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ANIMAL HUSBANDRY;
This is a branch of agriculture concerned with animals that are raised for their products and
scientific research. It includes day to day care, selective breeding and raising of the stock.
Laboratory animals
 These are animals that are domestically reared in the laboratory for various purposes.
examples; rabbits, guinea pigs, laboratory mice and laboratory rat
Importance of laboratory animals
1. For recreation
2. For educations purposes in schools and institutions of high learning
3. For production purpose
4. For commercial purposes
5. For their products eg blood, serum, organs etc for studies
6. For research purpose eg toxicity test
Uses of varies laboratory animals
Rabbits
1. Used in research for cardiac surgery, studies of hypertension, infectious disease,
embryology etc
2. They are used for breeding of tsetse flies
3. Used for development of oral contraceptives
4. Important for research on reproduction- since ovulation is spontaneous, gestation is short
and semen are easily available
5. For their byproducts eg blood, plasma cells, liver and brain for laboratory use
Laboratory rat
1. Used for toxicity test
2. For nutritional research
3. For behavioral research
4. For physiological and pharmaceutical investigation
5. For teaching purpose eg animal anatomy and circulation
Laboratory mice
1. Used in bio-assay
2. For toxicity test
3. For screening new compounds
4. Used in microbiology, virology, and cancer research (esp. inbred strains)
5. For behavioral research

Guinea pigs
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1. Used for nutritional studies e.g. Vitamins C

2. For bacteriological research and diagnosis e.g. guinea pigs are susceptible to many
infections
Hamsters
1. To investigate importance of check pouch
2. Used in study of virology, in field of cancer, dental research and biochemistry
3. Used in pathology e.g. study of diabetes mellitus
4. Used as a host of certain parasitic vectors e.g. tsetse flies
5. Suitable for cytological investigation in genetics because have low chromosome number
6. Used in immunology studies e.g. tumour graft

ANIMAL HOUSE
 An animal house is where laboratory animals live and animal technicians work. An
animal house can be attached to the laboratory or can be a separate building. Animals can
be bred in the premises or imported from else where
Construction of animal house
CAGES
 These are equipments that are used to house laboratory animals for experiment, breeding
or for stock. They should be practical and easy to construct
Cage sizes
Species No. of animals Floor area Cage size
Mouse female and litter 48-60 sq In 12 In x15 In x 6 In
Rat Doe and litter 140 In sq 14 In x 10 In x 10 In
Rabbit Doe and litter 4-6 sq feet 4ft x 18In x18 In
Guinea pigs Doe and litter 150 sq In varies
Hamster Doe and litter 48-60 sq In 12 In x 5 In x 6 In

Materials used for construction of cages

 The following materials are used for construction of cages
Metals eg galvanized iron, steel coated with zinc and stainless steel
Advantages of metals
i. Resistant to attack by alkalis in urine
ii. Easily and cheaply galvanized by molten zinc
iii. Easily available
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iv. Durable
Disadvantages
i. Easily destroyed by oxidation (rust)
ii. Expensive
iii. Heavy
iv. Attacked by acid in urine
Aluminium metal
 This is a soft material used for making trays, mouse boxes and racking
Advantages
i. Bends easily
ii. Very light
iii. Cheap and available
iv. Resistant to corrosion and acids
Disadvantages
i. Easily damaged
ii. Attacked by alkalis in washing reagents
iii. Cannot be joined by welding.
Wood
Wood can be used for constructing mouse boxes and rabbit hutches. It is treated by preservatives
to prevent insects and pests.
Advantages
i. It is warm and preferable to animals
ii. Cheap and
iii. easily available
Disadvantages
i. easily attacked by insects and pests
ii. sterilizing reagents warp the wood, loosen glue joints and rust nails and screws
iii. Rots easily due to frequent washing
iv. Easily chewed by animals
v. Needs frequent repair
Plastics eg fibre glass, polycarbonate, polypropylene, styrene and polyethylene.
 Plastics are used for making animal cages.
Advantages
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i. Cheap
ii. Easily available
iii. Low thermal conductivity
iv. Light
v. Can stand rough handling
vi. Not attacked by cleaning reagents and animal wastes
Disadvantages
i. Not easy to wash
ii. Stains easily
iii. Affected by heat

Glass
 Glass is used to make tanks and jars used to house laboratory animals eg mouse
Advantage
i. Cheap
ii. Cleans easily
iii. Allows direct observation of animal
iv. Easily available
Disadvantage
i. Breaks easily
ii. Not suitable for large animals
iii. They are cold

Security of the cages to the animals

i. Cages must be strong enough to withstand the day to day wear and tear, high
temperature of about 1230C in steam sterilization and chemical sterilization
ii. The cage must confine the animal and must be made of a material which the animal
cannot break, distort, or destroy by gnawing or pulling apart
iii. A mesh wire or bars must be small enough to prevent the animal and its young from
escaping
iv. Doors and other openings should be well fitting and yet easy to open and close. Door
opening to be out of reach of animals or use locks because some animals like rabbits
have ability to open the doors.
v. The cage should allow the animal to live in comfort. It should allow free movent and
stretching of the animal
vi. Cages should be well ventilated. Light and darkness should be well regulated
because they affect breeding of rats and mice
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Cage security to the handler

i. The cage to have smooth finish to avoid causing scratches to the handler or tearing
clothes
ii. Doors to be large enough, so that the technician can easily remove the animal without
being hurt
iii. The cage to be easily carried. It may have handles
iv. Proper handling of animals to avoid injuries or hurting the animal
v. In case of infectious animals, there should be air filters around the cage to prevent
spread of infection
Factors to consider when constructing a cage
i. Cost –The cage should be cheap and simple in design
ii. Cage has to be durable. Should not exceed 5 years
iii. Type or species of animal to be kept
iv. Security of the animal and animal handler
v. Material of the cage
vi. Ventilation of the cage
vii. Suitable place to accommodate the cage whether in use or in store.
viii. The purpose- the cage must satisfy experimental requirement because in
experiments unstressed animal is required

ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS (SANITARY MEASURES)

These are measure undertaken in order to maintain the animal house clean and conducive
1. Cleaning and sterilization
2. Ventilation
3. Temperature
4. Humidity
5. Lighting

Cleaning
 Animal house is an ideal place for microorganisms, if not kept clean, may cause outbreak
of epidemic disease that can reduce animal stock. The house needs proper cleaning to
avoid spread and harboring pathogens.
 Cleaning involves washing and disinfecting the house, cages, utensils and other materials
Procedure of cleaning
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1. Transfer all animals to another room

2. Remove all the soiled beddings and carcasses and dispose them by incineration
3. Disinfect the house (the floor, corridor, rooms etc) with suitable disinfectant eg phenolic
solutions and spread using a mop. Drain off the disinfectant
4. Wash the house with suitable detergents solution and scrub with a brush
5. Rinse thoroughly with clean water and mop dry
6. House items such as cages and utensils should be washed and sterilized
7. After cleaning, replace clean cages and beddings. Return the animals
NB: if the floor is level should be mopped and dried. If it is sloppy it should be allowed to drain
off and drainage should be covered with a metal grill
Sterilization in animal house
 Sterilization is the process of complete destruction of infectious causing agents using
high temperature, chemicals, and radiation. Since pathogens travel on vectors such as
food, beddings, equipment and people, therefore every person and everything that enters
in an animal house should be decontaminated
 This involves;
i. Sterilizing items such as food, beddings, drinking water and equipments
ii. Washing hands before and after handling animals
iii. Changing of clothes by personnel and use of lab coats/ overalls
iv. Use of foot trays containing disinfectant at the entrance of main house and
each room to reduce spread of pathogens
v. Filter cages help to reduce and eliminate spread of infection within animal
house
vi. Filtering incoming and outgoing air to remove dust and microorganisms
vii. In breeding areas and other clean areas, the pressure of the room should be
higher than the outside to reduce possibility of infectious agents being sucked
into the room
viii. Airlocks to be built between each infectious room and corridor
Ventilation
 Natural ventilation alone is not enough, there is need for mechanical ventilation. Every
part of an animal house should be well ventilated to reduce respiratory infections. This
involves;
i. Use of ventilation systems which allow 6-15 changes of air per hour
without exposing the animal to draught which may encourage respiratory
infections
ii. Use convectional system which allows air to enter at low level and is
removed at high level in the opposite side of the room
iii. Air can be allowed to enter at shoulder height for the comfort of the
technicians
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iv. Air diffusers for inlet and outlet of air are placed on the ceiling to help in
purifying of air
v. Recirculation of air within the animal house is not allowed, because this
can encourage spread of infections and also dust may block the filters
Importance of ventilation
a) Good ventilation regulates temperature and humidity
b) Reduces level and spread of odor, noxious gases, dust and infectious
agents
c) Provide sufficient air (oxygen) within the house
d) Make the house environment fresh and conducive to the technicians
and animals
Humidity
 There should be provision either to raise or lower the humidly of the air. Humidly control
is important for the comfort of animals and to prevent disease in certain animals.
Optimum humidity varies from 45% in case of rabbits to 65% for mice
 Humidity
i. Encourages respiratory diseases
ii. Affects rate of heat loss
iii. Affects animal activity and food intake
Lighting
 Both natural and artificial light can be utilized within an animal house. Artificial light is
necessary especially in breeding room where controlled cycles may be necessary to
regulate breeding programs. Light affects;
i. Affects breeding programs of some animals like mice, hamsters etc
ii. Affects activity of some animals eg some animals are nocturnal (more
active in night) eg mice, rats
iii. Light affects morphology of some animals
iv. Affects behavior of some species eg some are photophobic ag mice
v. Affects eating habits of some animals eg Light is aversive to some
nocturnal animals eg mice and rats. For instance, in the dark a rat eats in
close proximity to food hopper. In the light they make rapid excursion
from the nest to food hopper, it takes a morsel and returns to nest box to
consume it
Temperature
 There should be provision for heating and cooling, because heat produced by people and
animals can raise the temperature within the house. The environment should be
sufficiently warm. The temperature control should be effective throughout the room such
that each animal enjoys ideal temperature. The animal species determines the temperature
range required
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 Comfortable range for most laboratory animals is 18.3-21.1 0C.

 Recommended ranges;
Temperature affects
i. Animal activity
ii. Feeding habit
iii. Breeding cycles
iv. Level of humidity within the house

Cage facilities
i. Wash bottles for offering water to animals
ii. Open dishes for providing powdered feeds
iii. Hoppers and baskets for providing feeds eg pellets and cubes
iv. Small ointment jars or china pots for powdered feeds
v. Nesting material for sleeping
vi. Bedding materials eg saw dust for wastes
NB: All scrappers, brushes, and other cleaning equipments to be kept in disinfectant solution
when not in use

FEEDING LABORATORY ANIMALS

 Laboratory animals are maintained to provide a continuous supply of health animals to
use for experiment. They are reared on diets which are sufficient in quality and quantity.
 Deficiency in nutrients may reveal itself in animals in the following ways
i. Slow growth rate
ii. Fewer litters which are small both in number and weight
iii. Outbreak of a disease eg scurvy in case of deficiency in vit C
 All the materials needed for the growth and maintenance of the animals body must be
taken by mouth
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 The nutrients required are proteins, carbohydrates, fats, minerals salts, vitamins, water
and roughage /fibre.
Handling animal foods
Precautions
1. Maintain high standard of hygiene when handling animal food materials
2. Proper handling of foods to avoid contamination of food and water
3. Care should be taken during harvesting, handling and processing raw ingredients of
diet, because if poorly handled they are likely to acquire heavy load of microbial
contaminants
4. Once the diet is mixed, it must be protected from extraneous contaminants eg excreta
of birds, rodents etc
5. Diets should be kept in bins or strong paper sacks and stored in cool dry place away
from direct sunlight
6. Dry diets are preferred to wet mash which provide an excellent medium for growth of
moulds
7. Hoppers should be designed to prevent food from being fouled by excreta or flooded
with drinking water
8. To avoid contamination of food, raw materials have to be of first quality, milling and
mixing conditions to be very clean
9. It is not advisable to use green fresh foods because they are rarely eaten completely,
wilted leaves in the cage encourage growth of moulds and microbial contaminants
10. Wash bottles and automatic drip services are preferred to open pans for the provision
of water
11. All water containers must be frequently cleaned to prevent buildup of contaminants
12. Water should be sterilized by chlorination or filtered.
13. Gnotobiotic and specific pathogen free (SPF) animals must be provided with sterile
foods
Animal nutrients
Water
 Water is taken in as fluid or as a component of food or as a product of certain metabolic
processes. Animal’s need of water is influenced by environment, physiological and
dietary factors
 Growing and gestation animals will use water for formation of new tissues and lactating
females will pass out large volume in milk, therefore these animals need more water
 Generally animals feed on dry diets, therefore should have constant access to a supply of
fresh water
Proteins
 Animal sources; sources are meat, fish eggs and milk. Plant source: cereals eg oats,
maize, barley etc
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 Animals require sufficient supply of proteins thought their lives, for the growth and
replacement of body tissue
Carbohydrates
 Sources; cereals eg oats, maize barley etc
 They are the chief sources of energy for animal body. they are stored in form of glycogen
in the body
Fats
 Like carbohydrates, they are sources of energy and weight.
Mineral salts
 They are widely distributed in nature and occur in all food stuffs. They are required by
the animal for growth, replacement and proper functioning of all body tissue eg
a) calcium, phosphorus and magnesium - for bone and teeth
b) Sodium potassium and chlorine for maintain osmotic pressure, and Ph, and also
important for water metabolism
c) Iron-- constituent of haemoglobin in red blood cells. More is required during
gestation period and in young ones.
d) Other minerals require in traces are; copper, zinc etc
Vitamins
 They act as biological catalysts. They are required in small amounts. Some have to be
replaced regularly from food because they are not stored in body eg vit C. others can be
stored in the body for several months

Roughage
 Fibre helps to distribute diet in the gut, hence preventing the formation of solid masses
that could prevent the penetration of digestive enzymes
 Roughage helps in movement of food residues especially in lower gut
Non nutrient additives
 Addition of small amount of antibiotics or chemotherapeutic agents to diets increase
growth rate and prevents infections
Ideal characteristics of good diet
1. Attractive so that the animal takes it readily
2. Balanced with the correct proportion of nutrients
3. Sufficient quantity to supply the animal needs
4. Contains additives that are especially required by the animal eg Vit C for guinea pigs
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Physical forms of diets

These can be natural feed or commercially acquired feeds
 Diets are provided in form of dry powder, wet mashes, pellets, cubes and fresh green
foods
 Diets are provided in open dishes, baskets and hoppers. Some of these containers are built
onto the top of the cage, others hang on the front or sides of the cage

species Grams of food / day Cm3 of water/

per day
Mouse 4-6 6
Rat 12-15 35
Guinea pigs 30 145
Rabbits 150 300
Hamster 10-15 15-20

NB: protein must be a good product providing needed amino acid

Provision of water
 Laboratory animals feed on dry diets and require large amount of water. Therefore, water
should be available at all times. Water can be provided by bottles or automatic watering
device
BEDDING AND NESTING MATERIALS
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 The beddings and nesting materials govern the environment of an animal house/ cage
 Beddings : - These are materials used to cover the floor of the cage or the portable trays
placed under wire mesh grid in order to collect faecal matter
 Nesting materials: - These are material placed inside the cage to enable the animal to
make nests for their young ones or comfortable sleeping quarters for themselves
 Macro environment:- Temperature and condition within the cage
 Micro environment: - Temperature and conditions inside the nest. Nesting materials are
given so that the animal can adjust the microenvironment to its own acceptable level

 Ideal characteristics of beddings and nesting materials

i. Nontoxic- harmless to the animal
ii. Non staining
iii. Non edible
iv. Free of pathogens
v. Absorbent
vi. Disposable
vii. Easily available and easily stored
viii. Relatively cheap
 Beddings can be sterilized by autoclaving, fumigation using ethylene oxide for 6 hours
and gamma irradiation.
 Examples of beddings used
a) Sawdust from white soft wood and obtained from reliable source like food
stuff suppliers not saw mills. Wet dirty sawdust should never be used as it is a
possible source of infection. It is suitable for all animals. Sawdust should be
changed regularly to avoid odor from decomposing foods and wastes
b) Soft wood shaving/ wood chips –used together with sawdust in a cage with
solid floor
c) Straw (chopped)- used for guinea pigs. Put on saw dust. Wheat and oat straws
should be used
d) Peat moss – used same way as saw dust. Its more expensive

HANDLING LABORATORY ANIMALS

Laboratory animals should be handled in the correct manner
Precaution
1. Always wear protective clothing when handling animals such rubber, boots, gowns etc
2. The handler must always be relaxed and must approach the animal with quiet confidence
3. The animals should be handled firmly and gently to avoid being bitten or scratched.
Improper handling may result in injury to animal or lab technician
4. Forceps or leather gloves should never be used to handle animals unless circumstances
warrant it eg when handling infected animals or when there is danger of being infected
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5. Handle small animals always and frequently, by doing so they become docile
6. Pregnant animals should be handled with care and only when absolutely necessary
7. Procedures like injections , examinations and gastric lavage are usually carried out with
the animals restrained within the hands
8. Procedures like cardiac puncture and venipuncture require general anesthesia
9. The house should have adequate washing facilities eg soap and water, scrubbing brushes
and disposable towels
10. Bites from animals and scratches from cages to be treated promptly
11. A cut on the hand or other parts of the body to be well covered when handling animals
12. Protective vaccines to be given eg BCG given against TB.

Handling rabbits
 Rabbits should be handled firmly but gently to avoid struggling
 Taking a rabbit out of the cage –
a) Hold the scruff of the neck with one hand animal facing the direction of the
operator and place the other hand beneath the belly of the animal, lift the
animal gently but firmly out of the cage.
 Lifting the rabbit
a) For adult animals grasp the scruff of the neck and lift it quickly supporting
the rabbit rump with your other hand.
b) For immature rabbits – They are lifted and carried by grasping them firmly
over the loin (skin over the back). The fingers on one side and thumb on the
other side
 Transporting the rabbit –
a) Tuck its head into the crook of your elbow with its body resting on your
forearm and the other hand holding onto the scruff of the neck.
b) Carry it a closed well ventilated box or small cage
 Restrain for examination eg when injecting or giving other treatments
a) Place the rabbit on non-slippery surface eg on towel. To examine
underside of a rabbit, grasp the scruff of the neck in one hand and the back
legs with the other hand, with animal facing up, stretch the animal along
the forearm
 Hypnosis – This is used to make the rabbit lie still on its back. Grasp the mandible with
on hand and rear legs with the other hand and stretch the animal on the table, gently tilt
the head backwards until the rabbit suddenly relaxes (maintain hypnosis)
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NB:
 Always release other parts before the scruff, so that the animal does not jump over
 Never lift the rabbit by the ears, as it may injure the animal
 Avoid noise, it has a disturbing effect on rabbits. It interferes with copulation or maternal
behavior

Laboratory rat
Handling laboratory rat
 Do not pick a large rat by the tail. When approaching a rat never hesitate or fumble or
frighten the animal by waving hands about
a) To lift adult rats and pregnant ones – They are lifted by placing the hand palm down
over the animal’s back with the thumb and the index finger around the neck and under
the mouth. Grasp the rat firmly but gently and lift the animal.
b) To lift small rats – small rats may be picked by the base of the tail like a mouse
c) For manipulation- grasp the loose skin behind the ears turn the animal so that it lies
bell uppermost in the palm and grip the tail between the 3rd and 4th finger
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Laboratory mouse
 This is the most commonly used laboratory animal because
a) Has small size
b) Has high fecundity (litter size)
c) Largely un specialized
d) Easily adapted to domestication
e) Cheap and mostly available
f) Short gestation period
g) Breeds throughout the year
Handling a mouse
 They are picked by the base of the tail and the weight of the body is supported by letting
the mouse stand on the top of the cage and pull the tail backwards gently.
 Mouse can also be grasped by the whole hand.
 Young ones are picked by the handful without injury
 They can be scooped by a container
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Rodent handling for manipulation

Comparison between a rat and mouse

Rat Mouse
Behavior
Quiet and easily handled Timid gentle and easily handled
Males are less prone to fighting Males are vicious fighter and females rarely
fight
Less photophobic Are photophobic
Not gregarious Are gregarious and can form heaps
More active in the night than daylight
If escapes from cage will return to cage Determined escaper and cannot return to cage
Females with litter can tolerate presence of a Female with can tolerate presence of a male
male but not another female and another females
Poor handling leads to nutritional deficiency
(hypovitaminosis)
Poor handling cause to bite or attack handler They are docile rarely attack the handler
Less sensitive to noise but hard banging can They are more sensitive to noise
lead to cannibalism

Morphological differences between rat and mouse

Rat Mouse
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Big in size Small in size

Have small ears Have large ears
Thick hairless tail Long thin tail covered in hairs
Heavy (150-300g) Light (12-45g)
Muzzle large and blunt Muzzle is narrow and sharp
Head is short and broad Head is small and triangular
Body covered with long hairs Body covered in short hairs
Large feet Small feet
Have droppings that are banana shaped Dropping pointed at the end

Guinea pigs
Behaviour
 The most docile animals and rarely bite
 Very nervous, shy and easily upset
 Noise and emit loud squeals especially during feeding
 They are unable to climb or jump because of short legs and heavy body
 Do not use fore paws or hands
 Male tend to fight unlike females
Handling guinea pigs
 They are easy to handle and do not bite
 They are lifted by wrapping your fingers around the chest gently but firmly with one
hand and supporting the hind legs with the other hand
 For manipulations- hold the thorax firmly between the thumb and fingers of one hand,
while the hind legs are held and extended by the other
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Hamsters
 They are relatively aggressive among themselves and easy to handle and rarely bite if
handled frequently
 Due to the presence of the cheek pouch, it is difficult to handle them by the scruff of the
neck
Behaviour
 They are aggressive. Females dominate males. Larger females dominate smaller ones.
 They are solitary. An animal can live alone
 Active at twilight and night. They are nocturnal animals
 they chew a lot to file and grind their teeth
 use their cheek pouch to carry and store food
 burrow and hide as a means of protection
 go into hibernation if temperature drops
Handling hamsters
 To pick a hamster, place a palm over the hamster, wrap fingers over the entire body and
turn hamster quickly on its back
 They can also be picked using a can
 They can be scooped in cupped hands
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NB: when picking hamster the head may be pointed toward your wrist or be normal position

SEXING LABORATORY ANIMALS

 Sexing animals correctly is a skill and has to be learnt through constant practice and good
eye sight. All laboratory animals can be sexed at birth
Sexing a rabbit
 The animal should be held such that the legs are facing away from the handler. Control
the head by holding the scruff of the neck.
 With the fore fingers of the free hand exert a little pressure just above the genital region.
If it is a male the penis will be seen and the female a slanted slit (vaginal orifice) will be
seen. The anogenital distance is greater in males

Sexing a guinea pig

 The anus and genitalia are close together in both the male and female guinea pigs
 With the hand holding the animal by the trunk, support the hind quarters in the palm of
the other hand, extend the fingers of the same hand to apply little pressure in front of the
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genital region. This causes the male penis to be extruded slightly or female vaginal
orifice to be revealed
 To sex the young animals, use both hands and lay the animal in the capped palms. Place
both thumbs and forefingers beside and above the genital region and press downwards
and outward a little harder than adult animals
Sexing (rodents) mice/ rats/hamster
 Easy to sex due to differences in anogenital distance in the two sexes
 Hold the animal with the tail bent slightly upwards. Examine anogenital distance. The
anogenital distance in males is greater than in females and is more hairy

Sexing hamsters
 Put the animal on the table and put palm over it and cup the animal into the hand, turn it
over and sex

METHODS OF HUMAN KILLING LABORATORY ANIMALS (EUTHANASIA)

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 Euthanasia is painless death or good death

 Proper euthanasia depends on the rapidity with which unconsciousness is achieved and
the maintenance of this state until death occurs
Primary criteria /factors to consider when choosing euthanasia method
i. Method must be Painless and distress free
ii. Method to be of minimal restrain
iii. Age, species and health of animal
iv. Method must be fast and irreversible
v. Efficiency and ease of procedure
vi. Safety of the operator
vii. Purpose of killing animal
viii. Number of animals to be killed
ix. Behavior of animal
x. Cost and availability
xi. Environmental impact
Reasons euthanasia is carried out in the laboratory
a) Prolonged and severe pain resulting from experiment
b) Integral part of an experiment
c) Due to accident
d) Disease outbreak (epidemic)
e) Weight loss, emaciation and failure to gain weight
f) Tumor growth
g) Prolonged diarrhoea
h) Animal are in surplus
Euthanasia is divided into;
i. Physical
ii. Chemical methods
Physical methods of euthanacia
 They are used to kill animals that can be handled easily and have a relatively thin skull.
They are rapid, painless, humane, practical and less distressing to the animal than use of
chemicals if applied correctly. They are distasteful to the operator and repellant to
sensitive people
 Example;
a) Stunning
b) Pithing
c) Cervical dislocation/dislocation of the neck
d) Decapitation
e) Electrocution
f) Gun shot
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g) Captive bolt
h) Rapid freezing/ hypothermia
Stunning
 This is killing by striking the animal at the back of the head (central skull bones) with
heavy stick to cause hemorrhage and depression of central nervous system (CNS). It is
followed by decapitation or exsanguination
a) Rabbits- place the rabbit on the table, with the left hand lift it by the ears,
until its forepaws are just clear off the table, then hit with heavy blow behind
the head using a heavy stick followed with decapitation.
b) Guinea pigs- make a smart forward blow behind the head with blunt
instrument followed by cutting the throat
c) Rat- wrap it in a duster, hold the head downwards and struck the head very
hard with a heavy stick.
Pithing
 Pitching is the destruction of the brain by inserting a needle into the brain through the
skull. A sharp needle of appropriate size is inserted into the cranial bone and rotated so
as to crush the brain. The needle is then inserted in the caudal direction to destroy the
spinal cord.
 Pithing requires skill and should be conducted by trained personnel
Cervical dislocation /dislocation of the neck eg guinea pigs, mice
 Technique involves separation of skull and brain from spinal cord by interior direct
pressure applied to the base of the skull.
a) Guinea pigs- grip the head in the palm of the hand and dislocate the neck by sharp
downward movement followed up quick upward movement of the hand
b) Mice-hold the animal by the tail, and place it on the surface it can grip. Place an
object e.g rod across the neck, make a sharp pull of the tail dislocate the cervical
vertebrae
Gunshot (using fire free- bullet)
 The animal is restrained adequately. It involves use of fire free bullet. The muzzle is
placed firmly against the animals head targeting the brain and squeeze the trigger.
Shooting destroys the brain and result in immediate unconsciousness.
 NB:
i. Requires police permit
ii. Do not fire while animal is moving its head
Decapitation/ beheading
 The animal is properly restrained and its head completely severed from its body at
atlantoaxial joint using a guillotine (heavy shear)
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Captive bolt stunning

 Captive bolt stunner fires a retractive bolt against the animal head into the brain rendering
it immediately unconscious
Electrocution
 Electrocution is achieved by passing appropriate amount of current through brain and
heart simultaneously. The animal becomes rigid with slight tremors and then gradually
relaxes as death occurs.
 The purpose is to kill the animals by stopping the heart by cardiac arrest. The brain is
starved of oxygen and rapidly dies
NB: passing the current through the heart alone is inhumane because it causes lot of pain
to the animal
Rapid freezing
 Immerse the entire animal in liquid nitrogen to cause death. The cold nitrogen inactivates
enzymes in the brain. Heavy animals can be anaesthetized before the technique is used.
This method require suitable equipment and trained personnel
Exsanguination
 This is action of drain of an animal’s blood. Applied to animals that are sedated, stunned
or anaesthetized
Chemical methods
 This involves use of substances such as carbon dioxide gas, nitrogen, chloroform
pentobarbitone sodium, ether, etc. The following methods are approved by science
advisory committee
DISECTION OF ANIMALS
 Dissection means – To cut open the animal and expose internal structures for study
 Tools used
i. Scissors
ii. Forceps
iii. Dissecting pan or tray
iv. Scalpel
v. Probes and pins

Dissecting a Rat
External features
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 External features;
i. Cranial region--- The head, cervical region and neck
ii. Pectoral region---The area where front limbs are attached
iii. Thoracic region---- This is the chest area
iv. Pelvic region -------This the area the hind legs are attached
Procedure
i. Killing – rats are killed by chloroform. They are disinfected with phenol or Lysol to
kill pathogens on body surface and then thoroughly washed with water before use
ii. Put the specimen on its back on a dissecting tray. Fix with pins passing through the
limbs
iii. Lift the skin of the abdomen with a pair of forceps and make a small cut at the
middle of the abdomen
iv. Starting from the cut give an incision extending up to the snout anteriorly and genital
opening posteriorly
v. Give a transverse incision along the length of the limbs.
vi. Separate the skin from the underlying muscles and pin it down
vii. Give an incision on the abdomen wall in the posterior region, proceed laterally and
anteriorly on both sides, cutting the ribs up to the anterior border of the thoracic
cavity
viii. Cut the clavicle and muscle there. Lift the sternum and cut the attachment of the
diaphragm to the abdominal wall.
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 NB: The ventral wall of the thorax and abdomen with the sternum is separated and the
organs in the thoracic and abdomen cavity are exposed. The structures in the neck region
are exposed
RABBIT
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Dissecting a rabbit
Procedure
1. Place the rabbit on a tray, ventral side up
2. Tie the legs securely to the corner of the try by passing a string or rubber band under the
tray. Be sure the specimen is firmly held
3. Find the lower edge of the sternum (breastbone) and make an incision through the skin,
and then from that point to the pelvis. This will expose the layers of abdominal muscles.
Strip the skin well back to the side to examine the muscles.
4. Using scissors, make another incision through the muscle layer, this will expose the
peritoneum membrane which lines the abdominal cavity.
5. Cut through the membrane to expose the abdominal organs
6. Open the abdominal cavity wide by making several lateral cuts and pulling the skin and
muscle layer to the side. Use pins to pin back the cut sections of skin and muscles.
7. Locate the diaphragm which divided the abdominal from the thoracic cavity
8. Using scissors cut through the ribs, along the left and right side of the breast bone to the
neck. Continue the incision to the larynx, the incision should be deep to expose the
trachea. The organs are now exposed
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Disposing of animal carcass

1. Place the carcass in a bag labelled hazard
2. Place the bag in a bin. The carcass can now be disposed in any the following ways
Animal carcasses are usually disposed by traditional methods such as; burying burning,
incineration, rendering and composting
Burying
The burial site to be located in a well fenced off areas. Place the carcasses a pit of at least 2.5m
wide and 3m deep and cover with 2m layer of soil. Covering soil should not be compacted
because decomposition and gas formation causes cracking, bubbling and leak of fluids from the
compact. The time required for burial animal carcass to decompose depends on temperature,
moisture, burial depth, size of animal and soil type.
Disadvantage: it can cause pollution of ground water and infectious agents can get their way into
human food chain and environment
Burning
Open burning of carcass should be done only when legally permitted. The burning site to be
away from public view and on flat open ground that is away from buildings or food stores. The
carcasses are placed on a quantity of combustible supporting material sufficient to reduce them
completely to ash. The materials to be arranged in a manner to allow sufficient flow of air into
the fire. Burning should be complete in 48 hours. The ash should be buried and the area cleaned,
graded or ploughed.
NB: Gasoline and highly combustible liquids should not be used
Incineration
This is the thermal destruction of carcass at high temperature (≥ 850 0C) into inorganic ash using
an incinerator. This process destroys all infective agents. The ash obtained is buried and
incinerator cleaned. This method requires a great deal of energy compared to other methods. It is
expensive and not economical in terms of cost and labour
Disadvantage: it causes air pollution and can release carcinogens such as dioxins and furans into
air. It is expensive and uneconomical
Rendering
Rendering is the process of crushing carcass into small uniform sizes, heating the particles and
separating out the fat, protein material and water to make useful end products like meat, bone
meals and tallow. In this process, the carcasses are exposed to high temperature of 130 0C using
pressurized steam to ensure destruction of most pathogens. Rendering is a safe, rapid and
economical method of disposal
Composting carcasses
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This a natural degradation of carcass that involves layering of carcasses between strata of carbon
rich substrate such as straw or sawdust with a final covering of carbon rich substrate over the
entire pile. The compost piles should occasionally be aerated and turned. This process occurs in
two phases, the primary thermophilic phase (70 0C) for a number of weeks and secondary
mesophilic (30-400C) phase for a number of months.
The compositing facilities should be placed away from animal houses and downwind from
residential areas. The facilities to be 3ft above the ground and 90m from streams ponds and
lakes. Care should be taken to protect compost from excessive rain and secure it from predators
Maceration
This is a bone preparation technique where a clean skeleton is obtained from a vertebrae carcass
by leaving it to decompose inside a closed container at a near constant temperature. It is a form
of putrefaction, a stage of decomposing in which proteins of the body cell are broken done and
consumed by bacteria in an anaerobic condition. Maceration is done on animal carcass for
education purpose.
The carcass is first skinned and defleshed by hand as much as possible and internal organs
removed. Water is put in a container and maintained at a constant temperature of 35 0C, washing
powder with enzymes can be added to soften the tissues. The putrefying bacteria consume the
tissues cells. Water is replenished to maintain the bacteria. This takes about 10 days. When the
process is over the bones are removed from the water and left to dry