-What is Social Psychology-

A science that studies the in uences of our situations, with special attention to how
we view and affect one another.
Studies:
Social thinking:
-Our judgements
-What we believe
Social in uence:
-Culture and biology
-Pressure to conform
Social relations:
-Agression
-Attraction and intimacy
-Prejudice

Allport 1935
-The discipline that seeks to understand how the thoughts, feelings and behaviours of
individuals are in uenced by the actual thought

Brehm and kassin (1993)

-The scienti c study of the way individuals think, feel and behave in social situations

Common class themes:

-We are in uenced by our social surroundings
-Affected by our social surroundings

Characteristics of social psychology:

-We analyze the individual person
-Analyse the interaction between the person and situation
-Examines internal psychological states and observable behaviour
-Uses scienti c methods
Ex. Milgram Experiment
-Bhevaiour is a complex interaction between behaviour and characterisitcs
-It encompasses our mood, self esteem
-Social Psychology is a science
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Similarities and Differences to other disciplines:
-Fair amount of overlap
Sociology:
Similar: Some research questions
Differences:Unit of analysis (the group instead of individual), methodology
Cognitive Psychology:
Similar: Unit of analysis, methodology
Differences: Research questions
Personality Psychology:
-Often grouped together
Differences: emphasis on person
Clinical Psychology:
-Fair amount of overlap
Differences: Focus of normative behaviour
-Explaination of social psychology Pretest—

Question 1: Smiling can make you happier

True
Soussignan, participants were watching video clips, some postitive, some negative
and all they had to do was watch
-They were asked to watch with a men in their mouth, some showing no teeth, the
other smiling, the other fake smiling,
-The ones that were smiling felt more happier while watching the clips

Question 2: Its more adaptive to alter ones behaviour than to stay consitient from
ones social situation to the next
False
High or low self-monitoring

Question 3: In general, people are not very skilled at knowing if somebody is lying
True
We are not very good at it, they look at facial ques which are not reliable because
facial ques can be controlled, it is better to look at body language and voice pitch
- most are white lies so hard to detect

Question 4: The notion that we can create a self-ful lling prophecy by getting others
to behave in ways that we expect is a myth
False
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Question 5: On average there is not a large difference in the self esteem members of
low-status stereotypes groups and groups of high status
True
-Low status- tend to compare themselevse to others in their group and so do the high
status group

Question 6: People underestimate the extent to which other notice their appearane
and behaviour
False
We overestimate

Question 7: researchers can tell if somebody has positive or negative attitude toward
a target by measuring their physiological arousal
False
There tools that can be used to measrue but they cannot tell us if the attitude is
positibe or negative

Question: The more you pay somebody to lie the more they belive
False
Cognitive dissonance

Question 9: If one holds a stereotype about a group, exposure to a group member

who does not confrim hat stereotype typically had little eddect on ones overall
attitude and beliefs about the group
True
 -Hypotheses and nonexperimental research—

Importance of Research Methodology

Why Study Research Methods?
-Develops critical thinking skills.
-Essential for both future researchers and informed consumers of information.
-Helps evaluate the validity of research (e.g., when researching illnesses or
assessing media claims).
-Provides tools to distinguish valid scienti c research from less rigorous studies.

The Role of Theory

De nition of a Theory:
-An organized set of principles used to explain observed phenomena.

Characteristics of a Good Theory:

-Simplicity: Clear and concise.
-Completeness: Accounts for all relevant data.
-Internal Consistency: No contradictions.
-Generative: Leads to new research questions.
-Testable: Can be supported or refuted through empirical research.
Functions of Theories:
-Organizes Past Research: Creates coherence among ndings.
-Directs Future Research: Guides the formulation of new hypotheses.
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 -Explains Relationships: Helps understand connections between variables (e.g.,
explaining the persistence of stereotypes).
-Application: Informs real-world interventions based on theoretical insights
(e.g., interventions to reduce stereotypes).

Hypotheses
De nition: An educated guess or prediction about the relationship between two or
more variables.
Role of Hypotheses:
-Each hypothesis contributes one piece to a larger puzzle of understanding.
-Multiple studies and hypotheses across different labs provide converging
evidence, strengthening or refuting a theory.

Nonexperimental Research Designs

Nonexperimental research involves studying relationships between variables without
manipulating them. These designs cannot establish causality but help identify
associations.
Archival Research:
-Researchers analyze existing records to identify patterns.
-Example: Anderson et al. (1997) studied the relationship between
temperature and violent crime using historical weather and crime data.
Case Studies:
-Detailed examination of a single individual or event.
-Common in clinical psychology but less so in social psychology due to the
focus on generalization to larger populations.
Survey Research:
-Involves collecting self-reported data via questionnaires.
-Example: Social psychologists might investigate the relationship between
social comparison and self-esteem.
Observational Studies:
-Researchers observe participants' behavior, often in naturalistic settings.
-Example: Wendy Craig’s study on schoolyard bullying, using microphones and
cameras to capture real-time behavior.

Understanding Correlation
Correlation Coef cient:
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 -Ranges from -1 (perfect negative relationship) to
+1 (perfect positive relationship), with 0
indicating no correlation.
Examples of Correlations:
-Strong Positive Correlation: They both increase
together (excersize and muscle mass)

-Strong Negative Correlation: As one variable

increases, the other one decreases (depression
and optimism)

-Weak Positive Correlation: They increase

together but the relationship is not very strong
(self esteem and extroversion)

-Weak Negative Correlation: As one increas the

other decrease but not very strong relationship
(depression and inactivity)

-No Correlation: Two things that have no relationship (peanut butter

consumption and intelligence)

Limitations of Nonexperimental Research

Correlation ≠ Causation:
-Nonexperimental designs cannot prove that one variable causes changes in
another.
-Example: A correlation between self-esteem and number of friends could
mean:
High self-esteem causes more friendships.
More friendships lead to higher self-esteem.
Both are in uenced by a third variable (e.g., agreeableness).
Spurious Correlations:
-Occur when two variables appear related but are both in uenced by a third
variable.
-Humorous Example: The correlation between electrical appliances and
contraceptive use in Taiwan. A third variable (socioeconomic status) likely
explains both.
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 Experimental Research and Research Ethics

Introduction to Experimental Research

Difference from Nonexperimental Research:
-Nonexperimental research cannot make causal inferences, but experimental
research can

-In experiments, researchers manipulate an independent variable (IV) and

observe its effects on a dependent variable (DV).

Key Features of Experiments

Manipulation of Independent Variables:
The independent variable is actively changed by the researcher (e.g., teaching
Latin vs. playing video games).
Random Assignment:
Participants are randomly assigned to experimental conditions, ensuring no
pre-existing differences between groups.
Prevents bias (e.g., naturally smarter children choosing Latin over video
games).

Importance of Random Assignment

Without random assignment, differences in outcomes could be due to pre-existing
conditions, not the manipulation itself.
Example: Assigning students to learn Latin or play video games randomly ensures
that differences in IQ can be attributed to learning Latin.

Limitations of Experimental Research

Not all variables can be manipulated for ethical or practical reasons:
Age, gender, and having siblings cannot be assigned.
Ethical concerns: Manipulating variables like smoking or dropping out of
school is unethical.

Internal Validity
Refers to how con dently we can attribute changes in the dependent variable to the
independent variable.
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 High internal validity requires:
Random assignment.
Controlling other variables.
A clear cause-and-effect relationship between the IV and DV.

External Validity
The degree to which experimental results can be generalized to other populations or
settings.
In uenced by:
Sample choice: Experiments often use convenience samples (e.g., university
students), which might not represent the broader population.
W-Western
E-Educated
I-Industrialized
R-Rich
D-Democratic

Research setting:
Laboratory studies provide control but may lack real-world applicability.
Field studies are more natural but harder to control.

Balancing Internal and External Validity

Some research employs both laboratory and eld settings to see if results are
consistent across contexts (e.g., alcohol research in labs vs. real bars).

Introduction to Research Ethics

Ethics in psychological research involves respecting the dignity of participants and
ensuring that any potential harm is outweighed by the study's bene ts.
Informed consent: Participants must know the general purpose of the study and
agree to take part.
Right to withdraw: Participants can leave the study at any time without penalty.
Privacy and con dentiality: Participant data must be anonymous and cannot be
shared with third parties.

Ethical Approval Process

Research must be cleared by a Research Ethics Board (REB) before data collection.
Researchers must describe:
Potential risks (psychological or physical harm).
How they will protect participants from harm.
Applies to both faculty and student research.
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 Debrie ng and Deception
Debrie ng: At the end of a study, participants learn about the purpose of the
research and the hypotheses.
Deception in research: Sometimes necessary to preserve the integrity of the study
(e.g., using placebo alcohol in experiments).
Participants should be informed if deception was used and why.

Example of Deception in Research

In alcohol research, participants in a placebo group might be led to believe they
consumed alcohol even when they didn’t.
Placebo group: Helps differentiate the effects of alcohol's pharmacological properties
from social expectations.
After the experiment, participants must be told about the deception and why it was
necessary.
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