10

CHAPTER

Sänti Parva of Mah bh rata:

Ideas on the Kingship and
Dandaniti
Varun Kumar Tripathi

CHAPTER OUTLINE

Introduction
The Life Sketch
The Santi Parva
Origin and Nature of Ancient Indian State
Kingship-the Rjdhrma
Code and Doctrine of Punishment-the Dandan+ti
Conclusion
SummaryY
Points for Discussion

State, being vast machinery, can't be run by those who havent conquered their minds.
-Bhi_ma, Snti Parva

Readers Guide
h e word Mahäbhärata refers to two things: the Great War that took place between two
confederacies of Kaurava and PâFdava, respectively, and the great epic narrating the story of the
war, composed by the great sage Vysa. The epic is an encyclopaedic account of a vast range o
subjects, such as the different regions and kingdoms of the Bhâratavarsa, their kings and famous
 Santi Parva
of Mahbhrata: ldeas the
on
Kingship and Dandaníti 3
warriors, princes, meritorious
orS, prince
women, deities, demons, mountains, rivers, forests; the
eeription of prosperity, people, clans,sages,
desc
rituals, vast
craftsmanship; and polity, governance, statecraft,
rality, spirituality and unending range of war skills.
mo.

The readers of the chapter will find some

finestideas pertaining to polity, kingship, statecraft of the
and overnance
Darva of Mahabharata. The readers may note that the vastly illustrated in the Sänti
as
author of this chapter has not chosen deliberately
w
any theoretical
framework to weave those ideas
and analyse them or even initiate
any theory
eriticism. It was chosen so to provide the reader almost a first-hand account of the political laden
precepts as
AiCussed in the treatise so as to facilitate him
making an uncorrupted perception of those precepts.
More importantly, the readers may note that the political precepts discussed in the Sarnti Parva are the
ammary of the views of ancient proponent of rja[stra
sum
(political doctrines), such as Brahma, Brhaspati,
Viklk_a, Sukrcrya, Indra, Prcetas Manu, Bharadväja, Gaura[ir and others. Bhi_ma, after the end of
the Great War when his body was pierced with arrows, was visited by Yudhi_thira who wanted to learn
from him the lessons of rjasstra. Bhi_ma acknowledges above ancient teachers and summarizes the
doctrines for Yudhisthira. It suggests that Bhi_ma did not present as much of his views as of his ancestors.
It also suggests that raja[ stra was a subject matter of scholarly contemplation for ages in India much
Drior to the time of Mah bhärata. Accordingly, there might have been diversity in views too. So, if the
readers find any apparent contradiction in the ideas, they may see it in the context.
The references are mostly taken from the Sänti Parva and relevant verses are translated from Sanskrit
into English by the author, less literally and more illustratively. The endnotes of the chapters often
the 65th chapter of the
indicate numeric, for example, 65/13-31, in which 65 would indicate
would indicate number
Rajadharmnusâsana Parva of Sänti Parva of the Mah bhärata and 13 or 13-31
or range of verses (sloka)
from the chapter. Like in case of translations, the terms appearing in glossary
transliteration.
are also defined to
illustrate the best sense for the reader, instead of furnishing mere

Introduction
and
that ancient Indian thinkers had least interest polity
in
For ages, there has been a prevailing opinion' held much earlier to
theorization. However, such opinions were
governance and even lesser in political in the
and political scientific revision of other N+ti treatise
the discovery of Kauilya's Artha[ästra (1922),
ideas in Buddhist
such as the Mahäbhärata of Vysa, Sukran+ti of Sukräcrya,
latter half of 20th century, and janapada, etc., and
such as rstra, sabh, samiti, bali, jana
Pali canon, or even the Vedic concepts etc. Yet, to get woven the
Dharma[ stra or the Smriti of Manu,
miscellaneous ideas from 18 Purna and careful reader or researcher.
schema would be a tedious task for a
1deas into one or some theoretical disconnected from
of ideas of Indian past would be to get
Whie ignoring the e n o r m o u s array political for the absence
subcontinent and possibly to argue ad ignorantiam
the
ne ways of political thinking in in the history of the land.
or statesmanship
0r any significant political thinking with a range of affairs
its Sänti Parva significantly deals
As for as the Mah bhärata is concerned,
human minds have been
affairs. It also indicates that how the
which indicate the complexity of political
derived this inquisition from the generic
towards political affairs and have always Indian
nquisitive since ages the description of the 'state of nature across all
and peace. Yet,
nquisition for human happiness
of zoon politikon, rather
it would show that human
the Aristotelian idea
reatises would not confirm to the 'state of nature' and
becomes politically conscious
when they
apolitical in installation
Deings have been totally the necessity of
and social chaos thereupon, hence feeling
Perience a moral degeneration and affairs were hoped to be put
to order. And there came a king.
4
statecraft through which the life
 132 VARUN KUMAR
TRIPATHI
To guide the king. the dhärma operated. The dhârma sets the ideal principle of action, as Kumärila
Bhatta defines räjädhärma as the principle on which the state 'ought to function'2 The San
Sänti Parva
nowever, like other Indian treatise on polity does not confirm that the nature of kingship, state .
o
Bvernance principles has been same across various parts of subcontinent and various phases of time
The Indian political thinking is not merely a concern for management of the political affairs and
statecraft, but has been quite conscious of constructing political ideals in the light of which and
the
ustification of all political acts could be sought. As in Western political thinking, justice often become
the highest political ideal, although sometimes replaced by the idea of democracy; in case of ancient
Indian political thinking. dhârma becomes the highest political ideal. Dhârma, however,traversesin
difterent realms of discourse, moral, spiritual, religious, social, etc., but when it comes to political realm
it encompasses concepts like dutifulness, justice, equality, justified discrimination, professional dutiee
and as far as doctrines of punishment. The term dhârma is used in all above senses in different contexts
The Santi Parva touches almost all of them. The räjädhärma-dhärma of a king-is a further specified
fraction of the dhárma in general, and when kingship is debated as a political idea, the räjadhärma becomes
the highest ideal in the political schema of thinking and theorization. The räjüdhärma, therefore, functions
as a criterion, that is, if a political decision or act is according to the rjdhrma, it would be right, andif
not then false and deplorable.

The Life Sketch

Vyasa, also known as Veda Vysa (being compiler of Veds) and Krsna Dvaipyana (Krsna-having dark
complexion and Dvaip yana-being born on an island), is considered the author of the great epic
Mahabhärata. He also compiled four Vedäs and 18 Puranas. Vysa is a title for the compiler ofthe Vedás
and is not confined to one person, but about 28 legendary figures have been named as Vysa in Hindu
tradition. Vyäsa appears as the compiler of, and an important character in, the Mahbhârata. It is held
by the Hindu mythology that Lord Vi_nu himself incarnated as Vysa to compile all the knowledge
treasure which was till then in oral form and transmitted among the teacher-disciple tradition of sages
and hermits. He was the son of Satyavati and the sage Par[ara. He was very much alive at the time of
the Great War as he had met the Pândava during their visit to Päñcla kingdom and compiled the
Mahabhärata when the Great War was over. There are two views about his birthplace, one that he was
born at a place called Vysa in Nepal, and other that he was born on a river island of river Yamun, in
modern Uttar Pradesh.
After the Great War, Vyäsa took assistance from Lord Ganesha, who served as his scribe in writing
the great treatise, which was originally known as Jaya (meaning victory) and later on named as
Mahabharata-the great story of Bharata dynasty (alternatively of Bhärata, the Indian subcontinent).
Vyasa himself mentions that there are different versions of Mahäbhârata authored by him ( Parva
1/1/101-106). For the benefit ofhuman realm he wrote the treatise comprising 100,000 verses; the other
of 24,000 verses; of 6,000,000 verses; of 3,000,000 verses for the realm of deities; of 1,500,000 verses tor
the realm of ancestors (pitr); and of 1,400,000 verses for the realm of gandharvas.Only the first one, that
is, composed for the human realm, 1s popularly known as Mahäbharata. The significance of the treatise
Can be understood by the fact that it is recognized as fifth Vedä in Hindu mythology. And, the high place
of Vyãsa in the hearts of Hindus can be understood by that fact that even today when a recitation session
of Mahábhárata or Puränas is organized, the reciting teacher is called Vyäsa for the duration.
 Santi Parva of Mahbhrata: ldeas on the Kingship and Dandaníti

va
The

Parva is the 12th of 18 books of great Indian epic-the Mahäbhärata. The canto is further
TheS a
ded into
subdivided into three sections, namely Räjdharmämusásana Parva (dealing with duties of a king).
na Parva (dealing with duties in situations of crisis) and Moksa dhârma Parva (a discourse on
Apn The three sections contain 365 chapters altogether. After the end of the Great War,
jerir, the king designate, visits Bhisma, who was still alive pierced with arrows, for learning from
y o t polity, how to protect and up-bring the subject and what were the duties of a king--the
hin td. The canto reports a number of dialogues, such as between Vyása and Yudhisthira; indra and
Thtá: Vasumanä and Brhaspati; Indra and Brhaspati; Utathya and Mändhätá; and more; and several
Prahlda;
hund-narratives, such as narrative of Para[urama; Kekayrâja and a demon; Indra and
upäkhyana
aka and Ksemadars+r, to quote a few. Through these numerous dialogues and
akavrksiya sage, Janak.
Kilaka

of polity and its

ratives,as Bhisma tells Yudhisthira, modern reader can build large picture
a a

canto Adi Parva

rines-raja[stra, of ancient India. The very first chapter of the Mahäbhärata's first
discourse.
alt/0) eulogizes the Snti Parva as the ultimate fruition ofthe Mahäbhârata
that talks of state and
Interestingly, it is not the case that the Mahâbhrata is the first treatise
and their treatises as
atfesmanship, but as it reports, there had been several great exponents polity
of
of the great
well prior to the
time of the Great War. As Bhima says that he just summarized the teachings
like Brahmâ, Brhaspati, Visälksa, Sukräcrya, Indra, Präcetas Manu, Bharadväja,
ient teachers
ancient
industrious
shows that ancient Indian lawmakers were significantly careful and
Gaurasir and others. It establish a
issues related to the state and public affairs. It was not easy ever to
gbout engaging with Mah bhärata-asks
Mändhätä-a king much earlier to the time of the
kingdom and rule the masses, as
when it was populated by people of a variety of communities
ndra as how should he rule his kingdom
such as yavana, kirta, gândhära, china, [abara, barbara, [aka, tu_ra,
karika, pahlava, ndhra, madraka,
and that too when many of them are engaged in deplorable
paundra, pulinda, ramatha and kamboja, etc.,
them on the right path. Indra taught him
professions like crime, robbery, etc., how could he engage
and advised him to rule the
the dhärma such as non-violence, truthfulness, protection of public property
that
kingdom without any kind of vengeance. The dialogue indicates the complexity of stately affairs,
too in a time much earlier to the age of Great War. It also shows how teachings of rja[âstra started

tormulating, in different phases, by different people and with a range of doctrines.

Origin and Nature of Ancient lIndian State

he Santi Parva describes the origin of state, its nature, kingship, origin of code and punishment, duties
ungs and their numerous matters pertaining to the statecraft. Yudhi_thira asks Bhi_ma about the
tgin of state and is also curious as how a person from amongst the populace of a society, and who is
ary other ordinary person of that society, becomes a king' Bhi_ma replies that, at the start of the society
ke was no state, no king and no punishment. People were governed and protected by the natural virtues
dt,Dut gradually, due to the spread of unrighteousness (moha), people's understanding of natural
n d sense ofmutualcare and protection degraded and dhârma vanished" Bhima speculates the
ental vices such as greed (lobha), desire (käma) and attachment (riga) as the contours of moral
eg ation which further led to the loss of the sense of discrimination between what was dutiful and
134 VARUN KUMAR
TRIPATHI
wha not, among men. He describes in detail how moral degradation generated social disordert. As
wasinterpretation
per his of the mythology, anguished by the social degradation on Earth, the
deities
we
created Nitisästra-a large treat.
Drahma" and narrated to him their cause of anguish. The Brahmä reatise
of moral code, describing dhärma, rtha and kâma (trivarga) and the fourth was mok_a (liberation.
o
emancipation), the purpose of which was different from the former three. His Nitiastra also indud
scourses on epistemology, human action, punishment and most importantly kingship, statec
administration, war machinery, strategy and duties of a king. The treatise wasreceived and summaried
by several deities and masters and thereby it got into many editions like Vaislaksa, Bähudantal
Barhaspatya, etc. After getting the treatise, the deities went to Visnu who, after creating numer
manasa-putra, created Vena, who was given the knowledge of the code and oath for following tha
dharma with full righteousness. Then, Prthu, the son of Vena became the king of men.
Prthu established dhärma on Earth and brought unprecedented prosperity tor his people. Different

communities of people accepted his authority as king. Bhi_ma says:

tena dharmottara[cyam krto loko mahâtman

rañjit[ca prajh sarv stena rjeti [abdyate
That is, by virtue of his establishing the dhârma and bringing comfort and happiness to his people, he
was called a king-räj -who delivers happiness to people. Being protector of people, he was called
k_atriya. The term is derived from the root, namely ksha' means 'wounds orinjury and the suffix 'tray
means to protect. The complete significance of the word is that one who protects from the injury or
wound' Later on, the term became synonymous to warrior' and also designation of the warrior class
Bhi_ma further describes that whatever a king does with his mind and action is for the well-being of the
subject alone, and there is no other reason but the divine virtues of the king on account of which he
received acceptance of his authority by the subject." As the king observes the dhârma, rule the subject
according to the dharma, he occupies right to punish those who violate the dhrma. And that is why
the Nitikastra describes the doctrines of punishment-dandaniti. The king is the epitome of dhárma
and dandaniti. By this unique virtue, he is treated as equivalent to deities-dev[ca naradevá[ca tulhä
iti vismpate.10
On account of above description, it is often held that the Mahbhrata propounds a divine origin
theory of state. Though such opinion is well grounded, at the same time the great epic also gives
reference to certain practices of the ganarajya-republics, in Indian subcontinent. The Mahäbhärata
describes:

dharmi_thän vyavahrn[ca sthâpayanta[ca [stratah

yathãvat pratipa[yanto vivardhante ganottamh
putran bhrâtrn nirgrhnanto vinayanta[ca tän sadä
vinitan[ca pragrhFante vivardhante ganottamh"

That is, the reputed citizens of the republics behave according to dhárma, they always see what is igt
and always tend to progress. They punish their own sons and kin if they deviate from virtues. t
educate and counsel them, if they find them righteous then they are accepted and well respected,that t
why the republics tend to always progres. This description shows the high standards of conduct
republics and the importance of the citizens. The Mahabhärata also recognize the high virtues of thep
sof
ofrepublics, they are brave warriors, wise, zealous and always ready to do anything for the progres
 Santi Parva of Mah bh rata: ldeas on the Kingship and Dandaniti 135

state. They c a n ibe subjugated only in case if they act against each other out of anger, or they develop
the of pulling each other down. If they are united, there is no external threat that can terrorize
a tendency

a T t shows that the gana communities knew the importance of unity and integrity. The republics
them.

coverned by prominent people and office bearers. The Mahäbharata does not indicate any specific
were or dynasty of rulers in case of republics. Rather it indicates that having a strong confederacy, unity
We
ho and integrity as the only refuge of the republics. If the above virtues collapse, a republic collapses
t prescribes a maxim for the strength of a republic-abhyantararn bhayarh raksyarm asäram vahyato
too.
to the
Lva3-if internal weakness is taken care of, external threats are meaningless, which applies
bhaye
endurance of any
kind
of state and statecraft.
The grounds and efforts for its endurance. Bhi_ma further preaches Yudhi_thira
state needs certain
csons from
his predecessors" on rja[stra (polity). They all taught protection and well-being of the
information machinery
hiect as prime aim and raison dêtre of the state. Bhi_ma says15 deployment of
subje
and espionage, deploymentnon-confiscation ofother states, timely
of ambassadors to and well payment of the officers and
servants, rational taxation, public property, keeping experienced and wise people in
truthfulness and skill, helping the poor, rational use of punishment, possession
the councils, bravery,
men, giving suitable
and collection of objects and goods of utility, taking counsel only from wise welfare of the subject,
of the
rewards and honours tor the morale the military, engaged contemplation
of
conscious avoidance of any
enrichment of the treasure, protection of the cities and other settlements,
kind ofgrouping among people council,
or and adherence to the n+tidhärma are the indispensable factors
for the endurance of a
state.
who
Significantly, Bh+sma gives much importance to quality of mind of the bureaucrats and kings
run

the gigantic machinery of state:

rajyani hi sumahat tantram dharyate na akrtätmabhih

na [akyani mydun vodhum y sasth namuttamari6

A state is a huge machinery, and one who has not controlled one's mind cannot run the machinery. Cruel
and unrighteous kings cannot control it. Even the tender-hearted ones cannot run it. For them, statecraft
becomesa complex affair. A good king should have both the qualities, tenderness and toughness, and
have a sense of timely use of the qualities.
A number of instruments for running of the statecraft and for the protection of state have been
prescribed in the Santi Parva, such as measures for confidence of ministers, appointment of ambassadors,
qualities of princes, establishment of intelligence machinery, types of counselling, uses of diplomacy
ypes of treaties (such as vitta-sandhi, satkára-sandhi and bhaya-sandhi), occasion and methods
concurring enemies, three types ofvictories (dhärma vijaya, ärtha vijaya and ásura vijaya), classification
and characteristics of ministers, states, forts, armies, treasure, etc., components and flanks of an armny,
aiferent formations of army flanks and warfare. It also talks of certain subtle governance practices
(6uksma vyavahära) such as kan aka-[odhana-removal of obliterating factors and people from the
overning machinery, right efforts and wisdom of right use of money and saving.
he Santi Parva holds clearly that a state is run on wealth. That is why the ko_a-treasure-becomes
ntegral part of a state. For the koga, suitable taxation system is often mentioned in the treaties. It gives
analogy of a cow and honeybees. As milk is taken from a cow, protection of the cow is also obligatory;
noneybees take a little amount of nectar from several flowers, similarly a king should see his taxation
Y The purpose of taxation is to protect the subject." In a dialogue between Arjuna and
ARi_hira, Arjuna says that without wealth there cannot be a kingdom; one cannot rule it and nurture
136 VARUN KUMAR TRIPATHI
aharma either. It is the wealth that helps dhârma progress. He connects the acquisition, possessiona
ight use of wealth with stately duties. " Therefore, right taxation is inevitable for the protection and well
eing of people; for right action and yajfña--religious rites; and for the endurance of the kingdom. Tha
Santi Parva prescribes that a maximum of one-sixth of people's income can be taken towards taxes and
that too for the
purpose of common good.

Kingship--the Rajadhärma
A state cannot exist without king and codes. The king's prime duty is to protect the people and work for
their well-being. Despite presenting a monarchic model of state and kingship, the chief characteristic of
the Sänti Parva's polity is that it puts dhärma and people at the centre, not the king or the state. If
peoplés
well-being is ignored and dhârma (which is the integral principle of virtue, dutifulness and justice) is
violated, both state and king fail. The Zânti Parva clearly states: rajyam sarvâmi_am nityamrjaveneha
dharyate, " t h a t is, state is a c o m m o n p r o p e r t y a n d it is for all a n d k i n g s m u s t keep it with purity and

simplicity. It is clear that state is never treated as end in itself, it has an instrumental value. Given the
nature of the state, the protection of state becomes the essential duty of kings. The great epic says:

yadyapyasti vipattih syät raksmânsya vai praj

sopyasya vipulo dharma evarivrttâ hi bhümiph"

That is, even if the king puts himself in a great peril or dies while protecting the subject, it will earn great
merit to him, and that would rather be a standard of the kings.
A king is known by his excellence in the knowledge of and conduct according to the dhärma. Ifa
washerman does not know how to wash or dye clothes he cannot be called a washerman; similarly, a king
who does not know how to wash the errors of his conduct is not a good king." The goodness of king les
in spreading of goodness in his dominion too. The Sänti Parva says that when a huge tree grows, it
becomes shelter for a variety of birds and creatures; in the same way, a good king becomes shelter for a
variety of skilled people. He protects good people and scholars and punishes criminals. If criminals roam
around the kingdom freely, that means the king is overpowered by evil. To establish law and order, a king
should distribute departments among able ministers as per their merit and does not humiliate them for
their ignorable mistakes; when he does not forgive his own son for his folly; when he grants poor people
social security; when he protects traders like his own family; in whom there reside both nigraha and
anugraha powers; when he respects his priests and teachers; the king is said to have behaved according
to the rájädhârma A king is compared with 1,000-eyed Indra-sahasräksa-a symbolic of having
knowledge of everything that happens in his territory, and also of having knowledge of dhârma and
dandaniti. A king is also prescribed to treat dhärma as above arthasiddhi-acquisition of wealth
and growth in economy.
Räjädhärma and varyadhârma: Superiority of räjadhärma over varnadhärma is emphatically held
by the great epic in several chapters of its Sänti Parva* for the reason that observance of the varFadhärma
is
to possible
is possible
be onlytowhen
superior
oniy the kings
all other dulybecause
dhárma observeiftheir räjadharma.
ksätradhärma Räjädhárma
is not observedorproperly,
ksätradhärma is also
the entire sau
subjec
and
will be destroyed. The great epic defines rajdhärma as foundational to all dhârma as all other dhärma
restdung
professions of all other varna progress in assistance with the räjädhárma only" All the dhárma
 Snti Parva of Mahbhrata:
ldeas on the Kingship and Dandaniti 137
nle of various professions gets nourished and realizes
rma.2 When people of all varna and in all äshrama their climax of progress in assistance
witn
heir perform their duties and since their
in
the Own dhärma and performance of the duties are protected and assisted by kings, theresiding kings
räjädhärma-naturally
duties-râjädh earns greater merit than all
of them.
The Sânti Parva give significant weightage and emphasis to the purity of mind while
hiadhrma and dispensing danda. The purity of mind is explained in terms of its being performing
bereftthe
of
achment, personal affinity and hatred, vengeance or abhorrence and undue favour or biasness.
atta
Rhisma, through a beautiful metaphor, defines räjáadhârma:

dharme sthit sattvaviry dharmasetuvatârak

tyagavätdhvag sighr naustam santrayisyatfa

That is, räjädhärma is like a boat, the boat is rowed in the ocean of dharma. The satva-guna (the purer
is the
aroperties of mind) is the main mast; dharma[stra is the rope to be tied with it, sacrifice (tyaga)
pro the king sail through
force of wind that helps sail the boat rapidly. The boat, if rowed properly, will help
of an ideal state and the
the ocean of the world. The metaphor demonstrates all important components
is obliterated.
If the king fails to discharge any of them, the rjdhrma
duties of the king accordingly. of mind (cittavrtti) annihilated,
are advised to keep all the modifications
And that is why the kings on mind and senses (antahkarana)
for the sake
the utmost equipoise of mind, and keep purity should
maintain tato jeyä[ca [atravah-a king
care and protection of people.
Atm jeyah sad rjñ
of proper conduct. Ifa king has not
enemies is the hallmark of the kings'
own mind and later the
first conquer his his enemies.
the mental weaknesses, he will not be able to conquer
been able to It is
is emphasized time and again.
o v e r c o m e

The of a king for the state

importance dh rma there
King-the indispensable: no king there is no
dhrma, where there is no
that where there is a king
held in the Santi Parva It is the duty of people of
a state to install
Without king there prevails anarchy. enumerated exhaustively
to
is no social order.
a
order. The miseries of anarchy are
dhârma and social
for the protection of when there is a good king
Similarly, there is no limit of merits
establish the inevitability of good
a king. is the greater heart
of people, their
embodiment of people; king
with utmost control
in the state. The kingship glorified
is as
are prescribed
to rule the subject
On the other hand, kings
respect and happiness.0
truth and harmony. the enemy and vast
over senses, and with readiness for conquering
virtues of gallantry, evoking
king's cautions the
the Sänti Parva
Despite glorifying the and intelligence,
of military, its supplies d h i m a t ä - a wise king
should
lessons on warfare, management räjyakmena
Varjaniyam sad yuddham This is a directive for
kings from being a war monger.
coexistence and for
the welfare of people.
avoid war, for peaceful should always listen
carefully to both
try his best to
machinery, king
a
official of the judicial he should also seek
the supreme bias. In the process,
Ings. Being and the accused, and dispense justice without any
his court.
Accumulation of all
needful
ne petitioner in
for the purpose infrastructure,
scholars appointed c o n s t r u c t i o n of public
cOunsel from the wise husbandry, etc.,
of soldiers,
facilitation agriculture, fortification and deployment
properties; just taxation; of medicines; aforesaid
arrangement duties of kings. If the
eus, hospitals, etc., proper enumerated as part of the is
skills, etc., are all obliterated. Since, a king
of scholarship and and the ráj dhärma is
Promotion suffer
commit crime the king
also earns
taken care of, people if people
Ogistics are not well kingdom, right
everything that
happens in his and be always
careful to protect it through
for order who
CCountable
has to establish just
a
people will not appreciate a king
the king control as
ins. It shows that works as a principle of check and
also
e of danda. It order in society.
Sunableto establish
 138 VARUN KUMAR TRIPATHI
oserving the dhärma is not different from the räjädhârma. A king who protects and observes
dhârma becomes the embodiment of the dhärma. If a king walks away from dhärma, he tendencies is called
the
sinner.3 If a king does not otect his people from wrongdoers and does not annihilate sinful tend
from society, people incur great fear and the kingship also comes under tear of its sudden los. People
lose trust in a king bereft dhârma. Dhârma is the directive principle
of his of Sänti Parva's
state
defines the king, 'one in whom the dhârma resides is called a king: and the king who has dropped his
policy t
dhàrma the deities call him vrsala-fallen from dhárma:* Dhârma is therefore both directive and
imperative to the kings.
Two powers of the king--nigraha and anugraha: As stated earlier, nigraha-the power to command
and control, and anugraha-the power of compassion-are two basic powers or strengths of a good king,
Through nigraha, he punishes the criminals, traitors, miscreants and unscrupulous servants and officials
and through anugraha, he wins the trust of his people, ministers, scholars and teachers. Nigraha is caled
a special strength only when the right to use danda is exercised judiciously. An impertinent use of danda
does not portray the nigraha-[akti of a king. The qualities of nigraha and anugraha are time and again
emphasized in the Sänti Parva:

vyakta[canugraho yasya yathrth[cpi nigrahah

guptatma guptarstrasca sa rj räjadharmavits

That is, a king who keeps compassion upon all subjects and whose nigraha is used on justified grounds
that king is able to protect himself and the kingdom as well and is said to have knowledge of rjadhärma
It is clear that the above verse uses adjective vyakta (expressed) for anugraha, that is, the
king's
compassion should always express and be upon people, but nigraha has to be yathrtha-realistic and
upon due examination of facts and truth.
Apaddharma of a king: Apaddhärma (äpat + dhârma) is a term used for what is dutiful in a situation
of crisis and described in the Sänti Parva many ways. A king, when in crisis, is though not supposed to
relinquish his dhârma, yet granted certain relaxations by the ancient lawmakers and great sages. Äpat or
apatti is an extraordinary and emergency situation when law and order fails for numerous reasons. The
apatti of a king or kingdom is when it is encircled by enemies; king's own people start betraying him;
military and wealth are destroyed; when ministers go unscrupulous; then the ápaddhârma of a king is to
use his wisdom in the best way. Through right means only should he increase his wealth, as upon the loss
of wealth the strength of a king is lost. A king may impose additional taxation and take voluntary
donations from people, provided he suitably does good to the people when good time comes. A king can
also confiscate wealth of anyone excepting of Brähmans and ascetics.* In the detailed description of
äpaddhärma, the Santi Parva justifies such acts of the kings on the ground that if the state is protected,
it will be possible for the king to reproduce happiness for the people. The ápaddhärma may also be
justified on the Sänti Parva's principle of flexibility, as it says 'in response to time and place what is proper
may become improper and what is improper may become proper?37

Code and Doctrine of Punishment-the DandanTti

In the nitisästra of Brahmá, the four purusärtha (trivarga and moksa) are enumerated which serve as the
bases of all codes of liífe and all succeeding formulators of niti drew inspiration from it. The group of
the six-ätmá, de[a, käla, upåya, kärya and saháyaka-are enumerated as cause of progress and prosperity
 Snti Parva of Mah bh rata: ldeas on the Kingship and Dandaniti 139

used in the light of the code-niti." A king is supposed to have thorough knowledge of dandan+ti.
en
Wthe Santi Parva claims that, 'after exhausting all merits (punya) in heaven, one descends to Earth
rather the

and born dandaniti-vi[rada-a king who is a great exponent of dandaniti'.

ACCording to Bhi_ma, in the nitis stra of Brahmâ the danda is as fundamental as code. Bhisma says:

trayi canviksik+ caiva vart ca bharatarsabhah

dandanitisca vipulä vidyästatra nidarait

(three Vedäs containing rituals), änvik_iki (method of inquiryepistemologY), värtà (agriculture,

Trayi discussed in it. This is the
and of
dandaniti (doctrines punishment)
animal husbandry and trade)
are

of subject schema of discourse under which a number of issues are

matters or
hroad classification
of affairs such as
means 'doctrine of punishment, but a range
discussed. Dandaniti, however, literally methods of
of code and judicial procedures, communication,
oeneral governance, establishment enumerated among one of the five
of disputes, etc., are included under this head. Danda is also
settlement and running of the statecraft.
dma, danda, bheda and upek_) measures of protection of the state
(säma, and social order:
held in Santi Parva that danda is essential for governance
It is strongly
dandena sahit hye_ lokaraksanakrik
nigrahanugraharat loknanucarisyati
dandena n+yate cedam dandam nayati v punah
dañdanitiritikhyät tr+nloknabhivartate

elements and to protect the noble public,

the world, it is to restrain the antisocial
That is, danda protects to the dandaniti.
of righteousness, and kings rule their kingdom according
it puts the m a s s e s on the path contribution in spreading of right
conduct
essential science for war and peace. It has large
This is the the and ashrama (varnäshrama dhärma)
order of
The Santi Parva alludes that the
varna
masses.
among
s u c c e s s of the dandaniti:
is also dependent upon the

majjet trayi dandanitau hatym

sarve dharm h prak_sayeyurvibuddh h
sarve darm [c [ram n i
hath syuh
ksatre tyakte rjadharme purne
all the dh rma will perish (hence,
the Veds will perish, if Vedäs perish
That is, if the dandaniti perishes ksätradh rma) perishes the
ashrama dhârma
(also called
râjadharma will also perish), and if räjadhärma uniform principles of
that the Santi Parva's dandaniti does not prescribe
will also perish. It suggests are not only
based upon the
for the people. The punishments' principles
treatment and punishment niti-but also vary according
to the varn ahrama
dh rma. Interestingly,
violation of code-the
degree of
not punishable:
the Santi Parva proclaims that the südra are

vaco dando brähmañän ni k_atriyànäm bhuj rpaFam

dânadandâ smritâ vai[y nirdandah [üdra uccyate"

criticism, reprimand, etc.) prescribed for Brähmans,

is
like public
nat is, vagdanda (verbal punishment service in proportion to violation of code, a vaisya
is imposed monitory
gatriya has to render suitablebe Parva sometimes also
mentions that BrähmaFna

enalty and [üdra should not punished." The Santi

6rdhmans) are also exempted from punishment.*
 140 VARUN KUMAR TRIPATHI
Vyavahara and bhartrpratyayalak_ana: Danda is also called vyavahârat" and the kings a
prescribed to use the vyavahära keeping a complete detachment from his personal preferences or hatred
iking or disliking and with an unbiased attitude. When a king uses danda in such a way, it become
dhärma nevertheless. If danda is used
rightly it naturally protects trivarga-dhârma, rtha and käma
The Santi Parva glorifies danda as
protector of social order and says if there is no danda, 'might is right
will prevail in
society and people will destroy each other." The great epic also claims that danda is a
divine grant to the kings, that is, the
authority to probe conflicts among people or examine allegations
and dispense punishment
(danda) is a prerogative granted by God (I6vara) to the kings, the purpose of
which is to protect the dhärma.8 Danda is also called
bhartrpratyayalak_ana" (ways of examining
allegations) on account of its being based upon examination of the allegations against the culprit. It
shows that punishment was not
supposed to be dispensed blindly or on account of public perception or
rumours, but only after a thorough examination of the
The Santi Parva, through a
allegation.
mythological narrative, explains what will happen if there was no danda
According to the narrative, once danda disappeared from governance, as a result of which varna-order
collapsed, people forgot the distinction between what was dutiful and right and what was not; what was
eatable and what not; people started
killing each other for petty reasons; public property was possessed
by mighty people; and then prevailed a total social chaosa0, then Brahm requested Vis_pu" to reveal and
re-establish danda on Earth. The narrative indirectly advocates the
importance of danda in governance
for maintenance of social order. The Santi Parva
cautions the kings time and again to use the danda
judiciously and according to the dhrma-bhkmipälo yath nyyam vartetneva dharmavit. If the danda is
not used judiciously, the kings lose their moral
right to use it.
The treatise also gives details as how can one use the
danda judiciously.It tells several sources of
correct
knowledge-prameyasiddhi, such
pratyaksa (perception),
as anumana (inference), upamna
(analogy), gama (testimony), arthäpatti (postulation or presumption), aitihya (heritage or history),
sam[aya (doubt), nirnaya (conclusion or decision), krti (form or appearance), sanketa (hint or sign),
gati (motion or movement), cest (inclination), pratijñâ (resolve), hetu (cause or reason), udharana
(example), upanaya (application) and nigamana (conclusion or derivation). A king should know these
instruments of correct knowledge, or at least the first two, to become
able to use the dandaniti
appropriately.53 This is sheer evidence that kings have to learn a lot and be wise enough to be accomplished
in dandan+ti.

Conclusion
Based upon the above discussion, it can be said that the
Mahbhrata gives a vast account of views
and practices pertaining to state, its executive and
judicial functions, importance of a righteous king
and the role of danda. The treatise depicts vast
relationship among people, among the king and
subject and nature and man. The discourse begins with building a case with moral
the
people in the state of nature and the need degradation
generated thereupon for a ruler who can re-establish theon
moral order. With the ruler there comes the state, its
complicated
principles to run it. It would again demand a high moral standardmachinery
and a range of people and
and uprightness of the
and the king himself. That is why there comes
unending lessons of räja[stra. The discourse functionaries
an inherent
paradox in the existence of state; on one hand it seeks reveals
its raison dètre in mora
 Santi Parva of Mahbhrata: ldeas on the Kingship and Dandaníti 141

degradation in the state of nature and on the other hand it demands moral prightness to run the
dehinery, almost as a prerequisite. That is why the discourse lays its conclusive focus on conquering
the mind.
The kind of monarchy depicted in the great treatise may prompt one to hurriedly compare it with
centre of
which existed in medieval or
pre-modern European world. No doubt, aking the major
is
nion in the Mahäbhärata statecraft, but he does not seem to become a despot as he has a large range
attra
siderations before his choices and decision-making. And the non-violation of dhàrma occupies
Mahäbhârata king appears helpless in front of his council and
of
ntrality among those considerations. A
wrath of people and sages, and forces of nature and internal
InCillors, the demands of the râjdhrma,
There is no wonder that a king would always long for taking refuge in the forest for
nsuirgencies.
erity having handed over the kingship to a suitable successor

Summary
MMah bhärata covers a range of political scientific issues, many of which constitute
The Santi Parva of
in contemporary political terms. It gives a vast framework of society and its
relevant field of discourse
structure, in which the people get
their significant due. The proposed kingship does not sound tyrant or
autocratic as the guiding principle-the r jadh rma-is always overarching the kingship. Although
kingship is inevitable like a hub of the wheel of statecraft, it is always controlled by the rjdhrma,
without which the kingship does not find its own definition. The political thoughts of Sänti Parva are
formulated in a society with social stratification, with varna, shrama and a variety of clans and
communities; the state and kingship endeavour their best to suit the aspirations of all, without any
attempt to homogenize the society. And that is why it recognizes the social, religious and community
entitlements of all strata of society: it endeavours to protect all professions excepting for those ignoble;
and it facilitates different professions of people as per requirements. Given the case, different treatment
for different professions of people, such as traders, warriors, priests, ascetics, craftsmen, etc., does not
seem to be injudicious. The modern principles of equality also recognize the justified discrimination,
what we call principle of difference in John Rawls' terminology. Accordingly, the state without much
efforts recognizes and give due treatment to social, cultural and ethnic variety.
The state's prerogative of judicial rights and dispensing punishment is also tied with strict chain of
dandaniti. If a king violates the dandaniti, he loses his own moral right to use it. The king's glory does
hot come that much from his gallantry or victory in war as it comes from his following the dhârma
nd dandaniti. His prime task is to protect and uplift people, assist people pursue their dhârma and
acilitate progress in their respective professions. His äpaddhärma is also tied with strict conditions
n promises, and is not beyond the räjdhrma. One may ask what the guarantee of people's rights
entitlements is if a king tends to violate them all out of his own wild will. As per the total narrative
n t i Parva, one can clearly see that such a king would lose public support, trust and loyalty of their
Hsters, and hence lose the habitual obedience of the masses, which is a key necessity of his kingship.
(aMrrtocontrol people (nigraha [akti) would be lost as he would have already lost his compassion
beaha sakti) by his wild will. The most important thing that the Sänti Parva teaches is that it keeps
inuin the centre of political affairs. The state is not an end in itself; rather it only has an
rumental value-instrumental in the
well-being of people.