Introduction

Domestication is a long-term relationship in which humans influence the

reproduction and care of other species, like animals or plants, to get a reliable
supply of a resource they need. This relationship benefits both parties and
often increases their chances of survival and success. Animals are termed as
domestic when their body structure, behaviour and reproductive cycle are
influenced and controlled by humans for the purpose of exploiting them for
the benefit of man. Domestication does not occur overnight when an animal is
raised in captivity, but instead it is a gradual process. The first step to
domestication is taming. Taming is the process by which a wild animal is raised
in captivity leading it to become more docile and human friendly. Taming also
causes wild animals to give up their wild instincts partially or completely, such
as hunting in the case of zoo bred carnivores, or the fear of humans. Once an
animal is tamed it is possible to domesticate its descendants. However, this will
take centuries to occur and only after the animal has evolved to a state where
its physiology, behaviour and reproductive function are influenced and
controlled by man, will it be called a domestic animal.
Throughout our history, animals have played a critical role in our existence.
They have provided us food, a means of transport, a helping hand in our work,
entertainment and most importantly companionship. Without domestic
animals, human civilization would not be thriving as it is today.
Animals have also played a key role in historical politics. For centuries, South
Asian kings have battled each other to control the horse trade, and one the
rallying sparks for the American Revolution was not only the tax on tea among
others, but also a tax on beef! Animals have also played a huge role in both the
world wars where they were used as draught animals as well as food. In fact,
animals were so precious to militaries of the 20th century that when the Nazis
retreated from an area, they would slaughter any animals they thought would
be a resource for their enemies, as part of their ‘scorched earth’ strategy.
In this book I will be writing about five domestic animals- the dog, cat,
horse, cattle, and sheep. These animals have influenced and are influencing
humans and have been doing so for the past thousands of years. Hence, by
writing about them I would like to present how it is not only humans that have
shaped the world but their companions and livestock too. Through this text I
would also like to share how we have influenced these animals too for our
benefit and have moulded them into what they are today.
It is extremely crucial for us to know and understand the fact that
animals have played a huge role in the history, politics, cuisine, and homes of
humans since without them human civilization would not have been able to
develop into its modern form. We would never have been able to evolve past
our level of sophistication in the Stone Age without them! Hence, it is
extremely important to study our companions and livestock, since by studying
them we not only understand their history but the history of the humans who
benefited from them too. So, without further ado let us dive into the intriguing
world of animals!

Arjun Pawar,
11th May 2023
 Man’s Best Friend
Throughout history, dogs have been described as cute, cuddly, fluffy, fuzzy and
many more, but have you ever wondered how the wild and dangerous wolf of
the Ice Age, was transformed into this wonderful animal? So, let us discover
how our best friend came to be in this world!
The scene, a prehistoric hunter-gatherer camp 25,000 years ago. It is late in the
evening and the tribe is huddled around the campfire. The smell of roasting
meat clouds the air. Unknown to the humans, an outcast wolf has been drawn
to their camp by the appetising smell of meat. As the tribe sits huddled around
the fire, the sleek wolf steadily sneaks up towards their camp. In a few
moments, he has reached the fringes of the camp and all he must do now is
wait for the humans to have their meal and sleep. An hour later, he smells an
opportunity. The tribe has dozed off and they have left a pile of bones next to
the now smoking campfire. This is his chance! The wolf sprints towards the
bones and in a few seconds, he has crushed them with his fangs. He wolfs
down the marrow and moves on to the next bone. A while later, as he lies
cracking the bones, he hears soft padding footsteps in the snow. He swiftly
turns around and growls at the tribesman and bares his teeth at him. To his
surprise, the man does not attack him but instead does the opposite. The man
cautiously offers a piece of meat to the wolf. The wolf timidly approaches the
man and sniffs him; he can feel him trembling in fear. He then proceeds to
carefully take the piece of meat from the man’s hand and gulps it down.
Suddenly, he feels the warm touch of a human hand on his head. He in turn
nuzzles the man with his snout. In this unexpected way, a friendship that will
transcend thousands of years is born.
Researchers now believe that docile wolves like the one you have just read
about, could have been the first dogs. These friendly wolves would have then
passed down their genes to their descendants who would have also then
acquired the unaggressive qualities of their ancestors. In this way, the vicious
wolves, scientifically known as Canis lupus, would have been transformed into
docile dogs, Canis lupus familiaris.
Through the centuries as humans diversified from hunter-gatherers into other
professions such as farmers, merchants etc., they needed dogs that were
suited to their occupation. Hence, they began selecting those dogs that
possessed that certain trait and bred them with each other. This resulted in
their offspring too having that trait. Soon, this trait became amplified to the
point that those dogs either looked or behaved differently from others of their
species. This led them to being categorised as a separate breed. This process of
artificially moulding animals through selective breeding is known as artificial
selection. An example of artificial selection in dogs is of the dachshund.
Dachshunds were used historically to hunt badgers and rabbits. Since rabbits
and badgers live in burrows, it was not possible for hunters to shoot them.
Hence, they needed something to flush the animals out first. That ‘something’
was a dog. Hunters realised that any other dog would not do, since burrows
are extremely narrow and small spaces, and are not large enough for a dog to
fit in. So, they decided to breed dogs that were slender and long enough to
enter the burrow. They also bred the dogs to have disproportionately large,
paddle shaped paws so they could dig their way through the burrow. In this
way a new breed of dog called the dachshund was born. Through this example
we can understand how humans have influenced the physiology of dogs. While
this is an example of how humans have influenced dogs physiologically, let us
talk about how we have had an impact on their mind. Wild animals are
carefree and listen to only themselves; through domestication we have trained
dogs to listen to commands and perform the action that is required. We have
also used this method to discourage undesirable traits such as biting,
scratching, barking continuously etc. We have prepared them to react or sense
certain things if instructed to by their handlers. An example is of police or
military dogs who are taught to sniff out drugs, bombs, mines, or other illegal
substances. If you ever encounter a wolf, never look into its eyes. This will be
viewed as a sign of hostility. However, you may wonder that when you cuddle
your dog or your dog wants something, it looks into your eyes. This is not
because your dog wants to fight with you, instead this is how dogs
communicate non-verbally.
While these changes have affected dogs positively, selective breeding has
proven to be dangerous in certain breeds. Brachycephalic breeds- pugs,
bulldogs, Boston Terriers, and French Bulldogs, have short, pushed-in faces.
This leads to difficulty in breathing and eating among other issues. While the
dachshund has proven to be the best for its work, it commonly suffers from
spine diseases. Shar-Peis which have excessive folds in their skin are
susceptible to skin and eye infections. Hence, while selective breeding may
have benefited humans it has not been a useful or positive change for the
animals themselves.
 In the past paragraphs we have read about how humans have influenced
dogs. Let us now talk about how dogs have influenced us. The military is an
organization that is continuously evolving to counter the challenges faced on
the battlefield. As part of this evolution, armies around the globe since ancient
times have taken advantage of dogs’ exceptional inborn sense of smell and
aggressiveness. The Romans and Greeks extensively used dogs as war animals
and there are several instances of them being set on enemy troops. Spanish
conquistadors used dogs alongside horses to attack Native American tribes.
Until 1770, dogs were used to guard French naval posts. Unfortunately, in the
United States, dogs were trained to hunt down runaway slaves. It was only
during the world wars that dogs were professionally trained to inflict damage
on the enemy. They were used as anti-tank weapons, messengers, and to
detect mines. Fun fact, during WWII, a Great Dane named Juliana urinated on
an incendiary bomb and extinguished it, thus saving her owners. For her brave
deed, she was awarded a Blue Cross medal. After the war, dogs were used by
the U.S. Army in the Vietnam War, Operation Neptune Spear in which Osama
Bin Laden was killed as well as in several other operations that were a part of
the ‘War on Terror’.
Dogs have not only helped modern developed societies, but also
communities residing in remote parts of the world. For millennia, they have
been used as draught animals by the Inuit and other Arctic communities, to
pull sledges across the Arctic Circle. Dogs were also used during the world wars
in place of horses to transport ammunition and wounded soldiers.
Although it is horses that have been used for sports more commonly,
dogs have not been left out. Dogs participate in herding, obedience,
protection, pulling, racing, tracking and water sports. These sports are meant
to challenge the innate capabilities of dogs as loyal, courageous, and sturdy
animals. These activities are also used as a method to train dogs for specific
tasks that require these skills.
While sports focus on the physical and mental capabilities of a dog, dog
shows focus on their beauty and breed. Such shows require dogs to conform to
the standard description and qualities of their breed. However, such events
have received serious criticism due to supporting the breeding of dogs such as
pugs, Shih Tzus, Basset Hounds etc. that face numerous health problems due
to the physical shape and qualities that they are bred to conform to.
 Most of you must have heard about the liger, a hybrid between a male
lion and a tigress. However, have you heard of a wolfdog, coydog, dingo dog,
or jackal-dog hybrid?! As the names suggest, these are all hybrids between
dogs and other canid species. It is only the wolfdog and dingo dog that are kept
as pets. In fact, it has been suggested that Australian dog breeds such as the
Australian Cattle Dog and Australian Stumpy Tail Cattle Dog are hybrids
between the dogs and dingoes.
Dogs have also played a slightly less vital role in religion. Kukur Tihar is a
festival dedicated to the Hindu god of death, Yama, whose divine vehicle is a
dog. Nepalese Hindus widely celebrate this festival. The god of death in ancient
Egyptian religion is also represented as dog headed. Some Buddhist traditions
also give importance to the dog and use it to symbolise loyalty.
Like humans even for dogs, the sky is not the limit. Out of eighty-eight
constellations of Western astronomy, three of them are named after them-
Canis Major, Canis Minor and Canes Venatici. Dogs were also sent up into
space as test subjects. The first dog to up to space was a street dog from
Moscow named Laika. She was sent up in the Sputnik 2 satellite on 3rd
November 1957. Unfortunately, she passed away in the satellite due to
overheating. Laika’s sacrifice was not in vain, and she was commemorated in
the Monument of the Conquerors of Space in Moscow.
Dogs are now being trained as assistance animals for individuals who are
disabled, are on the autism spectrum, are blind, are experiencing seizures and
many other mental and physical health issues.
In the above paragraphs we have observed how our canine companions
have lent a helping hand to us. Although we love our pet partners, taking care
of our furry friends is not an easy job and has led to the creation of a whole
new industry, the pet care industry. As part of this, so many new services such
as pet spas and salons, pet day-care and boarding, pet training, businesses that
sell toys for pets and many more have come into being. From this mutually
beneficial relationship a global industry worth 220 billion dollars in 2020, has
emerged.
While we do not take people who say that their dog is like their baby
seriously, we have been proven wrong. When mothers and babies touch each
other, the love hormone, oxytocin, is produced in both of them. Similarly,
when humans interact with their dogs, the humans’ oxytocin levels increase by
300% while the dogs’ increase by 130%!
With the great deluge of devices engaging us for hours together and
dogs themselves being turned into devices like robotic dogs, you may wonder
if pets will continue to play a role in man’s world. However, during the peak of
Covid-19 pandemic from 2020-2021 when we relied on our screens for
connection to the outside world, Americans spent 123.6 billion dollars on pets
in 2021! So, it does not look like our best friends are going anywhere anytime
soon.
 Feline Friends
Unlike dogs, who have evolved through the millennia and have become
our companions, cats have not changed that much. Although this is true, cats
have adapted to living with us and have transformed themselves from
unpredictable and fierce creatures to playful and cuddly balls of fur. So, let us
discover how the bold and aggressive wildcat was converted into our feline
friend.
The scene, a Mesopotamian granary 10,000 years ago. Humans have just
learnt to farm and are storing their extra grain in there. However, each time
the farmers come to collect their grain they see that some of it is gone. It is
then that the farmers notice the rat droppings in the granary. Without a means
of trapping or poisoning the rats, they cannot do anything to counter this
rodent infestation. A week later the farmers come back with pots of grain to
store in the granary. It is at this moment that they find an effective solution to
their rodent problem; they see a striped, grey wildcat lying by the door with a
rat in its mouth. The farmers realize that they have found an effective solution
and decide to feed the cat everyday so that it will stay in the granary and
exterminate the rats. The next day, a farmer gets the cat a piece of fish and a
bowl of water. He does this daily and is greeted by purrs from the cat when he
approaches it. It also rubs itself against his legs. In this way, a mutually
beneficial relationship between us and our feline friends was born.
According to historians, this may have occurred independently in Egypt
and India. Unlike dogs, cats are not descended from a single ancestral species.
They are descended from two species of wild cats, the African wildcat- Felis
silvestris lybica and Asian wildcat- Felis lybica ornata. Since rats chewed ropes
and ate the ship’s provisions, cats were brought aboard ships too. During
Roman times, ships from Europe would sail to India and vice versa. This led to
the two species of wildcats who had been tamed, intermingling. The hybrid
offspring of these two species was the modern domestic cat, Felis catus. This
new hybrid species was not very genetically different from its wild ancestors.
Since cats were not suitable for several tasks such as hunting, transport or use
in the military, they have not undergone artificial selection for purpose that
dogs have. They have instead been selectively bred to have a certain colour or
type of coat. An example is of one of the most popularly known breeds of cat,
the Persian cat. This breed was created by selectively breeding cats to have a
flat face, long luxurious coat, and round head. While dogs have undergone
many physiological changes, this has not occurred in cats to the same extent,
and their body continues to be remarkably similar to their wild ancestors.
Hence there are only seventy-three breeds of cats, in comparison to the 360
dog breeds, around the globe!
Like dogs, cat breeds such as the Siamese, Persian, Sphynx, Maine Coon Cats
etc. are more prone to contract infections and diseases due to their unnatural
physical features. This is due to selective breeding having altered the bodies of
the cats to our preferences, but with a negative effect on the animals
themselves. Hence, cat shows too have been criticised for supporting these
ideas of perceived beauty that cause lifelong damage to the animals.
Like dogs, even cats have been hybridised with wild species of cats. The Bengal
cat (domestic cat x Asian leopard cat), Caracat (domestic cat x caracal),
Savannah cat (domestic cat x serval) and many more are examples of such
unique hybrids. Some of these have occurred accidentally in zoos while most of
these are the result of humans experimenting to create exotic pets.
In the past paragraph we saw how humans shaped cats. Cats have also
adapted themselves to living with us. Cats communicate with only their
mothers using purrs. To communicate with other cats, they use facial
expressions and sounds like hisses. When cats began living with humans, they
realised that humans did not understand facial and vocal cues other than
purring. Hence, in order that their masters notice them, they began vocalising
this sound each time they needed something. Although we assume that each
cat around the world will meow the same way, this is not true. It has been
proven that cats, like sperm whales and birds too have accents depending on
which part of the world they live in! Just like humans, most cats are lactose
intolerant after they are weaned away from their mother’s milk and begin
eating solid food. However, one third of them continue to produce the enzyme
lactase throughout the rest of their life. Hence, they are able to digest milk. It
is extremely important to check for symptoms of lactose intolerance after
feeding them milk, since prolonged drinking of milk in lactose intolerant cats
could lead to severe intestinal and gastric problems. This is one of the most
visible changes that has occurred in cats.
Since cats have been a helping hand for us throughout our history they have
been immortalised in the form of deities. In ancient Egypt cats were revered as
divine beings due to their ability to kill venomous snakes, rats, and hunt birds.
Like humans, cats were also mummified after their death and placed alongside
the embalmed remains of their owners. Several ancient Egyptian goddesses
such as Mafdet- the goddess of justice, Bastet- the goddess of fertility, and
Sekhmet- the goddess of power, were represented as cat-headed. Cats were
also considered good luck and hence amulets depicting them were worn. Islam
too considers cats as clean animals, and it is said that the Prophet Muhammad
had a favourite cat named Muezza. In Japan, Buddhists regard the cat as a
symbol of good luck and prosperity. Hence, there are small glass figurines of
cats with one paw raised, called maneki-neko present in homes and shops
across the nation. Unfortunately, in the Middle Ages cats were persecuted and
killed across Europe. This was due to the papal decree by Pope Gregory IX, that
declared that cats bore the spirit of Satan. Historians allege that this mass
extermination of cats may have been a cause of the bubonic plague- the Black
Death, since without cats to keep a check on the rat population, their numbers
soared and resulted in the proliferation of the plague.
Since cats are not large enough to carry loads, they have rarely been used for
this purpose. Hence, there are very few instances when this has been done. In
ancient Egypt, cats were used to carry small sacks of grain to transport them
between storage facilities. During the Middle Ages, in Europe they were used
as messengers between villages. Meanwhile in Asia, they were used for fishing.
Fishermen would attach nets to their backs, and they would then walk through
shallow water to help catch fish.
With domestic cats being present in all six continents of the world except
Antarctica, we do not realise that this is a historically recent development with
domestic cats being introduced to the Americas in the 1500s and Oceania in
the late 1700s. Although they were an alien species in the American
continents, they did not cause damage to the native ecosystem. However, this
was not the case in Australia, with cats being a significant cause for the
extinction of twenty-two indigenous mammals. Hence, cats are an invasive
species in Australia and annually cause the deaths of eighty million native
birds, sixty-seven million native mammals, and eighty-three million native
reptiles! Over the sixty years up to 2021, 19 billion Australian dollars have been
spent on managing feral cats and their impact!
Till a few centuries ago, cats were not considered pets but farm animals and
hence did not live inside our homes. Fortunately for them, since the 20th
century, cats have entered our homes and have become our companions. Cats
are also trained to be assistance animals for individuals with PTSD, depression,
anxiety etc.
While dogs and cats are unique in their own right and do not have many
similarities, their interactions with us give the same feelings, love, and joy. This
is due to the hormones oxytocin, serotonin and dopamine being released
when we pet them.
Since some animal lovers cannot have feline friends of their own, they enjoy
watching others’, cat videos. Did you know that two million cat videos were
posted to YouTube in 2014 and the number of views of all these videos
combined amounted to twenty six billion! This shows us that pets along with
humans are adapting to the changing times with cat celebrities such as ‘Lil Bub’
garnering three million views on Facebook!
Through the centuries, cats have not always been viewed as affectionate and
understanding creatures but as vicious and brutal animals. I hope that this
chapter has proved to you that cats are more than that and have contributed
to human society. I also believe that even though they may not have played as
crucial a role in human civilization as dogs, it is our duty to care for our
misunderstood feline friends.
 Milk-makers & Brawny Bulls
Cattle is the term used to collectively refer to cows, buffaloes, oxen, and bulls.
Unlike dogs and cats these animals are not pets and companions, but
hardworking animals that aid us. So, let us uncover the fascinating tale of these
milk makers and plough pullers!
The scene, a meadow in the Indus Valley 7000 years ago. A herd of wild cattle,
aurochsen, are grazing there. A village lies a few metres away, nevertheless the
herd is not afraid and nibbles at the lush grass. Meanwhile, a farmer from the
village is heading out to his field of barley. He spots the herd in the meadow
and decides to approach them. The animals do not flee but cautiously watch
him. As he gets closer, the herd moves a few steps away, but he continues to
approach them. Unfortunately, the herd panics and they gallop away. The
farmer does lose hope and returns the next day at dawn to the meadow. This
time he comes prepared with a few bundles of grass. He holds out a bundle
and walks towards one of the animals. The aurochs are wary of him but do not
take flight. The farmer approaches a cow from the herd and offers the grass.
The cow sniffs it and then begins munching on it. As he is feeding the cow
another aurochs carefully approaches him. He offers the animal a bundle of
grass. Soon, the rest of the herd gather around him, and he feeds them the
remaining grass. He then heads down to his field. Over the next few days, he
builds a pen at the outskirts of the village and lures the herd towards it. Finally,
after weeks of trying he can tempt them into the enclosure.
Scientists suspect that domestic cows, bulls, and oxen may be descended from
these aurochs. However, these animals are descended from two species of
aurochs, the Eurasian aurochs, and the Indian aurochs. Taurine cattle (Bos
taurus) who are descended from the Eurasian aurochs, are found
predominantly in Europe, the Americas and Australia. Indicine cattle (Bos
indicus) who are descended from the Indian aurochs were historically found in
South Asia, Myanmar, South-east Asia, and parts of Africa. Although two
lineages of cattle exist, modern cattle are hybrids between these two sub-
species. Some researchers also believe that modern taurine and indicine cattle
may have the genes of a third African sub-species of aurochsen. Water
buffaloes on the other hand are descended from Asiatic wild water buffalo
which was domesticated 6,300 years ago.
Before humans domesticated cattle, they were hunted for their meat. Hence, it
is speculated that the first cattle may have been domesticated for their flesh.
As humans began to observe cattle at close quarters, we realised that cattle
could not only provide us meat, but also provide us with another nutrient-rich
source of nourishment, milk, as well as a means to transport load. Hence as
with dogs and cats, cattle too were subjected to artificial selection. Certain cow
breeds such as the Angus, Hereford, Wagyu, Charolais etc. are bred to produce
meat, beef cattle. While breeds such as the Sahiwal, Gir, Jersey, Holstein
Friesian etc. are used as dairy cattle. Male cattle, i.e., oxen and bulls have been
used historically as draft animals due to their ability to carry or pull heavy
loads. Breeds such as the Belgian Blue, Percheron, Shire, and indicine Zebu
have been used for this purpose.
While the canid and felid hybrids we have read about were created for their
appearance, bovid hybrids have been for a more practical use, the beef
industry. The most popular one is the beefalo, a hybrid between the American
bison and domestic cattle. The ‘żubroń’ is its European counterpart with the
European bison being used instead. The dzo is a cross between the yak and
domestic cattle.
The domestication of cattle by humans is an extremely unique example of an
animal indirectly causing a biological change in humans. After Neolithic era
humans domesticated cattle, they noticed that the milk that was produced by
the females was edible. Between the ages of 2-5 humans naturally lose the
ability to digest milk, due to the enzyme lactase that is responsible for this
function, not being produced anymore. So, it was not possible for humans
above this age to digest milk. We humans then discovered that children below
this age could digest milk, which was a good source of nutrition. Consequently,
we may have begun feeding those infants who were orphaned or whose
mothers were not able to produce enough breastmilk. Evidence has also been
found that adults who lacked the enzyme, may have been consuming
fermented milk products since the fermentation makes it easier to digest the
milk sugars. Around six thousand years ago, those communities that had been
drinking milk or consuming dairy products for generations, were biologically
altered. Even after the ages of 2-5 children did not stop producing lactase and
were able to drink milk and consume milk products for the rest of their lives.
This is an example of natural selection, where an organism has not been
modified artificially by another species, but by nature. Although you may feel
that since most countries around the world rear cows, all the eight billion
humans on this planet must be able to digest milk. This is not the case, 60% of
all adults cannot digest milk and 65% of the world population cannot do so
after infancy!
In the past paragraph we have discovered the fact that 65% of humans cannot
digest milk. Although this is true, it has not discouraged us from breeding the
270 million dairy cattle in the world! Cattle have been used to produce milk
since the seventh millennium BCE. Humans also soon realised that preserving
milk for prolonged periods of time was not feasible and hence, perhaps
accidentally, realised that curdling milk preserved it for longer. After curdling,
the milk formed semi-solid clumps which were then drained of the whey (the
water like liquid found in yogurt) using a cloth. After the whey was drained, the
cheese was salted and heated to release the last of the whey. Finally, the
clumps that remained were pressed into a mould, and left to dry. Thus,
through this tedious procedure, cheese was formed.
The first cheeses may not have been as hard as modern cheese but instead soft
and crumbly like cottage cheese or feta. It was only from the Roman era that
cheeses that resembled modern ones, began to be prepared. Although, the art
of cheese production slowed down in the centuries after the fall of Rome, it
resumed in the Middle Ages, when modern cheese varieties such as cheddar,
gouda and parmesan were first mentioned. It was only in 1851 that cheese
production became industrialised and the enzyme from animal stomachs was
mass produced only to be replaced at the turn of the century by pure microbial
cultures (bacteria used to curdle milk). While cheese is prepared after a
lengthy process, butter is relatively easier to make. Butter is formed by
churning the cream of milk or whey which can either be allowed to remain
unsalted or salted. Unlike cheese, butter has been prepared for millennia in
several countries in Asia and Europe. However, there is one unique dairy
product that is widespread in only South Asia and East Africa, clarified butter
also known as ghee. Clarified butter is pure fat that is derived from butter. It is
used for several purposes such as to garnish and cook food, in religious
ceremonies and in traditional Ayurvedic medicine. Along with ghee, yogurt also
serves these purposes across the world.
In the past paragraph we have discussed how different dairy products have
been used throughout history. Now, let us discover how through the millennia,
milk has been extracted from cows. Until the 19th century, milk production was
on a low scale, localized, manual, and lacking in hygiene. With the
commencement of the Industrial Revolution, this changed and milking
machines were invented, making it possible for many dairy cattle to be milked
simultaneously. This also decreased the amount of manual labour required.
Due to the invention of the steam engine, it was now possible to transport milk
faster, further, and safely too after the innovation of the icebox. The most
crucial breakthrough was with the development of pasteurization by Louis
Pasteur in 1862. This significantly reduced the mortality rate of infants in
metropolises such as London and New York. Although the modernization of
dairy farming positively affected humans, the same could not be said about the
cattle themselves. Due to several animals being kept together in enclosed
spaces, diseases spread easily among them. The lack of physical activity also
contributes to health problems like obesity. Ethical concerns have also been
raised about dairy farming. This is because the cows are artificially inseminated
and caused to continuously give birth, for there to be a near perpetual supply
of milk. They are also administered hormones that cause them to produce
more milk. To protect the cows from the rampant epidemics in dairies, they
are injected with antibiotics and other medicines which are transferred from
their bodies into the milk they produce, and finally us. With dairy farming
being practised on an extremely large and industrial scale, humans have begun
to view cattle not as living creatures with emotions, but commodities to be
exploited. This has led several animal-lovers to turn to plant-based milk
alternatives such as soy milk, almond milk, cashew milk, coconut milk etc. It is
also being debated whether consuming milk is necessary for humans due to
other foods that provide similar nutritional values being available.
While in most Asian and African nations the word ‘cattle’ suggests milk, billions
of people do not associate with this. Instead, they relate the term ‘cattle’ with
burger patties, beef. Beef has been consumed by humans since prehistoric
times. Hence, we have bred distinct breeds of cattle to suit our palates. We
have reared breeds such as the Belgian Blue, Charolais, Piedmontese, Limousin
and many more for their large, well-defined muscles. On the other hand, we
have bred the Wagyu, Angus, Hereford, Shorthorn etc. breeds for their fat
content which enhances the flavour of the meat. Through the centuries, the
methods of exploiting cattle have undergone a tremendous change. Like milk
cattle, it was only in the 19th century that beef production was revolutionised.
It all began in the USA when the Westward Expansion/Movement began in the
1810s. As explorers and pioneers set out to map and expand the boundaries of
the United States, they came across huge tracts of land that were used by the
Native Americans as hunting grounds. With the advantage of having access to
firearms and manpower they were able to drive out the tribes. Soon, the US
government encouraged around 40,000 families to settle these parcels of land
spanning about 160 acres each! Since, these newfound plots of land were
located in the Great Plains, which provided ideal conditions for raising cattle,
the settlers established cattle ranches. The cattle were guarded by cowboys on
horseback and allowed to graze throughout the ranch. However, the meat that
they produced was sold locally and it was only the hides and animal fat that
were exported by train. During the 1860s, live animals began to be transported
by train to the East Coast. Meat, due to its perishable nature could only be
transported if it were salted. In the 1880s, the problem was overcome with the
invention of the refrigerator car. This was a railway boxcar that could be used
to preserve products such as meat and vegetables, throughout the journey.
For millennia, cattle were bred naturally. It was only in 1921 for the first time,
that a cow was impregnated artificially using artificial insemination. This was a
breakthrough in beef and dairy cattle breeding which contributed to the
industrialisation of the trade.
It was only in the 20th century that the methods of slaughtering cattle were
transformed from cruel and brutal techniques, into an approach that was
meant to cause minimal pain to the animal. This came about with the
invention of the captive stunning bolt, which stunned the animal and
immobilised it.
It was not only the method of slaughtering the animal that changed, but also
its diet. Till the 1900s, cattle were allowed to graze and forage on the ranch till
they were butchered. This was altered when farmers began feeding their
animals grain and cereals, like wheat and barley. Farmers that did not own
large tracts of land like ranchers, instead allowed their cattle to graze in the
smaller plot for some time and then fed and housed them in feedlots. In these
feedlots, they were fed a diet that was balanced with supplements to make up
for the lack of physical exercise and to help them put on weight faster. Their
diet included cereals, soybean, hay, and mineral supplements. In this way, the
farmers were able to control the quality as well as texture of the meat.

In the past century, cattle breeders realised that animals could be artificially
bred to be more efficient in converting feed to meat, disease resistance,
growth rate etc. This along with the modifications in the beef cattle industry
that we saw in the above paragraphs, ushered in an age where man controlled
animals to the extent that he could decide when they would reproduce, what
they would eat, and how they would live and die. This greed of ours has caused
extreme harm to the Earth’s ecosystem and indirectly to us. An example is of
global warming. Cattle emit methane through their flatulence. Although, each
animal produces 69-119 kilograms of methane annually, the one billion cattle
around the globe collectively produce 1,04,77,98,37,470 kilograms of methane
in a year!
With global warming becoming a huge concern in most countries of the world
as well as concerns about animal cruelty and welfare, millions of people are
shifting to vegetarianism around the world. It is hoped that this may cause
cattle breeders to reduce the number of animals they breed and hence save
millions of animals from suffering in addition to combating global warming.
In this way, beef cattle breeding was revolutionised and transformed from a
rural occupation into an advanced and industrialised profession. Cattle have
not only supplied us with food but have also played a crucial role in providing a
means of transportation for us. So, let us now discover how humans travelled
in a time without automobiles.
Although cattle were domesticated 10,000 years ago, it was only around 4000-
3000 B.C.E. that they were used as draft animals. This was because humans
found a use for cattle as beasts of burden for the first time, when they
invented the plough. They soon realized that it was an almost impossible task
for humans themselves to till the land. Hence, they decided to use cattle for
this purpose instead. While this occurred in Mesopotamia and the Middle East,
humans in South and South-East Asia had domesticated wild river and swamp
buffaloes. The Asians discovered that unlike cows and bulls, these buffaloes
were much stronger and were better adapted to the waterlogged soil, than the
indicine cattle. Hence, it was only in those regions that had drier soil that oxen
were used.
After the invention of the plough, it did not take long for humans to develop
the wheel around 3500 B.C.E. At first it was used by potters but was soon
adapted for a new purpose, transportation. The bullock or ox cart was the
primary mode of wheeled transportation till the invention of the horse collar in
China, around 500 C.E. This invention allowed humans to harness the horses’
strength to its maximum capacity. Although the Chinese were now able to use
horses as beasts of burden instead of oxen, they did not do so, and it was only
after 920 C.E. when the horse collar reached Europe, was it used to replace
oxen with horses. The rest of the Old World though, continued to employ oxen
and buffaloes as pack and draft animals. In the 16th century, with the
exploration of Americas, cattle accompanied sailors and conquistadors to the
continents. Until the 19th century, cattle were put to work on the plantations
alongside slaves in North and South America. Although horses, donkeys, and
mules replaced them in several regions, they did not die out altogether. With
the Westward Expansion in the first few decades of the 1800s, oxen were
utilised to draw wagons called ‘prairie schooners’. In the 1850s, railway lines
were established across the entire Western and South-western region, and in
the year 1900 with the production of the first affordable automobile, the T-
Model, animal drawn transport declined. Soon after, the sight of a bullock
wagon became rare in the Americas and Europe.
Meanwhile in Asia and Africa, people still relied on their agrarian lifestyle, and
the effects of the Industrial Revolution were not yet widespread. Hence, due to
this scarcity of locomotives and later automobiles, ox carts became sparse in
urban regions in the 1960s and in rural areas only in the 2000s.
Cattle not only help us throughout their lives, but after death too in the form
of leather. The first step in preparing leather, began with humans using the
furry hides of animals they hunted, as clothing. The next step occurred when
humans treated the skins (tanned) to produce leather. So, by the end of the
Palaeolithic era, humans had mastered the art of producing leather. However,
this may or may not have been the skins of aurochs. Although, we can confirm
the fact that humans used cattle hides after domesticating cattle. The first
evidence that we have of leather being used in human history is from
Çatalhöyük, dating back to around 7000-5700 B.C.E. Since then, leather has
been used for shoes, belts, car seats, sofas, book binding etc. Due to ethical
and environmental concerns that began in the 20th century, leather has been
replaced in several areas with faux or vegan leather that is manufactured using
synthetic materials.
Although in the past paragraphs we have explored how humans have exploited
cattle for their own needs and wants, we will now be understanding how cattle
have been alleviated to a status higher than man too. Cows are sacred and
revered animals that represent abundance, fertility, and sustenance in several
religions such as Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, ancient Egyptian religion and
many more. Hence, consuming cattle is considered taboo according to these
religions.
While bullfighting is depicted as a glamorous sport, it is in fact anything but
that. Bullfighting mostly leads to the death of the provoked and disadvantaged
bull that is forced to charge at mounted picadors who spear it, eventually
leading to their death in the arena. Hence, this practice has been outlawed in
most countries around the world. Bullbaiting is another such blood sport that
was practiced historically. As part of this, bulldogs would be set onto a bull that
had been tied up. The dogs would pounce and bite the poor bull. Fortunately,
this cruel sport is illegal around the world and no longer takes place. While the
name ‘bullfighting’ suggests that two bulls fight against each other, this sport
bears a different name, bull sumo. Like its human counterpart it involves the
bulls locking horns and trying to force each other to give up ground. This is a
popular sport in the Ryukyu Islands of Japan. Rodeo has been a symbol of the
American Wild West since time immemorial. Unlike bullfighting and
bullbaiting, it does not include harming the bull, but instead the bull bucking
and rearing to throw its rider off its back. These are some of the many bovine
sports that are practiced around the world. However, with several animal
activists raising concerns about the animals’ welfare and the ethics of these
sports, animal based sports are declining.
To conclude this chapter, I would like to state that cattle have benefited
humans throughout history, and now pose a threat to them too due to the
greenhouse gases they produce, the deforestation that is conducted to make
way for ranches, and in some cases as an invasive species. To combat this, we
must adopt sustainable and environment friendly solutions and make sure that
our planet’s fragile ecosystem does not bear the brunt of our exploitative
actions. I hope this has given you a new perspective on the long relationship
and bond between us and our bovine friends, and you will view your humble
cup of milk in a different light.
 Epic Equines
Although we may not think of horses as anything more than mere farm animals
today, they have played a crucial role in warfare, transport, and agriculture.
Without horses, humans would not have been able establish inter-continental
empires like the Mongol empire and extract the coal from mines that was the
heart and soul of the Industrial Revolution. Hence, it is extremely important
that we acknowledge these humble and gentle animals that have proved
repeatedly that we would not have reached this level of sophistication without
their efforts. So, let us dive into the world of these whinnying wonders!
The scene, a grassy pasture 5,500 years ago in modern day Russia. A herd of
wild horses are munching on the lush green blades of grass. Although they are
gulping down the grass to their heart’s content, they are cautious of their
surroundings and are carefully listening for any sound, that may betray the
presence of another creature. Meanwhile, the nomadic tribesmen that stand
on a hill, a few yards away are trying to make a move. For them this is a matter
of survival, for today’s dinner depends on whether they can hunt a couple of
the horses or not. The group begins to cautiously edge towards the animals
who are not yet aware of their presence. Soon, the men are only a few feet
away and have readied their spears to charge at the horses. A few seconds
later, they spring up from their position and sprint towards the horses. The
herd spot them and take off. The hunters do not try to catch up with them but
try to hurl their spears at the weaker and slower animals at the end of the
drove. Suddenly, they hear a thud as a mare collapses, who is then followed by
two younger stallions who have been struck on their thighs. The horses writhe
in pain on the meadow as the rest of their herd gallop away. They whinny,
moan, and try get back on their feet but without any result. The hunters have
now gathered around them and are ready to give the final blow to their neck
when a young member of the tribe approaches them. He suggests that instead
of slaughtering the miserable animals they capture and use them as steeds.
The men mock him, but immediately fall silent when their chieftain supports
the young man. He asks them to extract the spearheads lodged in their body,
and orders them to tie them up with a few vines. The tribe begin to walk back
to their camp where the courageous young man who piped up about taming
the horses, will decide what to do with them. At the camp, the rest of the
tribespeople are shocked, but are reassured about their safety when the
horses are tethered to a tree. However, other members of the tribe are
concerned about the day’s dinner, but their worries are put to rest too, when
the chieftain instructs them to use the excess meat they stored from the last
hunt. The next day, the young tribesman approaches the horses. He has
brought with him a few clay pots filled with water and bundles of freshly cut
grass. The man places them before the horses who munch contentedly on the
grass and slurp up the water. The man repeats this every day and soon, a close
bond is born between these once wild animals and the human. This bond
between horses and humans will go beyond generations.
The first known ancestors of horses were known to have lived in the North
American continent. It is there that they evolved from there primitive fox sized
ancestor, Eohippus, into the first member of the genus ‘Equus’, Equus
simplicidensis. It was after they evolved into this form that they immigrated to
South America then Asia, Europe, and Africa. Around 10,000 years ago, horses
died out in the Americas. Meanwhile, around the rest of the world, Equus
simplicidensis had evolved and diversified. It had been transformed into the
wild horse, ass, and zebra. The wild horses spread from Asia to Europe where,
it has been suggested, that they were most probably domesticated, 4000-6000
years ago in the Don-Volga region in present day Ukraine and Russia. It is also
not clear which subspecies of wild horses; modern domesticated horses are
descended from. Scientists do know that the first step towards domesticating
these equines began with hunting, then capturing, taming and after about a
few thousand years, domestication.
Although when we think about horses, the image of a person riding a horse
comes to mind. However, according to historical evidence it has been
suggested that horses were first used as draught animals and hitched to
carriages and wagons. This was because horses were not as docile, due to
them being recently domesticated and it would have been dangerous for
humans to ride them. The first civilisation to invent an animal drawn vehicle
were the people of the Eurasian steppe in present day Russia, Ukraine, and
Kazakhstan. The next peoples to use horses for this purpose were the
Egyptians. They were the first to use chariots regularly in warfare. Chariots
soon spread to Mesopotamia where they replaced a primitive form of the tank,
the war wagon. Although, they did not use horses at the beginning, but a
hybrid animal named ‘kunga’. This animal was a hybrid between a Syrian wild
ass and a donkey. It was in the third millennium B.C.E. with the introduction of
the horse to the Fertile Crescent that the kunga was replaced by the horse.
While these two great civilisations were employing horses for transportation,
the Indus Valley Civilisation was still unaware of horses and instead used oxen.
It was only with the Vedic Era that horses and spoked wheel chariots were
introduced to India. The Chinese soon began to use chariots for this purpose
around the 16th to 11th centuries B.C.E. The next civilisation to use chariots
were the Persians, who invented scythed chariots. These war chariots had
sharp scythes mounted onto both wheels. Finally, the chariots reached Europe
in the first millennium B.C.E. where the Mycenaean Greeks first introduced
them to the rest of the continent. Due to the rocky terrain of Greece, chariots
were not employed on the mainland and then spread to the Roman Republic,
Germanic, and Celtic cultures. With the defeat of the Achaemenids by
Alexander the Great, the chariot’s status as the ultimate and invincible weapon
began to decline across the world. By the Roman era, chariots largely
disappeared from the battlefield and were replaced by larger and more
powerful cavalry units in several empires around the globe. In Europe, horse
drawn carriages and wagons were used for the transportation of civilians and
goods. While we picture sleighs being drawn by reindeer or dogs, horses were
also used in Russia and other Scandinavian countries for this purpose. With the
growth of metropolises such as London and Paris, smaller vehicles such as the
Hansom cab, buggies, broughams etc. were created. In the year 1826, a new
idea was born, modern public transportation. The first vehicle to be used for
this purpose was the omnibus, which was invented in Manchester, United
Kingdom in 1824. The omnibus was a horse drawn vehicle that could seat 10-
20 passengers since some were double decker. These omnibuses later spread
to France, Germany, the United States, and many other countries too.
Horsecars i.e., horse drawn trams had been invented in the early years of the
19th century. They came into use in 1807 when the Swansea and Mumbles
Railway in Wales began ferrying passengers on a line that connected three
stations. These vehicles soon spread to Canada, India, the U.S.A., Indonesia
etc., and replaced omnibuses in several places and were one of the most
common modes of intra-city transport, till they made way for their electric
counterpart. While most vehicles that are used on land are wheeled, the
travois is a unique exception. A travois is a basic transportation device
consisting of two poles attached to a triangular frame, used for dragging and
carrying loads. It was used by Native American tribes and was drawn by horses
or dogs. Although we think of horses being used for terrestrial conveyance, the
power of these animals has also been harnessed to navigate waterways. The
first example is of the team boat which was most used in the United States
between the 1810s-50s. These boats were powered by a treadwheel which
horses trotted on, and hence moved the boat forward. Another example is of
the towboat. The concept of the towboat was much simpler compared to the
team boat and consisted of a boat or small barge being drawn by a horse
walking on a path beside the canal. This form of passage has existed since the
Roman occupation of Britain, but with mules being put to work in place of
horses. While horses were not used as draft animals in battle since the times of
Alexander the Great, they were reintroduced in the 19th century to transport
artillery by drawing gun carriages.
As we have seen in the above paragraph, horses have been used for several
purposes as draft animals. However, the most common use of this animal has
been for riding. So, let us discover how humans were able to mount a creature
that could have trampled and stomped on them, and thrown them off its back
with ease!
Due to the domestication of horses occurring millennia ago, we do not have a
conclusive answer that provides us with a date. Hence, historians have
stabilised the date as somewhere in the second millennium B.C.E. This has
been discovered by observing the teeth of the remains of horses from the
period, which have gaps and have been eroded in certain places. Although
chariots were the predominant power on Asian and European battlefields,
Iranian and Central Asian nomadic tribes realised that the mobility that cavalry
provided could not be achieved by chariots. Hence, it has been speculated that
they were one of the first societies to use cavalry. They also combined this
knowledge with their skills of archery and lancery. Horses during this period
had been recently domesticated and hence were not as hefty and large enough
to carry humans into battle. Hence, it was with the breeding of larger horses
that cavalry units began to appear in the armed forces of the Achaemenids,
Greeks, and Chinese more commonly, instead of a few elite warriors. During
this period, equestrian equipment was very crude, and it was only later that
stirrups, leather saddles, saddle cloths etc. were invented. This was an obstacle
that was overcome with advances in ancient equestrianism and technology.
Although, the Greeks were pioneers in cavalry development, they soon
realised that other opposing powers would give them a taste of their own
medicine. Hence, they developed formations to combat cavalry charges too.
Using these tactics, first Philip II and then his warrior son Alexander the Great
enlarged their kingdom into a mighty, trans-continental empire. Unlike
Macedonia, the Roman Republic and later Empire, succeeded in conquering
Spain, France, Britain, Greece, Macedonia, parts of the Middle East and North
Africa using their indomitable infantry legions rather than the cavalry, which
was used as a supporting force. While the Western Roman Empire had already
disintegrated by 476 C.E., and the Eastern Roman Empire was going through
turbulent times, a new power had arisen when no one expected it, the
Mongols. The Mongols were a coalition of tribes that had been united by their
great leader, Genghis Khan. Genghis Khan had decided to use the Mongols
centuries old skill of horseback archery to his advantage, and had established
an empire that would dominate Central, Eastern and Western Asia, and
Eastern Europe until 1294 C.E. This empire’s backbone was their mastery of
horseback riding to the extent that they could control the reins with their feet
while turning around and shooting at their enemy! Without horses, this
expansive empire would not have come into being. When we think of the
Middle Ages in Europe, the image of a knight in shimmering armour mounted
on his steed comes to mind. This is because horses played a huge role during
this unstable period that was marred with conflicts. This was also the era when
the use of heavy cavalry, i.e., heavily armoured soldiers on horseback, reached
its peak. With firearms becoming more accurate and deadly, cavalries did not
remain units that were near impossible to destroy, if anything, they became
the opposite. With the exploration of the Americas beginning in the late 15th
century, horses were reintroduced to their ancestral home. Here, they thrived
due to the landscape not having changed since their immigration from the
continent. Several horses escaped from the Spanish stables and lived in a feral
state across the Great Plains where they were captured and used to hunt bison
by the Indigenous population. Although the decline of cavalry had begun by
the 19th century, they were used well into World War I, after which they were
retained for only ceremonial purposes.
Unlike most other animals, equestrianism has been practiced since ancient
times. So, let us take a look at this sport which unlike most others requires you
to train not only yourself but your mount too!
Horse racing was the first equestrian sport and would have taken place in
Mesopotamia, Rome, and Greece. Chariot races followed soon, and it was the
Romans that enjoyed it the most. They built special arenas, called
hippodromes for these competitions. However, this was a sport that was
unregulated, brutal, and regularly resulted in the deaths of charioteers and
their animals. Although these games were a source of entertainment for
audiences more than a thousand years ago, they have not died out and
modern variations of these two sports have been developed. Horse races
continue in their original form but new equestrian activities such as dressage,
steeplechase, showjumping etc. are popular too. In the case of chariot races,
sports such as harness racing, combined driving, fine harness, and many more
have been invented. These riding disciplines thankfully are now regulated and
are no longer cruel, brutal sports of the ancient times. Another sport was polo
that was came into being in ancient Persia. The sport spread to several
European and Asian countries. The modern form was derived from the game
that was played in the Kingdom of Manipur in the 19th century. This sport was
adopted by the British who popularised it in the Western world. Did you know,
Akbar was very fond of playing polo and wanted to play it in the dark too! So,
he invented a bamboo ball which had a piece of cloth soaked in oil, placed
inside. When this was lit it produced a bright flame. This allowed him to play
even at night.
While horses were used to deliver mail across the globe, the Pony
Express is the fastest example. It was a postal service founded in 1860 in the
U.S.A., which used to deliver messages, newspapers, and mail on horse-back.
The Pony Express was one of the fastest mail services of its time. It used to
deliver a letter from one side of the country to the other in 10 days!
In most of the above paragraphs, we have discussed how the
domestication of horses had a massive impact on the lives of humans.
However, horses too went through several physiological changes. Due to
humans needing horses that had the necessary qualities for the kind of work
they performed, they selectively bred horses to have certain traits. Horses that
were needed to pull heavy loads or carriages, or carry knights, who wore heavy
armour, were selectively bred to increase their size and strength. These horse
breeds such as Belgian Draft, Shire, Clydesdale etc. are called draft horses or
heavy breeds. The next type of horses are light breeds that were bred for their
flexibility and speed. They were used by cavalry troops due to their mobility
and endurance. They are currently used for equestrian sports and herding.
Breeds such as the Arabian, Warmblood, Thoroughbred, Appaloosa, and many
more are classified in this category. The last group is of the ponies. Ponies were
mostly used in mountainous regions due to their small and stocky build, which
helped them climb up rough terrain. They are also used as pack animals, and
mounts for young riders. Breeds such as the Connemara, Hallinger, Icelandic
Horse etc. are part of this group.
 Mules (female horse x male donkey) and hinnies (male horse x female
donkey) were one of the first equid hybrids to be bred. These were and are
used as pack animals. Hebras (male horse x female zebra), zorses (male zebra x
female horse), zony (male zebra x female pony) and the Lord Morton’s Mare
(quagga x horse) were either bred by accident or were the result of an
experiment to develop a new type of draft or pack animal.
While consuming mare’s milk is considered repulsive around most of the
world, this is an age old tradition that has been practiced for millennia in
countries such as Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Mongolia, Russia, and some others.
This milk is used to prepare cheeses and fermented drinks. Horse meat was
eaten widely across Europe by various tribes before their Christianization. It
was also consumed when cities were under sieges and had run out of food.
This occurred several times in Paris during the 19th century.
Horses have played a crucial role in human civilisation. They have been
part of wars, agriculture, hunting, royal processions, and the unending list goes
on. Hence, we should recognise horses as animals that have contributed to
man’s society, and the world. In several parts of the world these gentle
creatures are overworked, underfed, and exploited till their last breath. If they
are unable to work, they are sold to slaughterhouses that turn them into dog
food. Although, horses do not play an as crucial role in our lives today, we
cannot dismiss them and must recognise their role in changing the world of
man.
 Fleecy Friends
Sheep, the unsung heroes of human civilization. From providing wool for
clothing, to nourishing us with their meat and milk, these humble creatures
have played an indispensable role in our lives. Let us explore the world of
sheep, their remarkable adaptability, and the enduring bond between humans
and these gentle beings. Discover the world of these woolly wonders and the
profound impact they have had on our history.
The scene, a grassy meadow around 9000 B.C.E. in the Fertile Crescent.
A herd of wild sheep, mouflons, are browsing and chomping on the lush juicy
grass. A group of hunters lie in wait behind a boulder. Some of them have a
bow slung across their shoulders while others are equipped with spears and
are ready to hurl them on command. They have been instructed by their chief,
to lie in wait until the dominant ram of the flock separates from the group and
begins to graze alone. The ram, not being able to detect any danger, has let
down his guard and has drifted away from the rest of the animals. The hunters
have observed this. The hunting party comprises of fifteen men. As instructed,
five of them begin creeping up on the ram. Meanwhile, the rest of them begin
to circle the flock. Just then, the wind changes direction. The ram immediately
jerks his head up and stares at the tribesmen. He lets out a ferocious grunt and
paws the soft floor of the knoll. And with a loud bellow he charges at his
opponents. Hearing the bellow, the flock of females have become alert, and
their ears have pricked up. However, it is too late. The lancers have already
formed a ring around them. While the ewes are panicking, the ram is head
butting the archers valiantly; he has managed to strike one of the tribesmen
right in the stomach. Just then, he lets out a pained grunt; he has been struck
in the thigh by an arrow. He tries to rush back at the archer but is incapacitated
by another arrow as it pierces into his stomach. He falls to the ground with a
thud and is put to rest with a fatal arrow to the neck. The hunters have now
turned their attention to the flock who are trying to flee. A few younger rams
have tried to resist but have been felled by the deadly spears. The ewes have
formed a circle around their young. As the tribesmen begin to close in on the
flock, one of the younger hunters pipes up. He suggests that they spare the
innocent lambs and their mothers, and instead capture them. Some of the men
mock him but go silent when the headman supports him. The chief orders
them to drive the herd back to camp where the young man will look after
them. A few men help carry the carcasses of the rams that will be their dinner
tonight, while the rest of the group help keep the flock together and herd
them back to their makeshift settlement of tents at the bottom of the hill.
Without a pen there is no way to stop the sheep from escaping. Hence, they
are tied to a large tree with some strong vines. The next day, the nomads pack
up their tents and continue their journey across the plains and mountains of
Mesopotamia, taking along their newfound companions.

It is believed that modern domesticated sheep are descended from two

lineages- Lineage A and B. Lineage A refers to the mouflon- Ovis gmelini, which
was domesticated in the Fertile Crescent- Mesopotamia. Lineage B refers to a
species or sub-species of wild sheep that were domesticated in the Indus
Valley. Today, the breeds of sheep in India are mixed in the western and
southern regions due to sheep belonging to Lineage A intermingling with
indigenous Indian sheep. The domestication of both these lineages is thought
to have occurred between 8000-11000 B.C.E.

Although, in other species of domestic animals such as dogs, cats, cattle

etc. we do not have live descendants of the first few generations that were
domesticated, in the case of sheep we have been lucky. The European mouflon
was considered a wild species of mouflon for several years. However, scientists
have found evidence that these are actually feral descendants of the first
primitive domesticated sheep! Hence, they bear a striking resemblance to their
wild ancestors.

As we have seen in our semi-fictional story, sheep were hunted for food
by humans. Unlike other animals such as cattle, pigs, chicken etc. that are kept
in pens, pastures and cages, sheep travelled along with their shepherds across
vast tracts of land. This way of life is called pastoralism and has been practiced
for centuries by man several regions such as South Asia, the Tibetan Plateau,
the Eurasian steppes, and the Andes. An example of pastoralist shepherds is of
the ‘Dhangars’ of Western India. These shepherds travel across the Western
Ghats every year to the coast and back to the Deccan Plateau. They have been
practicing this for millennia and raise sheep for their meat.
 Soon after pastoralist communities in Asia began breeding sheep for
meat, this began to take place in Europe too. One of the first regions where
this occurred was Greece, which had plenty of pastures on hillsides for the
flocks to graze on. This soon spread to continental Europe and the British Isles.
In the Roman era, farmers and shepherds began to selectively breed the
animals for size, meat texture etc. In the Middle Ages, the concept of land
ownership became more rigid. However, a piece of common land in each
village, called ‘common’ allowed shepherds to sustain their flocks. It was also
in the Medieval era that the development of sheep breeds such as Suffolk,
Hampshire, Oxford Down, Charollais, Merino etc. for their meat was begun. As
you can see from the names of these breeds, sheep farming was a popular
agricultural occupation in the British Isles. Hence, one of the most iconic dishes
of Scotland is haggis, minced sheep's organs, mixed with oats, onions, and
spices, and cooked inside a sheep's stomach! However, sheep breeding was at
its peak in Asia too with unique breeds of sheep such as fat-tailed sheep,
Karakul, Baluchi, and many more being used. It was also in this period that the
Australian continent was discovered. With the colonization of Australia and
New Zealand by the British in 1770, sheep were introduced here. They thrived
due to the vast grasslands and soon, these two nations became the
international centre of sheep farming, with several more hybrid and new
breeds such as Merino, Poll Dorset, White Suffolk, Romney, Texel, Coopworth
and many more being developed here. As the medieval era gave way to the
Industrial Revolution and urbanization, pastoralism declined and was replaced
with more modern and formal farming practices. With pastures being replaced
with urban jungles, the diet of sheep changed from foraging to controlled diets
with supplements. Although the methods of sheep farming became more
efficient and industrialised, older breeds began to decline and several of them
soon went extinct. Hence, there are several organizations today, that are
devoted preserving threatened breeds.

While we have discussed the use of sheep for their flesh, it does not do
justice to the title of this chapter, ‘Fleecy Friends’. So, let us now understand
the softer, fluffier, and gentler side to sheep farming.
 Although modern sheep can produce large amounts of wool, their
ancestors did not have woolly coats but instead had shaggy hair. Hence, the
modern form of woolly sheep that we see today were subjected to artificial
selection around 6000 B.C.E. in Iran to bestow upon them this quality. Woollen
garments were first woven two to three thousand years after this. These
woolly sheep then travelled to Europe in the fourth millennium B.C.E., where
wool became the most widely used textile until the Industrial Revolution. It has
been suggested that during the Bronze Age, the city of Knossos on Crete made
its fortune in the wool trade. Since, shears were not invented until the Iron
Age, the wool was plucked by hand or bronze combs were used for this
purpose. Under the Romans and Greeks, wool was used widely for several
garments such as togas, tunics, cloaks, and socks. Archaeological evidence has
proved that the Romans had a wool producing factory in Winchester, England
as early as 50 A.D.! Sheep rearing continued to be a widespread profession in
the British Isles. Hence, until the 15th century England had a monopoly over
wool trade in Europe after which they were ousted by the Spanish due to their
superior Merino sheep. While modern governments have to detect and put an
immediate stop to smuggling of illegal objects like drugs, weapons etc., the
English government had to deal with wool and sheep smugglers called ‘owlers’
and this practice was outlawed between 1367 to 1824. Along with Britain, Italy
too was a major producer of wool during the Dark Ages. In fact, prior to the
Renaissance the Medici and other aristocratic families of Florence built their
wealth on the wool industry. While we associate wool with keeping us warm in
cold weather, the Bedouin and Tuareg tribes of the desert have used wool too
due to its resistance to heat flow. When European explorers landed in North
America, they observed that they were inhabited by several species of wild
sheep. However, these were never domesticated and the breeds of sheep that
were reared there were European ones. Due to the Spanish ruling over most of
South America and some parts of the North the breeds that were reared there
were Spanish ones such as the Churro. In the coming centuries, these sheep
would play an important role in the wool industry. However, it was only two
centuries later in the last decade of the 1700s that Australia turned into the
centre of the wool industry. In 1789, the Spanish monarch gifted six Merino
sheep to the Dutch. These animals soon found their way to South Africa where
they were bought by British military officials and diplomats and then sold to
John MacArthur. These sheep were then taken by him to Australia where they
gave rise to the Australian Merino breed along with strains of Merino from
other nations such as the Americas, South Africa, France, England etc. A few
years prior to this, sheep had been introduced to New Zealand between 1773
to 1777. Here, distinct breeds such as the Corriedale, New Zealand Romney,
Coopworth, Perendale etc. were developed. In the year 1774, Edmund
Cartwright invented the power loom. This led to mass and more efficient
production of wool textiles. During the 19th century a byproduct of wool called
tweed became extremely popular. In 1830, the Argentinian and Uruguayan
wool industry had boomed, and they had become a counterpart to Australia
and New Zealand. By 1845, the Australian wool industry had surpassed that of
Germany. It was only in 1857, that wool production became mechanised with
invention of the mechanical shearing machine. With the 20th century came
technological advances in synthetic fibres. However, wool continued to be
used commonly until 1966 when its price dropped by 40%. However, wool
textiles continued to evolve with washable wool being invented in 1977.
However, the decline of wool had become, and it was replaced by other
synthetic and natural fibres. Although, wool’s use has declined in textiles and
garments it is still used in pianos, reusable diapers, armour etc.

While most of us around the world consume milk and dairy products
from cattle, sheep have also been used as a source of milk. Several breeds such
as East Friesian from Germany, Sarda from Italy, Lacaune from France, British
Milk Sheep etc. have been used to produce milk. Greece has been known for
its sheep milk dairy products such as yogurt and feta and there are around
seventy-six known types of sheep milk cheeses around the world!

Although other Abrahamic religions do not include animals an important

part of their philosophy, sheep have been given this rare privilege in
Christianity where the image of the shepherd and his flock have been used
very commonly as an analogy for God and his children. Meanwhile, Islam and
Judaism contradict this by permitting sheep to be sacrificed (this is not
practiced today by the latter). This practice can be observed in early forms of
Hinduism, ancient Egyptian religion, and other similar belief systems.
 While it is animals such as rats, rabbits and monkeys that are most
commonly used in scientific experiments, it was a sheep named ‘Dolly’ who
was the first living creature to be cloned!

Most of the hybrids we have spoken about earlier came about due to
experimentation by humans. However, with sheep and goats commonly being
raised together, it is not a surprise that a cross between them, the ‘geep’, was
created naturally.

With this we conclude our final chapter. Unlike the other animals I have
spoken about in this chapter sheep are the ones that are given the least
attention though they have played an extremely important role in human
civilisation. From being the first animals, that humans domesticated for meat,
to being the first animals to be used by humans to supply animal fibres these
animals have been a crucial part of a number of firsts in man’s history.
Epilogue- The Future of Our Animal Amigos

I feel that by 2050, our relationship with these five animals would have
changed a lot. While it has been speculated that dogs and cats may be
replaced by robotic pets, I do not believe this. Instead of abandoning our furry
friends, we are developing technology to improve their life. We have invented
Internet controlled treat dispensers, self-cleaning litter boxes, automatic cat
brushes and many more inventions. These inventions are making pet
ownership easier and will encourage many more aspiring pet owners around
the world to adopt dogs and cats. One major change that will occur is that of
the popularity of breeds. Due to warmer weather caused by global warming,
people may prefer breeds with shorter and less fur.

However, while these animals have been our companions through the
millennia, cattle, horses, and sheep have been used by us for more commercial
and practical uses. As I have mentioned in the chapters about these three, they
are steadily being replaced in various fields by machines. As in the case of dogs
and cats, cattle too will be affected by hotter weather. This may lead to a
decrease in milk production, since it has been observed that cows produced
lesser milk during hotter periods. Due to animal cruelty concerns in the
production of meat, several meat eaters around the world have switched to
vegetarianism. This may be another reason for the future decline of the cattle
industry. Horses too have been replaced by faster modes of transport such as
trains and automobiles, and their last modern use is for equestrian sports
which generate a huge annual income for most European countries. Due to
warmer climates around the globe, textiles such as wool that are used for cold
weather clothing will not be in demand in most nations. Since, factory made
synthetic textiles are cheaper than wool, they will replace wool in most places.
With a lower demand for animal-based products, the future of cattle,
horses and sheep is unstable. It is also to be seen whether these animals will
be a common sight on farms or rare species to be viewed in zoos.