Prediction of Identical Twins using ML

Abstract:

The "Prediction of Identical Twins using ML" project seeks to develop a machine learning-
based solution for accurately identifying identical twins from a population based on their
physical characteristics and biometric data. Identifying identical twins is a complex task with
significant implications in various fields, including healthcare, forensics, and even
personalized marketing. Leveraging machine learning, this project aims to advance the state-
of-the-art in twin identification, offering a novel and efficient approach to a longstanding
challenge.

Introduction:

Identical twins, also known as monozygotic twins, share 100% of their genetic material and
often bear a striking physical resemblance to each other. Despite their genetic similarity,
there is a lack of automated and accurate methods to identify identical twins based on their
unique physical characteristics. Existing identification methods rely on subjective
observations or biometric data, such as fingerprinting or facial recognition, which can yield
unreliable results. This project aims to tackle this issue by harnessing the power of machine
learning to create a more reliable and objective means of identifying identical twins.

Existing Problem:

Identifying identical twins accurately is a challenging problem with several implications:

1. Forensics: In criminal investigations, the inability to distinguish between identical twins

can lead to wrongful accusations or the release of a guilty party. Current forensic methods
often rely on non-genetic traits that may not be unique to each twin.
2. Healthcare: In medical contexts, misidentification of twins can lead to incorrect
treatments or prescriptions. This is particularly relevant in cases of organ transplantation,
where genetic compatibility is crucial.

3. Education and Research: Identical twins can provide valuable insights into the role of
genetics in various traits and diseases. Accurate twin identification is vital for studies in
behavioral genetics, epidemiology, and related fields.

Disadvantages :

1. Low Efficiency

2. Low accuracy

Proposed Solution:

The "Prediction of Identical Twins using ML" project aims to address the challenges of twin
identification through the following proposed solution:

1. Data Collection: A comprehensive dataset of identical twins, including their physical

characteristics, biometric data, and genetic information, will be collected. This dataset will
serve as the foundation for training the machine learning model.

2. Machine Learning Model Development: State-of-the-art machine learning techniques,

such as deep learning and feature extraction, will be employed to develop a model capable
of identifying identical twins based on a combination of physical traits and biometric data.
The model will be trained on the collected dataset to learn unique patterns that distinguish
identical twins from other individuals.

3. Deployment and Integration: The trained model will be integrated into a user-friendly
application that can be used in various domains, including forensics, healthcare, and
research. This application will provide reliable and objective twin identification, helping to
solve the problem of misidentification.

Advantages :

1. High Efficiency
2. High Accuracy

System Requirement :

➢ H/W System Configuration:-

➢ Processor - Pentium –IV

➢ RAM - 4 GB (min)
➢ Hard Disk - 20 GB
➢ Key Board - Standard Windows Keyboard
➢ Mouse - Two or Three Button Mouse
➢ Monitor - SVGA

SOFTWARE REQUIREMENTS:

 Operating system : Windows 8 Ultimate.

 Coding Language : Python.

Literature Review :

1. Literature Review: Biometric Data and Twin Recognition

Abstract: This literature review explores the intersection of biometric data and twin
recognition in the context of machine learning. It delves into the various biometric modalities,
such as facial recognition, fingerprinting, and iris scans, and their potential utility in
identifying identical twins. The review also investigates existing challenges and limitations in
utilizing biometric data for twin recognition and provides insights into how machine learning
can enhance the accuracy and reliability of twin identification.

2. Literature Review: Twin Studies and Genetics in Identical Twin Identification

Abstract: This literature review focuses on the genetic underpinnings of identical twin
identification. It examines twin studies, genetic markers, and the heritability of physical traits
in monozygotic twins. By analyzing the existing research, this review offers a comprehensive
overview of the unique genetic factors that can be leveraged for accurate twin recognition,
particularly through machine learning approaches.

3. Literature Review: Ethics and Privacy in Identical Twin Identification Using ML

Abstract: This literature review explores the ethical and privacy considerations associated
with employing machine learning for identical twin identification. It investigates the potential
risks of biometric data collection and the implications for individuals' privacy and consent.
The review examines current ethical guidelines, legal frameworks, and best practices in twin
identification to ensure that machine learning models are developed and applied responsibly
and with utmost regard for ethical standards.
2.3 FEASIBILITY STUDY :

The feasibility of the project is analyzed in this phase and business proposal is
put forth with a very general plan for the project and some cost estimates. During
system analysis the feasibility study of the proposed system is to be carried out. This
is to ensure that the proposed system is not a burden to the company. For feasibility
analysis, some understanding of the major requirements for the system is essential.

Three key considerations involved in the feasibility analysis are :

 ECONOMICAL FEASIBILITY
 TECHNICAL FEASIBILITY
 SOCIAL FEASIBILITY

 ECONOMICAL FEASIBILITY

This study is carried out to check the economic impact that the system will
have on the organization. The amount of fund that the company can pour into the
research and development of the system is limited. The expenditures must be
justified. Thus the developed system as well within the budget and this was achieved
because most of the technologies used are freely available. Only the customized
products had to be purchased.

 TECHNICAL FEASIBILITY

This study is carried out to check the technical feasibility, that is, the technical
requirements of the system. Any system developed must not have a high demand on
the available technical resources. This will lead to high demands on the available
technical resources. This will lead to high demands being placed on the client. The
developed system must have a modest requirement, as only minimal or null changes
are required for implementing this system.

 SOCIAL FEASIBILITY

The aspect of study is to check the level of acceptance of the system by the
user. This includes the process of training the user to use the system efficiently. The
user must not feel threatened by the system, instead must accept it as a necessity.
The level of acceptance by the users solely depends on the methods that are
employed to educate the user about the system and to make him familiar with it. His
level of confidence must be raised so that he is also able to make some constructive
criticism, which is welcomed, as he is the final user of the system.

Chapter-III

SYSTEM DESIGN

3.1 MODULES :

 User
 System
3.1.1 User

In this module,user has to give the retina image as input.

3.1.2 System

In this module,system has to preprocess the image,Run the CNN

algorithm,predict retinopathy and show the accuracy.
3.2 DESIGN REPRESENTATION :

UML stands for Unified Modeling Language. UML is a standardized general-

purpose modeling language in the field of object-oriented software engineering. The
standard is managed, and was created by, the Object Management Group.
The goal is for UML to become a common language for creating models of
object oriented computer software. In its current form UML is comprised of two
major components: a Meta-model and a notation. In the future, some form of
method or process may also be added to; or associated with, UML.
The Unified Modeling Language is a standard language for specifying,
Visualization, Constructing and documenting the artifacts of software system, as well
as for business modeling and other non-software systems.
The UML represents a collection of best engineering practices that have
proven successful in the modeling of large and complex systems.
The UML is a very important part of developing objects oriented software
and the software development process. The UML uses mostly graphical notations to
express the design of software projects.
GOALS :

The Primary goals in the design of the UML are as follows :

1. Provide users a ready-to-use, expressive visual modeling Language so that they
can develop and exchange meaningful models.
2. Provide extensibility and specialization mechanisms to extend the core
concepts.
3. Be independent of particular programming languages and development
process.
4. Provide a formal basis for understanding the modeling language.
5. Encourage the growth of object oriented tools market.
6. Support higher level development concepts such as collaborations,
frameworks, patterns and components.
3.2.1 USE CASE DIAGRAM :

A use case diagram in the Unified Modeling Language (UML) is a type of

behavioral diagram defined by and created from a Use-case analysis. Its purpose is to
present a graphical overview of the functionality provided by a system in terms of
actors, their goals (represented as use cases), and any dependencies between those
use cases. The main purpose of a use case diagram is to show what system functions
are performed for which actor. Roles of the actors in the system can be depicted.

Fig 3.1: Use case diagram

3.2.2 CLASS DIAGRAM :

In software engineering, a class diagram in the Unified Modeling Language

(UML) is a type of static structure diagram that describes the structure of a system
by showing the system's classes, their attributes, operations (or methods), and the
relationships among the classes.
Fig 3.3: Class diagram
3.3.3 SEQUENCE DIAGRAM :

A sequence diagram in Unified Modeling Language (UML) is a kind of

interaction diagram that shows how processes operate with one another and in
what order. It is a construct of a Message Sequence Chart. Sequence diagrams are
sometimes called event diagrams, event scenarios, and timing diagrams.

Fig 3.4: Sequence diagram

3.3.4 ACTIVITY DIAGRAM:

Activity diagram is another important behavioral diagram in UML diagram to

describe dynamic aspects of the system. Activity diagram is essentially an advanced
version of flow chart that modeling the flow from one activity to another activity.
SOFTWARE ENVIRONMENT :
What is Python :

Below are some facts about Python.

Python is currently the most widely used multi-purpose, high-level

programming language.

Python allows programming in Object-Oriented and Procedural paradigms.

Python programs generally are smaller than other programming languages like
Java.

Programmers have to type relatively less and indentation requirement of the

language, makes them readable all the time.

Python language is being used by almost all tech-giant companies like –

Google, Amazon, Facebook, Instagram, Dropbox, Uber… etc.

The biggest strength of Python is huge collection of standard library which

can be used for the following –

 Machine Learning
 GUI Applications (like Kivy, Tkinter, PyQt etc. )
 Web frameworks like Django (used by YouTube, Instagram, Dropbox)
 Image processing (like Opencv, Pillow)
 Web scraping (like Scrapy, BeautifulSoup, Selenium)
 Test frameworks
 Multimedia

Advantages of Python :-
Let’s see how Python dominates over other languages.
1. Extensive Libraries

Python downloads with an extensive library and it contain code for various
purposes like regular expressions, documentation-generation, unit-testing, web
browsers, threading, databases, CGI, email, image manipulation, and more. So,
we don’t have to write the complete code for that manually.

2. Extensible

As we have seen earlier, Python can be extended to other languages. You can
write some of your code in languages like C++ or C. This comes in handy,
especially in projects.

3. Embeddable

Complimentary to extensibility, Python is embeddable as well. You can put your

Python code in your source code of a different language, like C++. This lets us
add scripting capabilities to our code in the other language.

4. Improved Productivity

The language’s simplicity and extensive libraries render programmers more

productive than languages like Java and C++ do. Also, the fact that you need to
write less and get more things done.

5. IOT Opportunities

Since Python forms the basis of new platforms like Raspberry Pi, it finds the
future bright for the Internet Of Things. This is a way to connect the language
with the real world.

When working with Java, you may have to create a class to print ‘Hello World’.
But in Python, just a print statement will do. It is also quite easy to
 learn, understand, and code. This is why when people pick up Python, they
have a hard time adjusting to other more verbose languages like Java.

7. Readable

Because it is not such a verbose language, reading Python is much like reading
English. This is the reason why it is so easy to learn, understand, and code. It
also does not need curly braces to define blocks, and indentation is mandatory.
This further aids the readability of the code.

8. Object-Oriented

This language supports both the procedural and object-oriented programming

paradigms. While functions help us with code reusability, classes and objects let
us model the real world. A class allows the encapsulation of data and functions
into one.

9. Free and Open-Source

Like we said earlier, Python is freely available. But not only can you download
Python for free, but you can also download its source code, make changes to it,
and even distribute it. It downloads with an extensive collection of libraries to
help you with your tasks.

10. Portable

When you code your project in a language like C++, you may need to make
some changes to it if you want to run it on another platform. But it isn’t the same
with Python. Here, you need to code only once, and you can run it anywhere.
This is called Write Once Run Anywhere (WORA). However, you need to be
careful enough not to include any system-dependent features.
11. Interpreted

Lastly, we will say that it is an interpreted language. Since statements are

executed one by one, debugging is easier than in compiled languages.
Any doubts till now in the advantages of Python? Mention in the comment
section.

Advantages of Python Over Other Languages :

1. Less Coding

Almost all of the tasks done in Python requires less coding when the same task is
done in other languages. Python also has an awesome standard library support,
so you don’t have to search for any third-party libraries to get your job done.
This is the reason that many people suggest learning Python to beginners.

2. Affordable

Python is free therefore individuals, small companies or big organizations can

leverage the free available resources to build applications. Python is popular and
widely used so it gives you better community support.

The 2019 Github annual survey showed us that Python has overtaken Java
in the most popular programming language category.

3. Python is for Everyone

Python code can run on any machine whether it is Linux, Mac or Windows.
Programmers need to learn different languages for different jobs but with Python,
you can professionally build web apps, perform data analysis and machine
 learning, automate things, do web scraping and also build games and powerful
visualizations. It is an all-rounder programming language.

Disadvantages of Python

So far, we’ve seen why Python is a great choice for your project. But if you
choose it, you should be aware of its consequences as well. Let’s now see the
downsides of choosing Python over another language.

1. Speed Limitations

We have seen that Python code is executed line by line. But since Python is
interpreted, it often results in slow execution. This, however, isn’t a problem
unless speed is a focal point for the project. In other words, unless high speed is a
requirement, the benefits offered by Python are enough to distract us from its
speed limitations.
2. Weak in Mobile Computing and Browsers

While it serves as an excellent server-side language, Python is much rarely seen

on the client-side. Besides that, it is rarely ever used to implement smartphone-
based applications. One such application is called Carbonnelle.
The reason it is not so famous despite the existence of Brython is that it isn’t that
secure.

3. Design Restrictions

As you know, Python is dynamically-typed. This means that you don’t need to
declare the type of variable while writing the code. It uses duck-typing. But wait,
what’s that? Well, it just means that if it looks like a duck, it must be a duck.
While this is easy on the programmers during coding, it can raise run-time
errors.
4. Underdeveloped Database Access Layers

Compared to more widely used technologies like JDBC (Java DataBase

Connectivity) and ODBC (Open DataBase Connectivity), Python’s database
 access layers are a bit underdeveloped. Consequently, it is less often applied in
huge enterprises.
5. Simple

No, we’re not kidding. Python’s simplicity can indeed be a problem. Take my
example. I don’t do Java, I’m more of a Python person. To me, its syntax is so
simple that the verbosity of Java code seems unnecessary.

This was all about the Advantages and Disadvantages of Python Programming
Language.

History of Python : -

What do the alphabet and the programming language Python have in common?
Right, both start with ABC. If we are talking about ABC in the Python context,
it's clear that the programming language ABC is meant. ABC is a general-purpose
programming language and programming environment, which had been
developed in the Netherlands, Amsterdam, at the CWI (Centrum Wiskunde
&Informatica). The greatest achievement of ABC was to influence the design of
Python.Python was conceptualized in the late 1980s. Guido van Rossum worked
that time in a project at the CWI, called Amoeba, a distributed operating system.
In an interview with Bill Venners1, Guido van Rossum said: "In the early 1980s, I
worked as an implementer on a team building a language called ABC at Centrum
voor Wiskunde en Informatica (CWI). I don't know how well people know ABC's
influence on Python. I try to mention ABC's influence because I'm indebted to
everything I learned during that project and to the people who worked on it."Later
on in the same Interview, Guido van Rossum continued: "I remembered all my
experience and some of my frustration with ABC. I decided to try to design a
 simple scripting language that possessed some of ABC's better properties, but
without its problems. So I started typing. I created a simple virtual machine, a
simple parser, and a simple runtime. I made my own version of the various ABC
parts that I liked. I created a basic syntax, used indentation for statement grouping
instead of curly braces or begin-end blocks, and developed a small number of
powerful data types: a hash table (or dictionary, as we call it), a list, strings, and
numbers."

What is Machine Learning : -

Before we take a look at the details of various machine learning methods, let's
start by looking at what machine learning is, and what it isn't. Machine learning is
often categorized as a subfield of artificial intelligence, but I find that
categorization can often be misleading at first brush. The study of machine
learning certainly arose from research in this context, but in the data science
application of machine learning methods, it's more helpful to think of machine
learning as a means of building models of data.

Fundamentally, machine learning involves building mathematical models to help

understand data. "Learning" enters the fray when we give these models tunable
parameters that can be adapted to observed data; in this way the program can be
considered to be "learning" from the data. Once these models have been fit to
previously seen data, they can be used to predict and understand aspects of newly
observed data. I'll leave to the reader the more philosophical digression regarding
the extent to which this type of mathematical, model-based "learning" is similar to
the "learning" exhibited by the human brain.Understanding the problem setting in
machine learning is essential to using these tools effectively, and so we will start
with some broad categorizations of the types of approaches we'll discuss here.
Categories Of Machine Leaning :-

At the most fundamental level, machine learning can be categorized into two
main types: supervised learning and unsupervised learning.

Supervised learning involves somehow modeling the relationship between

measured features of data and some label associated with the data; once this
model is determined, it can be used to apply labels to new, unknown data. This is
further subdivided into classification tasks and regression tasks: in classification,
the labels are discrete categories, while in regression, the labels are continuous
quantities. We will see examples of both types of supervised learning in the
following section.

Unsupervised learning involves modeling the features of a dataset without

reference to any label, and is often described as "letting the dataset speak for
itself." These models include tasks such as clustering and dimensionality
reduction. Clustering algorithms identify distinct groups of data, while
dimensionality reduction algorithms search for more succinct representations of
the data. We will see examples of both types of unsupervised learning in the
following section.

Need for Machine Learning

Human beings, at this moment, are the most intelligent and advanced species on
earth because they can think, evaluate and solve complex problems. On the other
side, AI is still in its initial stage and haven’t surpassed human intelligence in
many aspects. Then the question is that what is the need to make machine learn?
The most suitable reason for doing this is, “to make decisions, based on data, with
efficiency and scale”.

Lately, organizations are investing heavily in newer technologies like Artificial

Intelligence, Machine Learning and Deep Learning to get the key information
from data to perform several real-world tasks and solve problems. We can call it
data-driven decisions taken by machines, particularly to automate the process.
These data-driven decisions can be used, instead of using programing logic, in the
 problems that cannot be programmed inherently. The fact is that we can’t do
without human intelligence, but other aspect is that we all need to solve real-
world problems with efficiency at a huge scale. That is why the need for machine
learning arises.

Challenges in Machines Learning :-

While Machine Learning is rapidly evolving, making significant strides with

cybersecurity and autonomous cars, this segment of AI as whole still has a long
way to go. The reason behind is that ML has not been able to overcome number
of challenges. The challenges that ML is facing currently are −

Quality of data − Having good-quality data for ML algorithms is one of the

biggest challenges. Use of low-quality data leads to the problems related to data
preprocessing and feature extraction.

Time-Consuming task − Another challenge faced by ML models is the

consumption of time especially for data acquisition, feature extraction and
retrieval.

Lack of specialist persons − As ML technology is still in its infancy stage,

availability of expert resources is a tough job.

No clear objective for formulating business problems − Having no clear

objective and well-defined goal for business problems is another key challenge
for ML because this technology is not that mature yet.

Issue of overfitting & underfitting − If the model is overfitting or underfitting, it

cannot be represented well for the problem.

Curse of dimensionality − Another challenge ML model faces is too many

features of data points. This can be a real hindrance.

Difficulty in deployment − Complexity of the ML model makes it quite difficult

to be deployed in real life.
 Applications of Machines Learning :-

Machine Learning is the most rapidly growing technology and according to

researchers we are in the golden year of AI and ML. It is used to solve many real-
world complex problems which cannot be solved with traditional approach.
Following are some real-world applications of ML −

 Emotion analysis

 Sentiment analysis

 Error detection and prevention

 Weather forecasting and prediction

 Stock market analysis and forecasting

 Speech synthesis

 Speech recognition

 Customer segmentation

 Object recognition

 Fraud detection

 Fraud prevention

 Recommendation of products to customer in online shopping

How to Start Learning Machine Learning?

Arthur Samuel coined the term “Machine Learning” in 1959 and defined it as
a “Field of study that gives computers the capability to learn without being
explicitly programmed”.
And that was the beginning of Machine Learning! In modern times, Machine
Learning is one of the most popular (if not the most!) career choices. According
to Indeed, Machine Learning Engineer Is The Best Job of 2019 with
a 344% growth and an average base salary of $146,085 per year.
But there is still a lot of doubt about what exactly is Machine Learning and how to
start learning it? So this article deals with the Basics of Machine Learning and also
the path you can follow to eventually become a full-fledged Machine Learning
Engineer. Now let’s get started!!!

How to start learning ML?

This is a rough roadmap you can follow on your way to becoming an insanely
talented Machine Learning Engineer. Of course, you can always modify the steps
according to your needs to reach your desired end-goal!

Step 1 – Understand the Prerequisites

In case you are a genius, you could start ML directly but normally, there are some
prerequisites that you need to know which include Linear Algebra, Multivariate
Calculus, Statistics, and Python. And if you don’t know these, never fear! You
don’t need a Ph.D. degree in these topics to get started but you do need a basic
understanding.

(a) Learn Linear Algebra and Multivariate Calculus

Both Linear Algebra and Multivariate Calculus are important in Machine

Learning. However, the extent to which you need them depends on your role as a
data scientist. If you are more focused on application heavy machine learning, then
you will not be that heavily focused on maths as there are many common libraries
available. But if you want to focus on R&D in Machine Learning, then mastery of
Linear Algebra and Multivariate Calculus is very important as you will have to
implement many ML algorithms from scratch.

(b) Learn Statistics

Data plays a huge role in Machine Learning. In fact, around 80% of your time as
an ML expert will be spent collecting and cleaning data. And statistics is a field
that handles the collection, analysis, and presentation of data. So it is no surprise
 that you need to learn it!!!
Some of the key concepts in statistics that are important are Statistical
Significance, Probability Distributions, Hypothesis Testing, Regression, etc. Also,
Bayesian Thinking is also a very important part of ML which deals with various
concepts like Conditional Probability, Priors, and Posteriors, Maximum
Likelihood, etc.

(c) Learn Python

Some people prefer to skip Linear Algebra, Multivariate Calculus and Statistics
and learn them as they go along with trial and error. But the one thing that you
absolutely cannot skip is Python! While there are other languages you can use for
Machine Learning like R, Scala, etc. Python is currently the most popular language
for ML. In fact, there are many Python libraries that are specifically useful for
Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning such as Keras, TensorFlow, Scikit-
learn, etc.
So if you want to learn ML, it’s best if you learn Python! You can do that using
various online resources and courses such as Fork Python available Free on
GeeksforGeeks.

Step 2 – Learn Various ML Concepts

Now that you are done with the prerequisites, you can move on to actually learning
ML (Which is the fun part!!!) It’s best to start with the basics and then move on to
the more complicated stuff. Some of the basic concepts in ML are:

(a) Terminologies of Machine Learning

 Model – A model is a specific representation learned from data by applying some

machine learning algorithm. A model is also called a hypothesis.
 Feature – A feature is an individual measurable property of the data. A set of
numeric features can be conveniently described by a feature vector. Feature
vectors are fed as input to the model. For example, in order to predict a fruit, there
may be features like color, smell, taste, etc.
 Target (Label) – A target variable or label is the value to be predicted by our model.
For the fruit example discussed in the feature section, the label with each set of
input would be the name of the fruit like apple, orange, banana, etc.
 Training – The idea is to give a set of inputs(features) and it’s expected
outputs(labels), so after training, we will have a model (hypothesis) that will then
map new data to one of the categories trained on.
 Prediction – Once our model is ready, it can be fed a set of inputs to which it will
provide a predicted output(label).

(b) Types of Machine Learning

 Supervised Learning – This involves learning from a training dataset with labeled
data using classification and regression models. This learning process continues
until the required level of performance is achieved.
 Unsupervised Learning – This involves using unlabelled data and then finding the
underlying structure in the data in order to learn more and more about the data itself
using factor and cluster analysis models.
 Semi-supervised Learning – This involves using unlabelled data like
Unsupervised Learning with a small amount of labeled data. Using labeled data
vastly increases the learning accuracy and is also more cost-effective than
Supervised Learning.
 Reinforcement Learning – This involves learning optimal actions through trial
and error. So the next action is decided by learning behaviors that are based on the
current state and that will maximize the reward in the future.
Advantages of Machine learning :-

1. Easily identifies trends and patterns -

Machine Learning can review large volumes of data and discover specific trends and
patterns that would not be apparent to humans. For instance, for an e-commerce
website like Amazon, it serves to understand the browsing behaviors and purchase
histories of its users to help cater to the right products, deals, and reminders relevant
to them. It uses the results to reveal relevant advertisements to them.
2. No human intervention needed (automation)

With ML, you don’t need to babysit your project every step of the way. Since it
means giving machines the ability to learn, it lets them make predictions and also
improve the algorithms on their own. A common example of this is anti-virus
softwares; they learn to filter new threats as they are recognized. ML is also good at
recognizing spam.

3. Continuous Improvement

As ML algorithms gain experience, they keep improving in accuracy and efficiency.

This lets them make better decisions. Say you need to make a weather forecast
model. As the amount of data you have keeps growing, your algorithms learn to
make more accurate predictions faster.

4. Handling multi-dimensional and multi-variety data

Machine Learning algorithms are good at handling data that are multi-dimensional
and multi-variety, and they can do this in dynamic or uncertain environments.

5. Wide Applications

You could be an e-tailer or a healthcare provider and make ML work for you. Where
it does apply, it holds the capability to help deliver a much more personal experience
to customers while also targeting the right customers.

Disadvantages of Machine Learning :-

1. Data Acquisition

Machine Learning requires massive data sets to train on, and these should be
inclusive/unbiased, and of good quality. There can also be times where they must
wait for new data to be generated.

2. Time and Resources

ML needs enough time to let the algorithms learn and develop enough to fulfill their
purpose with a considerable amount of accuracy and relevancy. It also needs
massive resources to function. This can mean additional requirements of computer
power for you.

3. Interpretation of Results

Another major challenge is the ability to accurately interpret results generated by the
algorithms. You must also carefully choose the algorithms for your purpose.

4. High error-susceptibility

Machine Learning is autonomous but highly susceptible to errors. Suppose you train
an algorithm with data sets small enough to not be inclusive. You end up with biased
predictions coming from a biased training set. This leads to irrelevant advertisements
being displayed to customers. In the case of ML, such blunders can set off a chain of
errors that can go undetected for long periods of time. And when they do get noticed,
it takes quite some time to recognize the source of the issue, and even longer to
correct it.

Python Development Steps : -

Guido Van Rossum published the first version of Python code (version 0.9.0) at
alt.sources in February 1991. This release included already exception handling,
functions, and the core data types of list, dict, str and others. It was also object
oriented and had a module system.
Python version 1.0 was released in January 1994. The major new features included
in this release were the functional programming tools lambda, map, filter and
reduce, which Guido Van Rossum never liked.Six and a half years later in October
2000, Python 2.0 was introduced. This release included list comprehensions, a full
garbage collector and it was supporting unicode.Python flourished for another 8
years in the versions 2.x before the next major release as Python 3.0 (also known as
"Python 3000" and "Py3K") was released. Python 3 is not backwards compatible
with Python 2.x. The emphasis in Python 3 had been on the removal of duplicate
programming constructs and modules, thus fulfilling or coming close to fulfilling
the 13th law of the Zen of Python: "There should be one -- and preferably only one
-- obvious way to do it."Some changes in Python 7.3:
 Print is now a function
 Views and iterators instead of lists
 The rules for ordering comparisons have been simplified. E.g. a heterogeneous
list cannot be sorted, because all the elements of a list must be comparable to
each other.
 There is only one integer type left, i.e. int. long is int as well.
 The division of two integers returns a float instead of an integer. "//" can be used
to have the "old" behaviour.
 Text Vs. Data Instead Of Unicode Vs. 8-bit

Purpose :-

We demonstrated that our approach enables successful segmentation of intra-

retinal layers—even with low-quality images containing speckle noise, low
contrast, and different intensity ranges throughout—with the assistance of the
ANIS feature.

Python

Python is an interpreted high-level programming language for general-purpose

programming. Created by Guido van Rossum and first released in 1991, Python
has a design philosophy that emphasizes code readability, notably using
significant whitespace.

Python features a dynamic type system and automatic memory management. It

supports multiple programming paradigms, including object-oriented, imperative,
functional and procedural, and has a large and comprehensive standard library.

 Python is Interpreted − Python is processed at runtime by the interpreter. You do

not need to compile your program before executing it. This is similar to PERL
and PHP.
 Python is Interactive − you can actually sit at a Python prompt and interact with
the interpreter directly to write your programs.
Python also acknowledges that speed of development is important. Readable and
terse code is part of this, and so is access to powerful constructs that avoid tedious
repetition of code. Maintainability also ties into this may be an all but useless
metric, but it does say something about how much code you have to scan, read
 and/or understand to troubleshoot problems or tweak behaviors. This speed of
development, the ease with which a programmer of other languages can pick up
basic Python skills and the huge standard library is key to another area where
Python excels. All its tools have been quick to implement, saved a lot of time, and
several of them have later been patched and updated by people with no Python
background - without breaking.

Modules Used in Project :-

Tensorflow

TensorFlow is a free and open-source software library for dataflow and

differentiable programming across a range of tasks. It is a symbolic math library,
and is also used for machine learning applications such as neural networks. It is
used for both research and production at Google.‍

TensorFlow was developed by the Google Brain team for internal Google use. It
was released under the Apache 2.0 open-source license on November 9, 2015.

Numpy

Numpy is a general-purpose array-processing package. It provides a high-

performance multidimensional array object, and tools for working with these
arrays.

It is the fundamental package for scientific computing with Python. It contains

various features including these important ones:

 A powerful N-dimensional array object

 Sophisticated (broadcasting) functions
 Tools for integrating C/C++ and Fortran code
 Useful linear algebra, Fourier transform, and random number capabilities
Besides its obvious scientific uses, Numpy can also be used as an efficient multi-
dimensional container of generic data. Arbitrary data-types can be defined using
Numpy which allows Numpy to seamlessly and speedily integrate with a wide
variety of databases.

Pandas
Pandas is an open-source Python Library providing high-performance data
manipulation and analysis tool using its powerful data structures. Python was
majorly used for data munging and preparation. It had very little contribution
towards data analysis. Pandas solved this problem. Using Pandas, we can
accomplish five typical steps in the processing and analysis of data, regardless of
the origin of data load, prepare, manipulate, model, and analyze. Python with
Pandas is used in a wide range of fields including academic and commercial
domains including finance, economics, Statistics, analytics, etc.

Matplotlib

Matplotlib is a Python 2D plotting library which produces publication quality

figures in a variety of hardcopy formats and interactive environments across
platforms. Matplotlib can be used in Python scripts, the Python
and IPython shells, the Jupyter Notebook, web application servers, and four
graphical user interface toolkits. Matplotlib tries to make easy things easy and
hard things possible. You can generate plots, histograms, power spectra, bar
charts, error charts, scatter plots, etc., with just a few lines of code. For examples,
see the sample plots and thumbnail gallery.

For simple plotting the pyplot module provides a MATLAB-like interface,

particularly when combined with IPython. For the power user, you have full
control of line styles, font properties, axes properties, etc, via an object oriented
interface or via a set of functions familiar to MATLAB users.

Scikit – learn

Scikit-learn provides a range of supervised and unsupervised learning algorithms

via a consistent interface in Python. It is licensed under a permissive simplified
BSD license and is distributed under many Linux distributions, encouraging
academic and commercial use. Python

Python is an interpreted high-level programming language for general-purpose

programming. Created by Guido van Rossum and first released in 1991, Python
has a design philosophy that emphasizes code readability, notably using
significant whitespace.
 Python features a dynamic type system and automatic memory management. It
supports multiple programming paradigms, including object-oriented, imperative,
functional and procedural, and has a large and comprehensive standard library.

 Python is Interpreted − Python is processed at runtime by the interpreter. You do

not need to compile your program before executing it. This is similar to PERL
and PHP.
 Python is Interactive − you can actually sit at a Python prompt and interact with
the interpreter directly to write your programs.
Python also acknowledges that speed of development is important. Readable and
terse code is part of this, and so is access to powerful constructs that avoid tedious
repetition of code. Maintainability also ties into this may be an all but useless
metric, but it does say something about how much code you have to scan, read
and/or understand to troubleshoot problems or tweak behaviors. This speed of
development, the ease with which a programmer of other languages can pick up
basic Python skills and the huge standard library is key to another area where
Python excels. All its tools have been quick to implement, saved a lot of time, and
several of them have later been patched and updated by people with no Python
background - without breaking.

Install Python Step-by-Step in Windows and Mac :

Python a versatile programming language doesn’t come pre-installed on your

computer devices. Python was first released in the year 1991 and until today it is
a very popular high-level programming language. Its style philosophy
emphasizes code readability with its notable use of great whitespace.
The object-oriented approach and language construct provided by Python
enables programmers to write both clear and logical code for projects. This
software does not come pre-packaged with Windows.
How to Install Python on Windows and Mac :

There have been several updates in the Python version over the years. The question
is how to install Python? It might be confusing for the beginner who is willing to
start learning Python but this tutorial will solve your query. The latest or the newest
version of Python is version 3.7.4 or in other words, it is Python 3.
Note: The python version 3.7.4 cannot be used on Windows XP or earlier devices.

Before you start with the installation process of Python. First, you need to know
about your System Requirements. Based on your system type i.e. operating system
and based processor, you must download the python version. My system type is
a Windows 64-bit operating system. So the steps below are to install python
version 3.7.4 on Windows 7 device or to install Python 3. Download the Python
Cheatsheet here.The steps on how to install Python on Windows 10, 8 and 7
are divided into 4 parts to help understand better.

Download the Correct version into the system

Step 1: Go to the official site to download and install python using Google Chrome
or any other web browser. OR Click on the following link: https://www.python.org
Now, check for the latest and the correct version for your operating system.

Step 2: Click on the Download Tab.

Step 3: You can either select the Download Python for windows 3.7.4 button in
Yellow Color or you can scroll further down and click on download with respective
to their version. Here, we are downloading the most recent python version for
windows 3.7.4
Step 4: Scroll down the page until you find the Files option.

Step 5: Here you see a different version of python along with the operating system.

• To download Windows 32-bit python, you can select any one from the three
options: Windows x86 embeddable zip file, Windows x86 executable installer or
Windows x86 web-based installer.
•To download Windows 64-bit python, you can select any one from the three
options: Windows x86-64 embeddable zip file, Windows x86-64 executable installer
or Windows x86-64 web-based installer.
Here we will install Windows x86-64 web-based installer. Here your first part
regarding which version of python is to be downloaded is completed. Now we move
ahead with the second part in installing python i.e. Installation
Note: To know the changes or updates that are made in the version you can click on
the Release Note Option.
Installation of Python
Step 1: Go to Download and Open the downloaded python version to carry out the
installation process.

Step 2: Before you click on Install Now, Make sure to put a tick on Add Python 3.7
to PATH.
Step 3: Click on Install NOW After the installation is successful. Click on Close.

With these above three steps on python installation, you have successfully and
correctly installed Python. Now is the time to verify the installation.
Note: The installation process might take a couple of minutes.

Verify the Python Installation

Step 1: Click on Start
Step 2: In the Windows Run Command, type “cmd”.
Step 3: Open the Command prompt option.
Step 4: Let us test whether the python is correctly installed. Type python –V and
press Enter.

Step 5: You will get the answer as 3.7.4

Note: If you have any of the earlier versions of Python already installed. You must
first uninstall the earlier version and then install the new one.

Check how the Python IDLE works

Step 1: Click on Start
Step 2: In the Windows Run command, type “python idle”.
 Step 3: Click on IDLE (Python 3.7 64-bit) and launch the program
Step 4: To go ahead with working in IDLE you must first save the file. Click on
File > Click on Save

Step 5: Name the file and save as type should be Python files. Click on SAVE. Here
I have named the files as Hey World.
Step 6: Now for e.g. enter print

6.SYSTEM TEST
The purpose of testing is to discover errors. Testing is the process of trying to
discover every conceivable fault or weakness in a work product. It provides a way to
check the functionality of components, sub assemblies, assemblies and/or a finished
product It is the process of exercising software with the intent of ensuring that the
Software system meets its requirements and user expectations and does not fail in an
unacceptable manner. There are various types of test. Each test type addresses a
specific testing requirement.

TYPES OF TESTS

Unit testing
Unit testing involves the design of test cases that validate that the
internal program logic is functioning properly, and that program inputs produce valid
outputs. All decision branches and internal code flow should be validated. It is the
testing of individual software units of the application .it is done after the completion
of an individual unit before integration. This is a structural testing, that relies on
knowledge of its construction and is invasive. Unit tests perform basic tests at
component level and test a specific business process, application, and/or system
configuration. Unit tests ensure that each unique path of a business process performs
accurately to the documented specifications and contains clearly defined inputs and
expected results.

Integration testing
Integration tests are designed to test integrated software
components to determine if they actually run as one program. Testing is event driven
and is more concerned with the basic outcome of screens or fields. Integration tests
demonstrate that although the components were individually satisfaction, as shown by
successfully unit testing, the combination of components is correct and consistent.
Integration testing is specifically aimed at exposing the problems that arise from the
combination of components.

Functional test
Functional tests provide systematic demonstrations that
functions tested are available as specified by the business and technical
requirements, system documentation, and user manuals.
Functional testing is centered on the following items:

Valid Input : identified classes of valid input must be accepted.

Invalid Input : identified classes of invalid input must be rejected.

 Functions : identified functions must be exercised.

Output : identified classes of application outputs must be

exercised.

Systems/Procedures : interfacing systems or procedures must be invoked.

Organization and preparation of functional tests is focused on

requirements, key functions, or special test cases. In addition, systematic coverage
pertaining to identify Business process flows; data fields, predefined processes, and
successive processes must be considered for testing. Before functional testing is
complete, additional tests are identified and the effective value of current tests is
determined.

System Test
System testing ensures that the entire integrated software system meets
requirements. It tests a configuration to ensure known and predictable results. An
example of system testing is the configuration oriented system integration test.
System testing is based on process descriptions and flows, emphasizing pre-driven
process links and integration points.

White Box Testing

White Box Testing is a testing in which in which the software tester
has knowledge of the inner workings, structure and language of the software, or at
least its purpose. It is purpose. It is used to test areas that cannot be reached from a
black box level.
Black Box Testing
Black Box Testing is testing the software without any
knowledge of the inner workings, structure or language of the module
being tested. Black box tests, as most other kinds of tests, must be written
from a definitive source document, such as specification or requirements
document, such as specification or requirements document. It is a testing
in which the software under test is treated, as a black box .you cannot
“see” into it. The test provides inputs and responds to outputs without
considering how the software works.

Unit Testing

Unit testing is usually conducted as part of a combined code and unit

test phase of the software lifecycle, although it is not uncommon for coding and unit
testing to be conducted as two distinct phases.

Test strategy and approach

Field testing will be performed manually and functional tests will be

written in detail.
Test objectives
 All field entries must work properly.
 Pages must be activated from the identified link.
 The entry screen, messages and responses must not be delayed.

Features to be tested
 Verify that the entries are of the correct format
 No duplicate entries should be allowed
 All links should take the user to the correct page.
Integration Testing

Software integration testing is the incremental integration testing of two

or more integrated software components on a single platform to produce failures
caused by interface defects.

The task of the integration test is to check that components or software applications,
e.g. components in a software system or – one step up – software applications at the
company level – interact without error.

Test Results: All the test cases mentioned above passed successfully. No defects
encountered.

Acceptance Testing
User Acceptance Testing is a critical phase of any project and requires significant
participation by the end user. It also ensures that the system meets the functional
requirements.

Test Results: All the test cases mentioned above passed successfully. No defects
encountered

Screen Shorts:

In real words twins faces are exists and this twins can utilize advantages
to dupe peoples in examination or any other organizations. To detect such
twins we are applying machine learning algorithms such as Naïve Bayes
and Random Forest which may get trained on possible Real and Twins
faces. Once after training we can input face to this trained model to
identify weather face is Real or Twin. Before training we are applying
various image processing techniques such as applying Bilateral Filters to
enhance image quality and then convert image to Black & White format
and then apply Object detection technique to detect face from image. This
processed image will be input to Machine learning algorithm to train a
model.
For training we are using below images dataset
In above screen we have two folders called Twins and Real and just go
inside any folder to view images like below screen

So by using above images we will evaluate performance of both Random

Forest and Naïve Bayes Algorithm.
To implement this project we have designed following modules
1) Upload Twins Dataset: using this module we will upload dataset to
application and then apply filtration and object detection
techniques
 2) Dataset Preprocessing: using this module we will normalized and
then shuffle and split dataset into train and test where application
using 80% dataset for training and 20% for testing
3) Run Naive Bayes Algorithm: 80% processed train images will be
input to Naive Bayes Algorithm to train a model and this model
will be applied on 20% test images to calculate prediction accuracy
4) Run Random Forest Algorithm: 80% processed train images will
be input to Random Forest Algorithm to train a model and this
model will be applied on 20% test images to calculate prediction
accuracy
5) Comparison Graph: using this module we will plot comparison
graph between both algorithms
6) Twins or Real Face Prediction: using this module we will upload
test images and then algorithm will predict weather image is real or
belongs to twins.
SCREEN SHOTS
To run project double click on ‘run.bat’ file to get below screen

In above screen click on ‘Upload Twins Dataset’ button to upload dataset

and get below output
In above screen selecting and uploading ‘Dataset’ folder and then click
on ‘Select Folder’ button to load dataset and get below output

In above screen we can see dataset loaded and we can see available labels
and images in the dataset and now click on ‘Dataset Preprocessing’
button to normalize, shuffle and split dataset into train and test and will
get below output
In above screen we can see dataset processed and we can see total images
used for train and test and now click on ‘Run Naïve Bayes Algorithm’
button to train Naïve Bayes and get below output

In above screen with Naïve Bayes we got accuracy as 99% and we can
see other metrics also and in confusion matrix graph x-axis represents
Predicted Labels and y-axis represents True Labels and green and yellow
boxes contains Correct Prediction count and blue boxes represents
incorrect prediction count which is 1 only and now close above window
and then click on ‘Run Random Forest’ button to train Random Forest
and get below output

In above screen with Random Forest we got 100% accuracy and we can
see confusion graph also and now click on ‘Comparison Graph’ button to
get below graph

In above graph x-axis represents algorithm names and y-axis represents

accuracy and other metrics in different colour bars and in both algorithms
Random Forest got high performance and now click on ‘Twins or Real
Face Prediction’ button to upload test image and get below output
In above screen selecting and uploading ‘0.jpg’ image and then click on
‘Open’ button to load image and get below output

In above screen in red colour text we can see image predicted as Twins
and we can see detected object in face in black and white colour and
similarly you can upload and test other images
In above screen image predicted as real.