Water and Its Availability

• Three-fourths of the earth’s surface is covered with water, but only a small
proportion of it accounts for freshwater that can be put to use.
• Freshwater is mainly obtained from surface runoff and groundwater, which are
continually renewed and recharged through the hydrological cycle.
• All water moves within the hydrological cycle, ensuring that water is a
renewable resource.

Water Scarcity

• Despite water being abundant and renewable, countries and regions around the
globe suffer from water scarcity.
• By 2025, nearly two billion people are predicted to live in absolute water
scarcity.

Water Scarcity and the Need for Conservation and Management

• Given the abundance and renewability of water, it is difficult to imagine that we

may suffer from water scarcity.
• Water shortages are commonly associated with regions having low rainfall or
those that are drought-prone.
• People often visualize deserts in Rajasthan and women balancing many ‘matkas’
(earthen pots) to collect and store water, traveling long distances to fetch it.
• The availability of water resources varies over space and time, mainly due to
variations in seasonal and annual precipitation.
• In most cases, water scarcity is caused by over-exploitation, excessive use, and
unequal access to water among different social groups.

Likely Occurrence of Water Scarcity

• Freshwater can be obtained directly from precipitation, surface runoff, and

groundwater as part of the hydrological cycle.
• An area or region may have ample water resources but still face water scarcity.
• Many cities are examples where water scarcity occurs despite sufficient
resources.

Causes of Water Scarcity

• Water scarcity may result from a large and growing population, leading to
greater demands for water and unequal access to it.
• A large population requires more water for domestic use and increased food
production.
• To produce more food, water resources are over-exploited to expand irrigated
areas for dry-season agriculture.
• Irrigated agriculture is the largest consumer of water.
 • Farmers often use their own wells and tube-wells for irrigation to increase
agricultural produce, leading to overuse of groundwater.

Consequences of Overuse of Groundwater

• Overuse of groundwater causes falling groundwater levels.

• Falling groundwater levels adversely affect water availability.
• Reduced water availability impacts food security for people.

Need for Change in Agricultural Practices

• There is a need to revolutionize agriculture by developing drought-resistant

crops.
• Adopting dry farming techniques can help reduce over-exploitation of water
resources.

Impact of Industrialisation and Urbanisation on Water Resources

• Post-independent India witnessed intensive industrialisation and urbanisation,

creating vast opportunities.
• Large industrial houses and industrial units of many MNCs have become
commonplace.
• The increasing number of industries exerts pressure on existing freshwater
resources.
• Industries are heavy users of water and require significant power, much of
which comes from hydroelectric sources.

Urbanisation and Its Effects

• Growing urban centres with large, dense populations and urban lifestyles have
increased water and energy demands.
• Housing societies and colonies in cities often rely on their own groundwater
pumping devices to meet water needs.

Consequences of Overuse of Water Resources

• Overexploitation of fragile water resources has caused their depletion in several

cities.

Qualitative Aspects of Water Scarcity

• Water scarcity may also occur where water is sufficiently available but of poor
quality.
• Poor water quality arises from pollution caused by domestic and industrial
wastes, chemicals, pesticides, and fertilizers used in agriculture.
Jal Jeevan Mission (JJM)

• The Government of India has prioritized improving the quality of life and
enhancing ease of living, especially in rural areas, through the Jal Jeevan Mission
(JJM).
• The goal of JJM is to ensure every rural household receives an assured supply of
potable piped water.
• JJM aims to provide a service level of 55 litres per capita per day on a regular
and long-term basis by ensuring the functionality of tap water connections.

Need for Water Conservation and Management

• Conserving and managing water resources is crucial to:

• Safeguard ourselves from health hazards.
• Ensure food security.
• Continue livelihoods and productive activities.
• Prevent degradation of natural ecosystems.
• Overexploitation and mismanagement of water resources will deplete this vital
resource.
• Mismanagement may lead to ecological crises with profound impacts on our
lives.

Multi-Purpose River Projects and Integrated Water Resources

Management

• Conservation and management of water can be achieved through the

construction of hydraulic structures.
• Archaeological and historical records show the use of sophisticated hydraulic
systems in ancient times, such as dams, reservoirs, embankments, and canals
for irrigation.
• Modern India continues this tradition by building dams in most river basins.

Hydraulic Structures in Ancient India

• 1st Century B.C.: Sringaverapura near Allahabad had a sophisticated water-

harvesting system channeling floodwater from the river Ganga.
• Chandragupta Maurya's Era: Extensive construction of dams, lakes, and
irrigation systems.
• Sophisticated Irrigation Works: Found in regions like Kalinga (Odisha),
Nagarjunakonda (Andhra Pradesh), Bennur (Karnataka), and Kolhapur
(Maharashtra).
• 11th Century: Construction of Bhopal Lake, one of the largest artificial lakes of
its time.
• 14th Century: Hauz Khas tank in Delhi was constructed by Iltutmish to supply
water to the Siri Fort area.
Dams and Their Role in Water Conservation and Management

• Dams were traditionally built to impound rivers and rainwater for later use in
irrigating agricultural fields.
• Today, dams serve multiple purposes beyond irrigation, including:
• Electricity generation (hydroelectric power).
• Water supply for domestic and industrial uses.
• Flood control.
• Recreation and inland navigation.
• Fish breeding.
• Dams are now referred to as multi-purpose projects, where the various uses of
impounded water are integrated.

Examples of Multi-Purpose Dams

• Sutluj-Beas River Basin: The Bhakra-Nangal project uses water for both hydel
power production and irrigation.
• Mahanadi Basin: The Hirakud project integrates water conservation with flood
control.

Multi-Purpose Projects After Independence

• Multi-purpose projects, launched after Independence, were seen as key to the

nation's development and progress, overcoming the challenges of its colonial
past.
• Jawaharlal Nehru referred to dams as the "temples of modern India" because
they were intended to:
• Integrate the development of agriculture and the village economy.
• Facilitate rapid industrialisation and growth of the urban economy.

Definition of a Dam

• A dam is a barrier across flowing water that obstructs, directs, or retards the
flow, often creating a reservoir, lake, or impoundment.
• The term "dam" refers to the reservoir rather than the structure itself.
• Most dams have a section called a spillway or weir, designed for water to flow
over or through intermittently or continuously.

Classification of Dams

• By Structure and Materials:

• Timber dams
• Embankment dams
• Masonry dams
• Several subtypes under each category
• By Height:
• Large dams and major dams
• Low dams, medium height dams, and high dams
Opposition to Multi-Purpose Projects and Large Dams

• Regulation and Damming of Rivers:

• Affects the natural flow of rivers.
• Causes poor sediment flow and excessive sedimentation at the bottom of
the reservoir.
• Results in rockier stream beds and poorer habitats for aquatic life.
• Fragmentation of Rivers:
• Dams fragment rivers, making it difficult for aquatic fauna to migrate,
especially for spawning.
• Impact of Reservoirs on Floodplains:
• Reservoirs created on floodplains submerge existing vegetation and soil.
• Over time, this leads to the decomposition of the submerged vegetation
and soil.

Impact of Irrigation on Cropping Patterns

• Irrigation has changed the cropping pattern in many regions.

• Farmers have shifted to water-intensive and commercial crops.
• This shift has led to ecological consequences, such as salinisation of the soil.

Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchaee Yojana

• The Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchaee Yojana (PMKSY) ensures access to protective
irrigation for all agricultural farms in the country.
• The scheme aims to bring much-needed rural prosperity.

Irony of Dams and Flood Control

• Dams constructed to control floods have ironically triggered floods due to

sedimentation in the reservoir.
• Large dams have mostly been unsuccessful in controlling floods during
excessive rainfall.

Negative Consequences of Dams and Multi-Purpose Projects

• Floods caused by dams have devastated life and property.

• The floods have led to extensive soil erosion.
• Sedimentation deprived floodplains of silt, a natural fertilizer, contributing to
land degradation.
• Multi-purpose projects have induced:
• Earthquakes.
• Water-borne diseases.
• Pests and pollution due to excessive use of water.
Rainwater Harvesting

• Due to the disadvantages and growing resistance against multi-purpose

projects, rainwater harvesting was seen as a viable alternative, both
socioeconomically and environmentally.

Traditional Water-Harvesting Systems in Ancient India

• People in ancient India had extensive knowledge of rainfall patterns, soil types,
and developed various techniques to harvest:
• Rainwater
• Groundwater
• River water
• Floodwater
• These techniques were tailored to local ecological conditions and water needs.

Examples of Traditional Water-Harvesting Techniques

• Hill and Mountainous Regions:

• Built diversion channels like the ‘guls’ or ‘kuls’ in the Western Himalayas
for agriculture.
• Rajasthan:
• Practiced rooftop rainwater harvesting to store drinking water.
• Bengal Flood Plains:
• Developed inundation channels for irrigation.
• Arid and Semi-Arid Regions:
• Converted agricultural fields into rain-fed storage structures to moisten
the soil.
• Examples include ‘khadins’ in Jaisalmer and ‘Johads’ in Rajasthan.

Rainwater Harvesting in Semi-Arid and Arid Regions of Rajasthan

• In regions like Bikaner, Phalodi, and Barmer, most houses traditionally had
underground tanks or tankas for storing drinking water.
• The tankas could be as large as a big room. For example, a household in Phalodi
had a tanka that was:
• 6.1 meters deep
• 4.27 meters long
• 2.44 meters wide
• The tankas were part of a well-developed rooftop rainwater harvesting
system.
• The tankas were built inside the main house or courtyard and connected to
sloping roofs through a pipe.
• Rainwater falling on the rooftops would travel down the pipe and be stored in
the underground tankas.
• The first spell of rain was not collected as it cleaned the roofs and pipes.
• Rainwater from subsequent showers was collected and stored.
Rainwater Harvesting in Rajasthan and Karnataka

Rainwater Storage in Tankas

• Rainwater can be stored in tankas until the next rainfall, providing a reliable
source of drinking water, especially during the dry summer months.
• Rainwater, or palar pani, is considered the purest form of natural water in
these areas.
• Some houses constructed underground rooms adjoining the tankas to keep the
rooms cool during the summer.

Decline of Rooftop Rainwater Harvesting in Rajasthan

• The practice of rooftop rainwater harvesting is declining in western Rajasthan

due to the availability of water from the perennial Indira Gandhi Canal.
• Some houses still maintain the tankas as they prefer the taste of rainwater over
tap water.

Successful Adaptation in Gendathur, Karnataka

• In Gendathur, a village in Mysuru, Karnataka, nearly 200 households have

installed rooftop rainwater harvesting systems to meet their water needs.
• Gendathur receives an annual precipitation of 1,000 mm, with 80% collection
efficiency.
• Each household can collect and use about 50,000 liters of water annually from
10 fillings.
• The total amount of rainwater harvested annually from 200 households is
1,00,000 liters.

Atal Bhujal Yojana (Atal Jal)

• Implementation:
• Atal Jal is being implemented in 8,220 water-stressed Gram
Panchayats across 229 administrative blocks/talukas in 80 districts
of seven states:
• Gujarat
• Haryana
• Karnataka
• Madhya Pradesh
• Maharashtra
• Rajasthan
• Uttar Pradesh
• Target:
• These selected states account for about 37% of the total number of
water-stressed (over-exploited, critical, and semi-critical) blocks in India.
 • Key Aspect:
• Atal Jal aims to bring behavioral changes in the community, shifting
from a consumption-oriented approach to conservation and smart
water management.

Sardar Sarovar Dam

• Location:
• Built over the Narmada River in Gujarat.
• Scope:
• One of the largest water resource projects in India, covering four states:
• Maharashtra
• Madhya Pradesh
• Gujarat
• Rajasthan
• Purpose:
• Aims to meet the water requirements in drought-prone and desert
areas.
• Irrigation:
• Will provide irrigation to 18.45 lakh hectares of land, covering 3,112
villages in 15 districts of Gujarat.
• Will irrigate 2,46,000 hectares of land in Barmer and Jalore districts of
Rajasthan.
• 37,500 hectares in the tribal hilly tract of Maharashtra through lift
irrigation.
• Impact:
• About 75% of the command area in Gujarat is drought-prone, while the
entire command in Rajasthan is drought-prone.
• The assured water supply will soon make these areas drought-proof.

Krishna-Godavari Dispute

• Cause:
• The dispute is due to objections raised by the Karnataka and Andhra
Pradesh governments.
• Issue:
• The controversy revolves around the diversion of more water at Koyna
by the Maharashtra government for a multipurpose project.
• Impact on Other States:
• The diversion would reduce downstream flow in Karnataka and
Andhra Pradesh.
• This reduction in water flow has adverse consequences for agriculture
and industry in these states.

Rooftop Rainwater Harvesting in Shillong, Meghalaya

• Common Practice:
 • Rooftop rainwater harvesting is widely practiced in Shillong, Meghalaya.
• Rainfall Paradox:
• Despite Cherapunjee and Mawsynram receiving the highest rainfall in
the world, Shillong faces an acute water shortage.
• Household Adoption:
• Nearly every household in Shillong has a rooftop rainwater harvesting
system.
• Contribution to Water Needs:
• Rooftop rainwater harvesting provides about 15-25% of the total water
requirement for each household.

Tamil Nadu's Rooftop Rainwater Harvesting Initiative

• Pioneering State:
• Tamil Nadu is the first state in India to make rooftop rainwater
harvesting compulsory for all houses across the state.
• Legal Provisions:
• The state has introduced legal provisions to punish those who do not
comply with the law.

Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana (PMKSY)

Objectives:

1. Enhance Water Access:

a. Ensure physical access to water on farms.
b. Expand cultivable areas under assured irrigation (Har Khet Ko Pani).
2. Improve Water Use Efficiency:
a. Minimize water wastage during irrigation.
b. Increase water availability in terms of both duration and coverage.
3. Promote Advanced Technologies:
a. Introduce water-saving technologies like drip and sprinkler irrigation (Per
Drop More Crop).
4. Encourage Water Conservation Practices:
a. Implement sustainable methods to conserve water resources for long-term
agricultural productivity.