Textile Testing: Reference Books

1. Principles of Textile Testing [written by J. E. Booth (Butterworth

Scientific)]
2. Fabric Testing [edited by Jinlian HU (Woodhead Publishing Limited)]
3. Physical Testing of Textiles [written by B P Saville (Woodhead
Publishing Limited)]
4. A Practical Guide to Textile Testing [written by K. Amutha
(Woodhead Publishing India)]
Textile Testing: Definition
• Definition: Applying engineering knowledge and science to detect the
criteria and properties of any textile material or product (such as
fibre, yarn, fabric) is called textile testing.
Textile Testing: Objectives
Objectives of testing

❑To check the quality and suitability of raw material

❑To monitor the production (process control)
❑To assess the quality of the final product
❑To investigate the faulty materials
❑To set standards or benchmarks
❑For R&D (research and development) purpose
❑For new product development
❑For customer satisfaction and retention
❑Good reputation (brand image) among consumers
Textile Testing: Need of standardizations
❑ To assess the serviceability, or to assess how much it satisfies specific
requirements

❑ To make the results reproducible. Reproducibility hampers due to

❑ Variation of material due to error in sampling
❑ Testing procedure (conditioning to result calculation)
❑ External factors like operator skill, environmental condition, instrumental
defects
Textile Testing: Standards / Describe a procedure

❑ AATCC: American Association of Textile Chemists and Colorists

❑ ASTM: American Society for Testing and Materials
❑ ANSI: American National Standards Institute
❑ ISO: International Organization for Standardization
❑ BS: British Standards
❑ BS EN: British Standard European Norm
❑ TS EN: Turkish Standard European Norm
❑ BSTI: Bangladesh Standards and Testing Institute
Concept of Laboratory “Accreditation”
Definition:
Laboratory accreditation is a formal recognition earned by organizations
proving they are qualified, competent, and comply with international
standards.

ISO/IEC 17025: The ISO accreditation for the textile testing laboratory.

ISO (International Organization for Standardization) and IEC (International

Electrotechnical Commission) jointly develop and publish the standard.
ISO/IEC 17025 combines expertise from both organizations, ensuring that it
covers a broad spectrum of testing and calibration laboratory requirements
across various fields, including electrical and electronic testing.
Textile Testing: Standards / Laboratory
environment
❑ Standard Testing Temperature = 20 ± 2 oC
❑ Standard Testing Humidity (RH) = 65% ± 2%
Textile Testing: Sampling

Definitions
❑ Population: All elements, individuals, or units that meet the selection
criteria for a group to be studied and from which a representative
sample is taken for detailed examination. It is the total system that
needs to be studied.

❑ Sample: It is a relatively small fraction selected from a population; the

sample is supposed to be a true representative of the population.

❑ Sampling: The step-by-step defined method of preparation a sample.

Textile Testing: Sample types

❑ Random sample: Every individual in the population has an equal chance of

being selected as a sample. It is free from bias, therefore it is a true
representative of the population.

❑ Biased sample: When the selection of an individual is influenced by factors

other than chance, a sample ceases to be truly representative of the bulk
and leads to bias in results.

❑ Numerical sample: A sample in which the proportion by number of, say,

long, medium and short fibres, would be the same in the sample as in the
population.
Textile Testing: Biased sample
Causes of biased sampling:
❑ Bias due to physical characteristics: Longer fibres have a greater chance
of being selected.

❑ Position relative to the person: Lab assistant may pick bobbins from the top
layer of a case of yarn (just to make his job easier or may be because of his
ignorance), but the bobbin chosen will be biased due to their position.

❑ Subconscious bias: Person selecting cones will pick the best-looking ones
that are free from ridges, cub webbed ends and so on. This affects the test
results.
 Scopes of fabric testing
❑ Visual examination: Texture, weave pattern, shade
variation, pilling, wrinkling properties

❑ Physical testing: Tensile, bending, shrinkage, weight,

thickness, abrasion etc.

❑ Chemical testing: Chemical identification, colorants,

finishes etc.

❑ Biological testing: Microorganism tests

❑ Physiological testing: Comfort test

❑ Intelligence testing: Self-cleaning, electronic

response
Fabric sampling technique
1. Identify and mark the warp direction
first.
2. Mark and cut samples at least 2
inches away from the selvedge.
3. Make sure that no two specimens
contain same warp or weft threads.
4. Also, make sure not to take samples
from creased, wrinkled or damaged
portions of the fabric, if any.
5. In case of knit fabric, samples are
taken from different parts of the fabric
almost the same same way as done
for wovens.
Fabric length 1 yd

1. Huge length can not be measured manually by

measurement table or by measurement scale.
Rather sample is taken, measured and shrinkage /
extension is adjusted for the full piece of fabric.
2. The sample is taken and marked as like figure. It is
kept in an atmosphere same to the storage where
full piece of fabric stored.
3. After 24 hours difference between the lines are
again measured, and it is expected the difference is
less than 0.25%. If so, second measurement is taken
and adjusted for the whole piece of fabric stored.
4. If the difference is greater than 0.25%, further 24
hours conditioning is done unless the difference is
less than 0.25% compared with the immediate past
measurement.
Fabric length: Trumeter
❑ Can be adjusted with loom to measure grey
fabric length
❑ Can be adjusted with finishing machine to
measure finished fabric length.
❑ Can be used in packing machine.
Fabric width
❑ There are two definitions of fabric width-
❑The overall width: As the distance between the outermost edges of the
sample measured perpendicular to the longitudinal edges.
❑The usable width: It is defined as the width of the fabric excluding
any selvedge materials, marks, pin-holes or other nonhomogeneous areas of
the fabric
Fabric width
❑ 24 hours conditioning is necessary. And the measurement must be
taken before and after the conditioning. If variation found achieving
accuracy is required.
❑ The width of the sample is measured at least from the 10 places,
same distance apart.
❑ In cases where the cloth has selvedge: The testing is carried out by
measuring the smallest distance between the two selvedges (the
latter not being included in the measurement).
❑ In cloths without selvedge: the smallest distance between the two
edges of the cloth is measured and 1 cm is deducted from each side.
❑ Also can be measured continually using a pair of photo-electric cell
which determine edges of the fabric.
 Fabric thickness
❑ 24 hours conditioning is required.

❑ Fabric is a compressible material, therefore a recommended pressure is

required on the plate when the sample is placed between the plate.

❑ Anvil: The lower plate on which sample is kept. Its diameter is at least 2 inch
greater than the diameter of presser foot.

❑ Presser foot: The upper plate. The ratio of foot diameter to the sample
thickness should not be less than 5:1. Common diameter is 3/8 inch.

❑ Applied pressure: 0.1 lb/in2 or 10.0 lb/in2. Or other according to standards.

❑ Lowering velocity of presser foot: 2/1000 inch/sec.

❑ Time: Until the pointer stops.

❑ 10 tests from the different places or from the different samples should be
taken.
 Carpet thickness
❑ The Shirley Thickness Gauge can be used for carpet, felts, sponge rubber
etc.
❑ Presser foot as an area of 10 inch2 and is interchangeable with other sizes.
❑ Auxiliary weight can be added to increase a range of pressure.
❑ The auxiliary weights also allow the study of compressibility and ressilence
of the carpet.
 Fabric weight: GSM Cutter
❑ Weight is measured and it is expressed by
‘’weight per unit area’’.
❑Sample must be conditioned and different
samples should be taken from the different
places.
❑ Usually a round GSM cutter has an area of
0.01 m2. Therefore after taking the weight
and multiplying by 100 gives GSM.
❑ The greater area provides more accuracy.
Most standards recommend a minimum of
10000 mm2 (0.01 m2). Also, less than 100
inch2 (0.065 m2) cutting die is recommended.
 Fabric weight
❑Cutting accuracy should be within 1% and weighing accuracy should be 1
part of 500.
❑ Some standards to measure fabric weight:
❑ ASTM D3776-96(2002) Standard test methods for mass per unit area (weight) of fabric
❑ ISO 3801-1977 Textiles – Woven fabrics – Determination of mass per unit length and mass per unit area
❑ AS 2001.2.8-2001 Determination of mass per unit area and mass per unit length of fabrics.
 Thread density: EPI X PPI
❑There are several methods of determination, for example-
❑One-inch counting glass and microscope
❑ Fabric dissection method
❑24 hours of conditioning required
❑Avoid sampling within 50 mm from the selvage.
❑Avoid sampling within two metres from either end of a piece or roll.
❑Normally EPI and PPI of a fabric are described as EPI × PPI. Thus, a fabric of
74 × 66 means 74 EPI and 66 PPI.
❑For higher thread density fabric with designs sometimes the number of
repeats per inch is counted. And then number of threads per repeat is
counted.
 Crimp
❑ Percentage crimp is defined as the ratio of the mean difference in length of
yarn taken from a length of fabric to the length of fabric. Due to the interlacing
of warp and weft threads, waviness is imparted to the warp and weft yarn in
fabric. This waviness is called crimp.
❑A woven fabric has two types of crimp: warp crimp and weft crimp
𝐷𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑦𝑎𝑟𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
❑Crimp, C = × 100%
𝐶𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
❑Typically crimp ranges from 1% to 14%
 Crimp
❑Higher crimp affects
❑By reducing abrasion resistance (because of more crown formation)
❑By increasing elongation and exhibiting crimp interchange/wasting in a tensile test
❑By increasing the raw material costs
❑By increasing thickness
❑By reducing softness of fabric
❑Control of crimp is necessary for designed fabric since the crimp affects the extension that
occurred in the finishing process. Therefore amount of extension should be controlled.
❑Variation of crimp may occur due to imbalanced tension in weaving and yarn
manufacturing. Variation of crimp causes fabric faults like-
❑Bright picks
❑Diamond barring
❑Stripes
 Crimp
❑For the crimp test it is necessary to remove the existing crimp but not yarn stretch is
allowed. How much tension should be applied is a crucial parameter.
❑The crimp tester machine is designed to execute this tension. The crimp tester is a device
for measuring the crimp-free length of a piece of yarn removed from a fabric.
❑The length of the yarn is measured when itis under a standard tension whose value is
given in Table-
❑WIRA, MAG, Shirley crimp testers are some examples.
Yarn count in a fabric
When the linear density of a yarn has to be determined from a sample of
fabric, a strip of the fabric is first cut to a known size. A number of threads
are then removed from it and their uncrimped length is determined under a standard tension in a crimp tester. All
the threads are weighed together
on a sensitive balance and from their total length and total weight the linear
density can be calculated.
Yarn from a finished fabric may have had a resin or other type of finish
applied to it so that its weight is greater than that of the original yarn.
Alternatively it may have lost fibres during the finishing process so that its
weight may be lower than that of the original yarn. For these reasons the
linear densities of yarn from finished fabrics can only represent an estimate
of the linear density of the yarn used to construct the fabric.
 Fabric Strength
❑Tensile strength
❑Tear strength
❑Bursting strength
❑Seam strength
 Fabric Strength: Tensile strength
❑The tensile properties measured are generally considered arbitrary rather than
absolute.
❑Results depend on specimen geometry, the fibre type and arrangement, as well as the fabric
structure.

❑There are three methods of tensile tests-

❑Constant rate of elongation (CRE)
❑CRE is the most popular method in modern testing instruments.
❑Constant rate of load (CRL)
❑Constant rate of traverse (CRT)

❑The main factors that need to be considered are-

❑Accuracy of the load cell (0.5–25 kN)
❑The distance of cross-head travel (0.1–2 m)
❑The rate of cross-head travel (0.1–500 mm/min)
 Fabric Strength: Tensile strength
❑The tensile test results include followings as example-
❑Maximum load
❑Load at break
❑Extension at break
❑Elastic extension
❑Young Modulus (Initial Modulus)
❑Work to rupture
❑Etc.

❑There two modes of break or rupture-

❑Sharp break
❑Percentage break
 Fabric Strength: Tensile strength
A percentage reduction of strength
.

Work to rupture
 Fabric Strength: Tensile strength
❑Initial Modulus (IM, tanɸ) is a measure of the amount of deformation that is
caused by a small stress.
❑Higher IM means stiff or hard material. In fabric, it means stiff and harder fabric handle.
❑Lower IM means soft material. In fabric it means softer fabric handle.

❑Work to rupture: Tensile strength at break is not necessarily the best indicator of
fitness for purpose. In some cases (i.e. web, linoleum and rope) the work to
rupture (or break) is more important.
❑The work to rupture is the energy absorbed by the material up to the point of rupture
and is measured in joules.
❑Work to rupture can vary with the sample parameters, so for comparison specific work of
rupture is calculated-

𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑢𝑝𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑢𝑝𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 =
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 × 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
Fabric Strength: Tensile strength
❑Work to rupture may be used to indicate fabric toughness.

❑It’s a measure of the ability to absorb sudden shock like for car seat belts,
climbing ropes etc.
❑For example: A stone knotted with a thread can not break the thread in its free fall if
the work of rupture of the thread is greater than the potential energy stored in the
stone.
❑Work to rupture can vary with the sample parameters, so for comparison
specific work of rupture is calculated-

𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑢𝑝𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒

𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑢𝑝𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒
=
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 × 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
 Fabric Strength: Tensile strength
❑There are three types of tensile test for fabric
❑Grab test (jaw width < sample width)
❑Modified grab test
❑Strip test (entire width of the sample is gripped)
❑Ravelled strip test
❑Cut strip test

For details: See the reference books

 Fabric Strength: Tensile
strength/Cut strip test
❑300 X 60 mm strips are taken from the warp
and weft directions (five samples from the
each)
❑Width reduced to exactly 50 mm by removing
threads from the each sides
❑Jaw distance is set to 200 mm
❑Sample is pretensioned by 1% of the probable
breaking load
❑Jaw separation speed is 50 mm/min
❑The results are rejected if-
❑Breaks occur within the 5 mm from the jaw
❑The above description is from the BS hand
book.
 Fabric Strength: Tensile strength
❑Factors affecting the tensile tests
❑Sample size
❑Gauge length
❑Extension rate
❑Jaws or grips (no slip)
❑Jaw break (sample damaging at the jaw)
Fabric Strength: Tensile strength
 Fabric Strength: Tearing strength
❑A fabric tears when it is snagged by a sharp object and the immediate small puncture is
converted into a long rip by what may be a very small extra effort.
❑It is probably the most common type of strength failure of fabrics in use. It is particularly
important
❑in industrial fabrics that are exposed to rough handling in use such as
❑tents and
❑sacks and
❑also those where propagation of a tear would be catastrophic such as parachutes.
❑also for woven fabrics used for applications including army clothing, tenting, sails,
umbrellas and hammocks

❑Outdoor clothing, overalls and uniforms are types of clothing where tearing strength
is of importance.
 Fabric Strength: Tearing strength
The following methods are in use or being developed:
❑Trouser or single tear or single rip
❑Double or tongue tear
❑Wing tear
❑Trapezoidal tear
❑Ballistic pendulum (Elmendorf)
❑Puncture or snag tear
❑Tack tear,
❑Wounded burst tear.

The test specimen shall be cut according to the design

shown in Fig
 Fabric Strength: Tearing strength: Ballistic pendulum
(Elmendorf)
❑ The falling (ballistic) pendulum (Elmendorf) method is used for the determination of the average force
required to continue or propagate a single rip-type tear starting from a cut in a woven fabric by means of a
falling pendulum (Elmendorf) apparatus.
❑This method is not suitable for knitted fabrics, felts or non-woven fabrics.
❑An initial slit is made in the centre of the specimen. The principal reason for this slit is to eliminate edge
tear forces and to restrict the measurement to the internal tearing force only.
❑ 63.5 * 100 mm sample
❑ 20 mm slit by the knife in the machine
❑ On pendulum free fall, it tears the sample from the slit
❑ The scale is graduated as g-f (or other), which indicates tearing force required to “continue” the tear.
❑The capacity is in three ranges- 0-1600 g, 0-3200 g, 0-6400 g
❑ Pendulum weight can be increased using additional pendulum weights.
 Fabric Strength: Bursting strength
❑When no warp or weft direction like
knitted materials, lace or non-wovens
bursting strength test is done.
❑ Suitable for the material where all
directional force is subjected.
The usual way is to measure the increase in
height of the diaphragm during the test
and then to inflate the diaphragm to the
same height without a specimen present.
The pressure required to inflate the
diaphragm alone is then deducted from the
pressure measured at the point of failure of
the sample. The relationship between the
diaphragm height and the fabric extension
is quite complex so that the method is not
used to obtain an estimation of fabric
extension.
 Fabric Strength: Bursting strength
❑Prepare 10 specimens of size 10 cm x 10 cm. The specimen is cut to have a minimum dimension, at least
20% greater than the dimension of the clamp being used.
❑Ensure that specimens are free from crease or wrinkles. Avoid getting oil, water, grease and so on, on the
specimen
❑The bursting strength tester has two jaws, the fixed lower jaw and the movable upper jaw. The upper jaw
can be rotated anticlockwise to open and clockwise to close.
❑Place the test specimen between the two jaws and rotate the upper jaw to fit tightly.
❑The tester is provided with dual pressure gauge, one reading 0 to 1 kg/ cm2 and the other 0 to 28 kg/cm2.
Suitable pressure gauge is selected according to the type of the fabric to be tested.
❑Press the push button switch and wait until the fabric bursts.
❑Note the reading in the pressure gauge when the fabric bursts.
❑Repeat the test for other specimens.
❑Tabulate the result and find the mean value.