Light
Light usually refers to the visible light, which is electromagnetic radiation that is visible to
the human eye and is responsible for the sense of sight. Wavelength range of
electromagnetic radiation that is visible to the human eye is approximately 400-700
nanometers.
Cosmic Rays
Cosmic rays are a form of high-energy radiation that originate from outside our solar system.
Light Wave Behaviors
Light waves across the electromagnetic spectrum behave in similar ways. When a light wave
encounters an object, they are either transmitted, reflected, absorbed, refracted,
polarized, diffracted, or scattered depending on the composition of the object and the
wavelength of the light.
Reflection of Light
Reflection of light occurs when the waves encounter a surface or other boundary that does
not absorb the energy of the radiation and bounces the waves away from the surface.
Laws of Reflection
• The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal to the reflection surface at the point of
the incidence lie in the same plane.
• The angle which the incident ray makes with the normal is equal to the angle which the
reflected ray makes to the same normal.
• The reflected ray and the incident ray are on the opposite sides of the normal.
Refraction of Light
Refraction occurs when light waves change direction as they pass from one transparent
medium to another transparent medium.
Different wavelengths of light are slowed at different rates, which causes them to bend at
different angles.
Conditions of Refraction
Two different mediums which will cause change in speed when crossing the boundary.
The light must approach the boundary at an angle with normal; refraction will not occur when
they approach the boundary perpendicularly.
Laws of Refraction
Snell’s law (Snell-Descartes law and the law of refraction) is a formula used to describe the
relationship between the angles of incidence and refraction, when referring to light or other
waves passing through a boundary between two different isotropic (transparent) media,
such as water, glass, or air.
The law of refraction states that-
• The incident ray, the refracted ray, and the normal to the interface, all lie in the same plane.
• The ratio of the sines of the angles of incidence and refraction is equivalent to the ratio of
phase velocity in the two media, or equivalent to the reciprocal of the ratio of the refraction
indices:
Here,
θ is the angle measured from the normal of the boundary,
v = the velocity of light in the respective medium (unit is m/s) and
n = the refractive index (which is unitless) of the respective medium
Relative Refractive Index
When light enters obliquely to a transparent medium from another transparent medium then
for a fixed pair of media and for a fixed color of light the ratio of the sine of the angle of
incidence to the sine of the angle of refraction is a constant. This constant is called refractive
index of the second medium with respect to the first medium for a fixed color of light.
If “i” is the angle of incidence in the medium “a” and “r” is the angle of refraction in the
medium “b” then the refractive index of “b” with respect to “a” is-
Refractive index has no unit. It does not depend on the angle of incidence, it depends on the
nature of the pair of media and on the color of light. The value of refractive index for a fixed
medium is minimum for red light and maximum for violet. The more the refractive index of a
medium the more will be it’s optical density and vice-versa.
Absolute Refractive Index
When ray of light enters obliquely to a medium from vacuum then for a fixed color of light the
ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of refraction is called the
absolute refractive index of that medium for that color of light.
Generally the refractive index of a medium with respect to air is taken to be absolute
refractive index of that medium.
The absolute refractive index of glass for red light is 1.5, it means that if red light enters from
vacuum to glass then the ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of
refraction is always 1.5.
Generalized form of Snell’s Law
Refractive index of medium a in respect of medium b-
Critical Angle
When a ray of light of fixed color passes from a denser medium to a rarer medium, the
incident angle for which the angle of refraction is maximum, that is the refracted ray passes
along the surface of separation is called the critical angle of the denser medium with respect
to the rarer medium for that color of light.
Total Internal Reflection
If the value of incident angle is greater than the critical then the ray of light will not be
refracted but will be totally reflected back to the denser medium. This phenomenon is called
total internal reflection.
Relation between Critical Angle and Refractive Index of a Medium
Polarization of Light
Polarized light waves are light waves in which the vibrations occur in a single plane. The
process of transforming unpolarized light into polarized light is known as polarization.
Diffraction of Light
Diffraction is the bending and spreading of waves around an obstacle. Diffraction is most
distinct when a light wave strikes an object with a size comparable to its own wavelength. An
instrument called a spectrometer uses diffraction to separate light into a range of
wavelengths, a spectrum. In case of visible light the separation of wavelengths through
diffraction results in a rainbow.
Scattering of Light
Light scattering is a form of scattering in which light is scattered in the form of spreading
energy. Scattering occurs when light bounces off an object in a variety of directions. The
amount of scattering that takes place depends on the wavelength of the light and the size
and structure of the object. The sky appears blue because of this scattering behavior. Even
though violet is scattered more than blue, the sky looks blue to us because our eyes are more
sensitive to blue light.
Absorption of Light
Absorption occurs when photons from incident light hit atoms and molecules and cause
them to vibrate. This heat is then emitted from the object as thermal energy.
The color of an object is actually the wavelengths of the light reflected while all other
wavelengths are absorbed.
Some objects, such as darker colored objects, absorb more incident light energy than
others. For example, black pavement absorbs most visible and UV energy and reflects very
little, while a light-colored concrete sidewalk reflects more energy than it absorbs. Thus, the
black pavement is hotter than the sidewalk on a hot summer day.
Mirrors
A mirror is an optical device that uses reflection to focus light. The smooth surface from
which regular reflection of light occurs is called a mirror.
Mirrors can be (i) Plane mirror, (ii) Spherical mirror
Spherical mirrors can be (i) Concave, and (ii) Convex
Use of Mirrors
• Rearview and Side Mirrors help drivers observe areas behind and beside their vehicles.
• Dentists use concave mirrors to examine hard-to-see areas in the mouth.
• Road Safety Mirrors are installed at intersections or sharp turns to improve visibility.
• Mirrors are crucial in guiding, focusing, and amplifying laser beams.
• Used in households for grooming, makeup, and decoration.
• Used in astronomical instruments to focus light.
Lens
A lens is an optical device that uses refraction to focus light. Devices which similarly refract
radiation other than visible light are also called lenses, such as microwave lenses or
acoustic lenses. Lenses are made from transparent materials such as glass, ground and
polished to a desired shape.
Usually, a lens consists of two or more transparent refracting interfaces, at least one of
which is curved. Depending on its curvature, a lens will cause light either to converge or
diverge.
Types of Lens
Lens can be (i) simple, (ii) compound
A simple lens consists of a single piece of material, while a compound lens consists of
several simple lenses (elements), usually along a common axis.
Lenses can also be
Converging lens: Also known as a convex or positive lens, will focus light rays to a point, as
does a magnifying glass. It will always be thicker in the center than at the edges. It has two
convex surfaces. It can be double convex, plane-convex and concavo- convex.
Diverging lens: Also known as concave or negative lens. It disperses light and is thinner in
the middle than at the edges. It has two concave surfaces. It can also be double concave,
plane-concave and convexo-concave.
Use of Lens
• Magnifying glass, firing by converging light rays.
• Lenses are used as prosthetics for the correction of visual impairments such as myopia,
hyperopia, presbyopia, and astigmatism.
• Most astronomical telescopes use convex lenses.
• The cornea of the human eye is a convex lens that refracts light coming through it, focusing
it into inverted images on the retina.
• Microscopes use convex lenses to magnify tiny objects for scientific study.
• Projectors use convex lenses to project an enlarged image onto a screen.
Object and Image
When rays of light coming from a point fall on a surface and after reflection or refraction if
the rays meet at a point or appear to diverse from a point, the second point is called image
of the first point.
Relation between object distance u, image distance v, and focal length f-
Image can be (i) virtual and (ii) real.
When the rays of light diverging from a point, after reflection or refraction, appears to diverse
from some other point is called a virtual image. Virtual image is seen only by looking through
a lens back toward the source of light.
A real image is formed when the rays of light converging from a point, after reflection or
refraction, actually meet at another point. A real image can be projected on a screen
because the rays physically intersect.
Real image is formed by concave mirror and convex lens. Virtual image is formed by all types
of mirrors and lenses. The image that we see in a mirror or looking through a telescope is
virtual. The image a camera lens casts on film is real.
Virtual Image
Real Image
Prism
A refracting medium bounded by two mutually inclined plane is called a prism. A prism is an
optical device that both refracts and reflects light. It has six rectangular planes or three
rectangular and two triangular planes.
Use of Prism
• Prisms are often used as image inverts in telescopes and other optical devices.
• Treating diseases: Ophthalmologists use prisms to diagnose and treat a number of
diseases of the eye, including esotropia, exotropia, nystagmus and amblyopia. Prisms used
to treat disease help redirect light entering the eye to enhance the vision of the patient.
• Prisms also figure in the construction of corrective vision lenses for individuals suffering
from certain diseases of the eye or specific types of vision deficiencies.
• Optical instruments that use prisms include binocular, telescopes, cameras,
microscopes and even submarine periscopes.
• Architects in Sweden use triangular prisms as a common construction design as the slopes
of the shape cause snow to run off rather than accumulate.
• Teaching material: Science teachers use prisms in experiments to teach children about the
properties of light.
• Research: Newton used a prism and the light of the sun when concluding that white light
is comprised of all colors in the visible spectrum.
Electromagnetic Radiation
Electromagnetic radiation (EMR) is a form of radiant energy that is produced by oscillating
electric and magnetic disturbance, or by the movement of electrically charged particles
traveling through a vacuum or matter.
General Properties of EMR
Electromagnetic radiation can travel through empty space. Most other types of waves must
travel through some sort of substance. For example, sound waves need either a gas, solid,
or liquid to pass through in order to be heard.
The speed is always a constant (Speed of light: 2.99792458 x 10 8 m s-1)
Characteristics include amplitude, wavelength and frequency.
Types of Radiation
Radio Waves: Radio Waves are approximately 10-103 m in wavelength. As the name implies,
radio waves are transmitted by radio broadcasts, TV broadcasts, and even cell phones.
Radio waves have the lowest energy levels. Radio waves are used in remote sensing, where
hydrogen gas in space releases radio energy with a low frequency and is collected as radio
waves. They are also used in radar systems, where they release radio energy and collect the
bounced energy back. Especially useful in weather, radar systems are used to illustrate
maps of the surface of the Earth and predict weather patterns since radio energy easily
breaks through the atmosphere.
Microwaves: Microwaves can be measured in centimeters. They are used to broadcast
information through space. They are also used in remote sensing in which microwaves are
released and bounced back to collect information on their reflections. Microwaves are good
for transmitting information because the energy can go through substances such as clouds
and light rain. Short microwaves are sometimes used in doppler radars to predict weather
forecasts.
Infrared Radiation: Infrared radiation can be released as heat or thermal energy. It can also
be bounced back, which is called near infrared because of its similarities with visible light
energy. Infrared Radiation is most commonly used in remote sensing as infrared sensors
collect thermal energy, providing us with weather conditions.
Visible Light: Visible Light is the only part of the electromagnetic spectrum that humans can
see with an unaided eye. This part of the spectrum includes a range of different colors that
all represent a particular wavelength. Rainbows are formed in this way; light passes through
matter in which it is absorbed or reflected based on its wavelength.
Ultraviolet Radiation: UV radiation from the sun is most commonly known because of its
severe effects on the skin, leading to cancer. It is used to sterilized food, to produce vitamin
D and to treat some skin disorder.
X- rays: X-rays are used to produce medical images of the body. The outgoing energy of the
X-ray can be used to identify the composition of the sample.
Gamma Rays: Gamma Rays can used in chemotherapy in order to get rid of tumors in a body
since it has such a high energy level. The shortest waves, Gamma rays, are approximately
10-12 m in wavelength.
Out of this huge spectrum, the human eyes can only detect waves from 390 nm to 780 nm.
Light Interference
An important property of waves is the ability to combine with other waves. There are two type
of interference: constructive and destructive.
Constructive interference occurs when two or more waves are in same phase and their
displacements add to produce a higher amplitude.
Destructive interference occurs when two or more waves are out of phase and their
displacements negate each other to produce lower amplitude.
Double Slit Experiment
Interference can be demonstrated effectively through the double slit experiment. This
experiment consists of a light source pointing toward a plate with one slit and a second plate
with two slits.
As the light travels through the slits, we notice bands of alternating intensity on the wall
behind the second plate.
The banding in the middle is the most intense because the two waves are perfectly in phase
at that point and thus constructively interfere. The dark bands are caused by out of phase
waves which result in destructive interference.
In a similar way, if electrons are used instead of light, electrons will be represented both as
waves and particles.
Wave Particle Duality
Electromagnetic radiation can either acts as a wave or a particle (photon).
As a wave, it is represented by velocity, wavelength, and frequency. Light is an EM wave since
the speed of EM waves is the same as the speed of light.
As a particle, EM is represented as a photon, which transports energy. When a photon is
absorbed, the electron can be moved up or down based on energy level. When it moves up,
it absorbs energy, when it moves down, energy is released.
Photons with higher energies produce shorter wavelengths and photons with lower energies
produce longer wavelengths.
Fluorescence
Fluorescence is the emission of light by a substance that has absorbed light or other
electromagnetic radiation. It is a form of luminescence. In most cases, the emitted light has
a longer wavelength, and therefore lower energy, than the absorbed radiation. The emitted
light is in the visible region.
Fluorescence has many practical applications, including mineralogy, gemology, chemical
sensors (fluorescence spectroscopy), fluorescent labelling, dyes, biological detectors,
cosmic-ray detection, and, most commonly, fluorescent lamps.
Spectroscopy
Spectroscopy is the study of the interaction between matter and radiant energy.
It refers to measurement of radiation intensity as a function of wavelength.
Radiation is characterized by its energy, E, which is linked to the frequency (v), or wavelength,
A, of the radiation by the familiar Planck relationship:
Where, h= 6.62606957(29)×10-34 (Planck’s constant), c = is the speed of light
