RENEWABLE ENERGY

154 AND
STORAGE
Consumer cducation and participation should increase sensitivity to the
Discussion of the potential contribution of RER on climate change will consider
the following
issues.the
projected fromthe current |3% to 30%, as well as
(o the grid:increase. improvements
1. Improvennent fron 5% to 15% in DR systems
lmprovemcnt from 1% to 10% in consumer generation
l1. ImprOvement from 47% to 90% of asset utilization
iv. Improvement in transmission asset utilization from 50% to 80%
V. Improvement in distribution asset utilization from 30% to 80%

7.8 STORAGE TECHNOLOGIES

Energy storage is important for utility load leveling, electrical vehicles, solar enersy
systems, uninterrupted power supply, and energy systems in remote locations. Energy
storage has always been closely associated with solar installations, including solar
heating and PV. Storage options are particularly essential when variable sources are
used in islanding and standalone power systems. Figure 7.5 presents a sample topology
for a microgrid system.

Photovoltaic (PV) Option Wind Power Option Diesel Power Option

Switching
Logic
Charge *Charge
Controller Controller Circuit Breaker
DC Bus
AC Bus
AC
Storage Options DC
Power
Inverter
Switch
Batery Bank
Fuse

Supercapacitor Load | Load || Load lI

Flgure 7,5. Microgrid topology with storage
technologies.
STORAGETECHNOLOGIES

155
are two principal reasons why energy
Therc
Teasc development of RER: storage will grOw in importance wjth
in

important RER are

1 Many than intermittent,
rather when encrgy demand dictates.generating when the weather
dictates.
2. Many transportalion systems require cnergy to be carried with the vchicle

Sorage opions
can be evaluated
bascd on the
whether the
application requires characteristic
of the
application, for
Craniplc,
portable or fixed storage methods, the
durationwhen storage will be operational, and the
aplication. The maximum power
selection of the proper storage technology is based on needed for the
parameters: the following
e Size: Scale of technology. Storage technologies have an associated
range for application, for example, large units support grid-connected RER
tcchnologics.
.Storage Capacity: Total store of available energy after charging.
. Available Capacity: Average value of power output based on the state of charge/
depth of discharge.
Self-discharge Time: Time required for a fully charged, non-interconnected
storage device to reach a certain depth of discharge (DOD), this is contingent on
the operational condition of the system.
. Efficiency: Ratio of energyoutput from the device to the energy input issue of
conversion technology and designof RER and storage and conversion needed.
Durability or Life-cycle: Number of consecutive charge-discharge cycles a
storage installation can undergo while maintaining the installations and other
specifications within limited ranges. Life-cycle specifications are made against
achosen DOD depending on the applications of he storage device.
Autonomy: Ratio between energy capacity and maximum discharge power:
indicates the maximum amount of time the system can continuously release
energy.
"Mass and Volume Densities: Amount of energy accumulated per unit mass or
volume of the storage unit.
Cost: Cost of installation, operation, and maintenance of storage technology.
cOst should be analyzed throughout system lifespan.
Feasibility: Degree of adaptability tothe storage applications.
Reliability: Guarantee of service.
monitoring and control equipment,
Additional information characteristics include
of maintenance, simplicity of
operational Constraints, environmental impacts, ease compares
time for energy release. Table 7.2
Ihedesoptions.
ign,
ooperational flexibility, and response
 156 RENENABLE ENERGY AND STORAGE

TABLE 7.2. Comparison of Storage Technology Options

Storage
Advantages
Technology
Flow
Characteristics/Particulars

Similar to lead-acid batteries, but the " Unlimited electrical

Disadvantages
. Limited number
Batteries clectrolyle is storcd in a external storage capacity, the of cycles of
container and it circulates through the only limitation is the usage, after three
battery cell stack size of the (3) to five (5)
electrolytestorage years the system
lon Exchange Power Out Electrolyte reservoir has to be
Membrane Flow
changed

Electrode Electrode

Electrolyte Tanks

Advanced Advanced batteries include lithium-ion, " Use less space than " Tooexpensive
Batteries polymerion, nickel metal hybrid and lead acid batteries for large scale
sodium sulfur type applications

Discharge
e

OH
Metallic Li"Li" batteryO2O Air)
OH

Anode Air Electrode (Porous Carbon)

Oragnic Electrolyte Catalyst
Solid State Aqueous Electrolyte
Electrolyte

Super Electronic device with the capacity to " Virtually unlimited Linear discharge
capacitors provide high power and energy which cycle life voltage prevents
have the characteristics of capacitors and " Low impedance use of the full
electrochemical batteries except there is " Rapid charging energy spectrum
no chemical reaction. " Simple charge " Low energy
methods density
The Technology " Cells have low
voltages
" High self
discharge

-Current Collecting Plate

-Active Electrode
Sepatator
Active Electrode
Current Collecting Plate
 STORAGE TECHNOLOGIES
157

JABLE7.2. (Continuec)

ehnology Characteristics/Particulars
Siper
Energystored in the magnetic field created
Advantages
Power is available "
Disadvantages
Energy content is
Condueting by the flow of direct current in a coil of almost small and
Magnetic superconducting material that has been instantaneously short-lived
Energy cryogenically cooled. " High power output " Cryogenícs, cold
Sorage for a brief period temperature
Adiabatic vacuum
vessel
Center Inner coil case
cylinder Support member
" No loss of power technology.
be challenging
can

Radiation heat between colls " Nomoving parts

shield" Outer coil case
Coolant port Current lead
port

Superconducting
Coi
Common base Adiabatic
Support leg

Pumped The process of water being pumped from Readily available Spends years in
a lower reservoir uphill then allowing it and widely used in regulatory and
Hydro environmental
to flow downhill to through turbines to high power
produce electricity applications review
Lower cost of Can only be
power, frequency implemented in
Visitors Center Switchyard
regulation on the areas with hills
Resorvoir
Pumped-Storage Plant Intake grid, and reserve
Elevator capability
Main Access Tunnel
Discharge Surge Chamber

Powerplant Chamber
Breakers
Transformer Vault

Compressed Compressed Air Energy Storage (CAS) "Conserves some " Low efficiency
Air
utilities use electricity generated during natural gas by using due to the extra
off-peak hours (i.e., storage hours) to low-cost, heated reheating energy
compress air and store it in airtight compressed air to needed to turn on
power turbines and the turbines
underground caverns. When the air is
released from storage, it expands through create off-peak For every
a combustion turbine to create electricity. electricity kilowatt-hour
of energy going
in, only.5
kilowatt-hour of
energy can be
taken out

(Continued)
 Flywheels Storage
Technology
(Continued)
TABLE7.2.
158

Courtesy
Housin9
VacuumGenerator Motor/
energy.
storing
kinetic
eylinder A
of
Hub
Beacon
Characteristics/Particulars
Utility
Ructillar that
Power

Composite
spins
Magnetic
Bearings
Rim
B-dlroclönal
Flywheel Bus at
Convertor very a
kWh
unit 6

high
Load
speed,

maintenance
Lower " " Charge
" and "
batteries Tolerant of
abuseLong little
spanlifespace
fluctuations discharge
rapidly
Take Affected
temperature RENEVWABLE
requirementsthan Advantages
up
relatively little
STORAGE
ENERGY
AND
by

Power
faster
loss
batteries
than
for
Disadvantages