viruses use the lipids and
sugar chain of the host cell to form their membranes and glycoproteins.
Viruses can reproduce only within a host cell. The parental virus gives rise to numerous progeny,
usually genetically and structurally identical to itself. For it to successfully reproduce, a viral cell
attaches itself to the host cell and injects its DNA. Afterwards, it uses the host’s cellular
metabolism to replicate its DNA and form protein coats. The fully formed virus assemble and
break out of the host’s cell and spread to other cells to continue the cycle.
Example of viruses includes HIV, herpes virus, Ebola virus etc.

NOTE: There are some virus-like particles that are distinct from the actual virus. They are called
viroid and prions. A Viroid is a disease causing organism that contains only nucleic acid (in this
case, RNA) and have no structural protein. On the other hand, Prions are composed solely of a
misfolded protein, without any associated nucleic acid molecule. Prions are very resistant to
inactivation and cause degenerative brain disease in mammals including humans.
 MICROBIAL NOMENCLATURE
Binary names consisting of genus and a specific epithet (commonly referred to as species) are used
for most microorganisms (the exception to this is the viruses). A species is a binary combination
consisting of a genus followed by a specific epithet. In other words, you would never refer to the
species without the accompanying genus. The genus name is capitalized and the species is lower
case. The names should be italicized or underlined in text. Once the complete name of a
microorganism has been written out once, the genus name can be abbreviated to just the capital
letter provided there is no confusion with other genera. Example: Staphylococcus aureus can be
written as S. aureus the second time, as long as no other genera in the paper start with the letter
“S.” However, it is recommended that the entire name be spelt out again in the summary of any
publication.
The designation “sp.” after a genus refers to a single unnamed species, while the designation “spp.”
after a genus refers to more than one unnamed species. Example: Salmonella spp. refers to more
than one species of Salmonella. In lists that contain a series of species all belonging to the same
genus, it is acceptable to name the genus only once, even if the other species have not been
mentioned previously. Example: Clostridium tetani, C. botulinum, C. perfringens.
 RELEVANCE OF MICROBIOLOGY TO NURSING AND
MIDWIFERY PRACTICE.
1. Understanding the principles of microbiology is crucial in preventing and controlling the
spread of infections. This includes proper hand hygiene, use of personal protective
equipment (PPE), maintaining asepsis, and sterilization and disinfection techniques.
2. Microbiology helps the nurse/midwife understand microorganisms, their mode of
transmission and the infections they cause. As this would also help in preventing and
controlling the spread of infections.
3. Microbiology teaches the nurse/midwife about the proper collection and handling of
specimens which are essential for accurate diagnosis and treatment.
4. It enables the nurse/midwife to understand the principles of antimicrobial therapy,
including the selection, administration and monitoring of antibiotics.
5. It aids in the knowledge of various antisera and vaccines, their route for administration,
storage and potency thus ensuring effective immunization schedule in health care and
community.
6. Nurses and midwives are equipped to educate patients and communities about causes of
infection, the mode of spread and adequate preventive and control measures, including
proper hygiene practice etc.
7. It educates the nurse/midwife on disease surveillance and outbreak response strategies to
prevent the spread of infection.
8. It aids in the proper disposal of waste (biomedical waste) e.g. placenta, dead fetal remains
etc. which are generated in the hospital.