Chapter 1

Study of Motion
List of Symbols and Units in Kinematics
1. s — Displacement or Distance 1. v_avg — Average Velocity
o Unit: meters (m) o Unit: meters per second (m/s)
2. v — Final Velocity 2. v_inst — Instantaneous Velocity
o Unit: meters per second (m/s) o Unit: meters per second (m/s)
3. u — Initial Velocity 3. x_f or x_i — Final or Initial Position
o Unit: meters per second (m/s) o Unit: meters (m)
4. a — Acceleration 4. Δ (Delta) — Change (e.g., Δt, Δx, Δv)
o Unit: meters per second squared (m/s²) o Represents a change in a quantity.
5. t — Time o Examples:
o Unit: seconds (s)  Δt = t_f - t_i (change in time)
 Δx = x_f - x_i (change in
position or displacement)
 Δv = v_f - v_i (change in
velocity)

SI Units
 Distance/Displacement: meters (m)
 Velocity: meters per second (m/s)
 Acceleration: meters per second squared (m/s²)
 Time: seconds (s)
 Definitions
 Reference point: A place, point or object which is used for comparison to determine if
something is in motion or not and to determine distance is called a reference point.
Distance: The amount of ground covered by the movement of an object without any
regard to direction is called distance.
Displacement: The change in position of an object from its initial point to the final point
is called displacement.
Scalar Quantity: A quantity that has only magnitude (size) and no direction, such as
mass, time, or temperature.
Vector Quantity: A quantity that has both magnitude and direction, such as velocity,
force, or displacement.
Speed: A scalar quantity that measures the rate at which an object covers a certain
distance.
Velocity: The distance travelled by an object in a specified direction per unit of time is
called Velocity.
Acceleration: The change of velocity with respect to time is called acceleration.
Positive Acceleration: The rate of increase in an object's velocity over time.
Deceleration: The rate of decrease in an object's velocity over time.
Centripetal acceleration: The acceleration of an object moving in a circular path,
directed towards the center of the circle.
Magnitude: The size or quantity of a measurement, without considering its direction.
Force: An interaction that causes an object to accelerate, change its velocity, or alter its
shape.
Instantaneous Speed: The speed of an object at a specific moment in time.
Instantaneous Velocity: The velocity of an object at a specific instant, including both
magnitude and direction.
Average Speed: The total distance traveled divided by the total time taken.
Average Velocity: The total displacement divided by the total time taken, considering
direction.
 Key Points
Distance and Displacement
DISTANCE DISPLACEMENT

1. The amount of ground covered by the 1. The change in position of an object from its
movement of an object without any regards to initial point to the final point is called
direction is called distance. displacement
2. It doesn’t take direction into account. (Scalar 2. It is measure with regard to the direction.
quantity) 3. The unit of distance in International System
3. The unit of distance in International System of Units (SI) is meter (m).
of Units (SI) is meter (m). 4. Displacement can be negative, positive or
4. Distance can never be negative. Either 0 or zero.
positive. 5. The measurement of displacement is based on
5. The measurement of distance has no regards the reference point.
with the reference point. 6. Example; an object moves 8 km west and
6. Example: If a car move 3 km west and 5 km then 3 km east, its displacement is 5 km.
east, total distance travelled is 8km.

Speed and Velocity

SPEED VELOCITY
1. Speed is a scalar quantity that measures the 1. The distance travelled by an object per unit of
rate at which an object covers a certain distance. time in a specified direction is called velocity.
2. It only has magnitude no direction. 2. It has both magnitude and direction.
3. The unit of speed in SI is meters per second 3. The unit of velocity according to SI is meters
(m/s). per second (m/s)
4. Speed can be measured as an average or 4. Velocity can be measured as an average or
instantaneous. instantaneous.
5. Speed cannot be negative. 5. Velocity can be negative.
6. Example: If a car travels 100 meters in 5 6. Example; if an object travels 100 meters to
seconds the speed of that car will be 20 meters the east in 5 seconds then the velocity of it will
per second. be 20 meters per sec.

ACCELERATION
1. Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity
over time.
2. Acceleration is a vector, meaning it has both
magnitude and direction.
3. Acceleration can be positive (speeding up) or
Negative
4. The unit of acceleration in SI is meters per
second squared (m/s²).
5.. Acceleration occurs when there is a change
in the speed, direction, or both of an object's
motion.
Distance and Displacement
1. A reference point is needed to measure the position of an object relative to it.
2. Direction and distance are necessary to define an object's position precisely.
3. Distance is the total ground an object covers and is a scalar quantity.
4. Displacement is the straight-line distance from the starting point, including direction, making
it a vector quantity.
5. Distance can be longer than displacement if the path taken is curved or roundabout.

Speed and Velocity

1. Speed doesn’t involve any direction. Thus it is Scalar.
2. Velocity has direction so it is a vector quantity.
3. Distance is just the travelled space but in the case of displacement direction has to be
considered too.
4. Average speed is calculated by dividing total distance by time.
5. Instantaneous speed is the speed at any particular moment, but it can be equal to average
speed if an object moves in a uniform manner. This applies to instantaneous velocity too.
6. Average velocity is calculated by dividing total displacement by total time.
7. Uniform velocity means no difference between speed and velocity, as both remain constant in
magnitude and direction.
8. When an object returns to its starting point, the displacement is zero, resulting in zero average
velocity.

Acceleration and Deceleration

1. Acceleration is the process of increasing velocity, while deceleration refers to decreasing
velocity.
2. Positive acceleration occurs when velocity increases, and negative acceleration (deceleration)
occurs when velocity decreases.
3. Both magnitude and direction need to be specified for acceleration, such as "2 m/s² eastward"
or "9.8 m/s² downward.
How Acceleration Happens:
1.Velocity changes due to the application of force.
2. Force can be cause by many thing such as; push, pull, or other influences like gravity,
magnetic force, static electric force, or frictional force.
3. A change in velocity can occur due to a change in its magnitude or direction, and both require
the application of force.

Centripetal Acceleration:
Centripetal acceleration is the acceleration experienced by an object moving in a circular path,
directed towards the center of the circle. Even if the object's speed remains constant, its velocity
changes because its direction is constantly changing. This change in velocity requires a force
called centripetal force, which keeps the object moving in the circular path. The magnitude of
centripetal acceleration depends on the object's velocity and the radius of the circular path.
1. An object rotating in a circular path experiences acceleration due to the change in its velocity
(direction).
2. The rotating object's speed does not change, but its velocity does because of the changing
direction.
3. Force is applied toward the center to create the necessary acceleration..
4. The formula for centripetal acceleration is a = v²/r, where v is the velocity and r is the radius
(length of the string).
 Chapter 2

Energy
Work: Work is the transfer of energy that occurs when a force is applied to an object and
causes it to move in the direction of the force. It is calculated as the product of force and
displacement. For example: If any object is displaced in the direction of the force after the
application of a certain amount of force, then it can be considered that work has been done.
Energy: The ability to do work is called energy. In a broader sense, energy is the capacity to
perform actions, cause changes, or generate force, whether in the form of motion, heat, light, or
other forms.
Conversion of Energy: The transformation of energy from one from to another is called
conversion of energy.
Fusion: Fusion is the process in which two light atomic nuclei combine to form a heavier
nucleus, releasing a large amount of energy in the process.
Fission The process in which heavy atomic nuclei split into two or more, smaller atomic nuclei
releasing a significant amount of energy is called fission.
Force: Force is any external influence applied to an object that can cause it to change its
velocity or displacement. Force is also needed to stretch or compress objects like a spring.
Gravitational Force: Gravitational force is the force exerted by the Earth on objects, pulling
them downward. The strength of this force depends on the object's mass and the acceleration
due to gravity.
Elastic Potential Energy: Elastic potential energy is the energy stored in an elastic object, like
a spring or rubber band, when work is done on it by stretching or compressing it.
Gravitational Potential Energy: Gravitational potential energy is the energy stored in an
object because of its position in a gravitational field.
Potential Energy: Energy stored in an object because of its position or state is called potential
energy.
Kinetic Energy: The energy generated inside an object for its velocity is called kinetic energy
Mass: The amount of matter in an object is called mass
Power: The amount of energy obtained
per unit of time in called power.
Gravitational Acceleration: The acceleration of an object due to gravitational force is called
gravitational acceleration.
 Key Points
Work and Energy
1. Work is the transfer of energy that occurs when a force is applied to an object and causes it to
move in the direction of the force.
2. Formula: Work = Force × Displacement.
3. It’s Unit: Joule (J).
4. The ability to work is called energy. The unit of energy is Joule (J).
5. Law of Conservation of Energy: Energy cannot be created or destroyed, only converted
from one form to another.
6. Energy Transformation: Energy changes forms, like:

o Food gives us energy to move.

o Plants get energy from the Sun through photosynthesis.
o The Sun gets energy from nuclear fusion

Potential Energy
1. Potential energy is the stored energy of an object based on its position or condition.
2. It can be calculated using the formula E (potential) = mgh.
3. When work is done against gravity to lift an object, its potential energy increases.
4. Potential energy can be converted into kinetic energy when an object falls.
5. It is relative to a chosen reference point, often measured from ground level.
6. Elastic potential energy is stored in objects that are stretched or compressed.
7. The total mechanical energy of an object is the sum of its potential and kinetic energy.
8. Potential energy increases with greater mass or height above the ground.
 We observed in the third equation of
Kinetic Energy motion:
v2 =u2 + 2aS
.Kinetic energy = work done on an object Starting from steady state, u = 0
Or, E = W So v2 = 2aS
If a force F is applied to the object and it Or: aS = ½ v2
moves a distance S, By substituting the value of aS in the
equation
then the amount of work done is W = FS.
E = maS, we get, E = ½ mv2
Substituting F= ma,
That is, the work W has created a kinetic
W= maS energy of ½ mv2 inside the object of mass
m.

1. When work is done, energy is transformed; in the case of friction, it converts into thermal
energy or sound energy.
2. On a frictionless surface, work done results in an increase in the object's kinetic energy,
which is the energy of motion.
3. Kinetic energy depends on the square of velocity; doubling the velocity results in quadrupling
the kinetic energy, highlighting the risks of high speeds.
4. The relationship between gravitational potential energy and kinetic energy demonstrates the
conservation of energy; as an object falls, potential energy (mgh) is converted into kinetic
energy.
5. An example calculation shows that a person weighing 60 kg running at 3 m/s has a kinetic
energy of 270 J.

6. The relationship between kinetic energy and work emphasizes that energy is not lost when
work is done; it is merely transformed.
Relationship between Mass and Energy
1. The Sun’s energy comes from nuclear reactions, not chemical reactions, allowing it to sustain
energy output for billions of years.
2. Burning 1 gram of coal produces around 3000 Joules of energy, whereas 1 gram of matter
in a nuclear reaction can release 900 trillion joules due to E = mc².
3. Einstein's equation, E = mc², shows that a tiny amount of mass can be converted into a
massive amount of energy due to the speed of light being extremely large.
4. Nuclear fission occurs when a large nucleus splits into smaller nuclei, releasing energy based
on E = mc². This process will be used in the Rooppur nuclear plant.
5. Nuclear fusion involves two small nuclei combining into a larger nucleus, releasing energy as
E = mc². Fusion powers the Sun.
6. Efforts are being made to create controlled fusion reactions on Earth to meet global energy
demands in the future.
7. The fusion process is expected to fulfill the world's energy needs if successfully controlled in
labs on Earth.
8. Energy can also be converted into mass under special circumstances, showing a reverse of the
mass-energy relationship.
9. Power is defined as the amount of work done or energy transferred per unit of time:
Power = Work/Time or Power = Energy/Time.
10. The unit of power is the Watt (W). For example, a 15W bulb consumes 15 J of electrical
energy per second.
 STRUCTURE OF ATOM
STRUCTURE OF ATOM
An atom has two main parts:
1) The nucleus at the center of the atom
2) The electrons revolving around the nucleus outside the nucleus.
3) In the nucleus, there are positively charged Protons and neutral Neutrons.
4) The electrons orbiting around the nucleus carry a negative charge.
5) When an atom has an equal number of protons and electrons - the total charge is
zero, and it is called a neutral atom.
6) The mass of the neutron and proton is approximately two thousand times more
than the mass of electrons. Therefore, the mass of an atom is essentially the mass of
its nucleus
7) Atomic number, Mass number and Atomic mass imply three different things.
Atomic Mass means the total summation of the number of protons,
neutrons, electrons and the unstable particles
Mass number suggests just the summation or the total number of protons
and neutrons of an atom
Atomic number implies the total number protons present in the nucleus of
an atom.

Why different elements show different properties?

An atomic molecule that has either gained or lost electrons resulting in a net
positive or negative charge is called an Ion. Ions don’t have a neutral charge
resulting in different atoms having different structures because of the difference in
number of neutrons protons and electrons. So for this reason different elements
show different properties.

Origin and Advancement of the Concept of Atom and Atomic Model:

 In the 5th century BC, Leucippus and Democritus said substances are made of
indivisible particles called "atoms."
 The word "atom" comes from the Greek word "atomos," meaning
"indivisible."
  Philosophers Plato and Aristotle disagreed, with Aristotle saying everything is
made of four elements: fire, earth, air, and water.
 Aristotle didn’t experiment to prove his ideas.
 In the 18th and 19th centuries, scientists worked to explain the structure of
atoms using different atomic models.
 John Dalton said in 1803 that atoms are the smallest, indivisible particles of
matter.
 We now know atoms are made of smaller particles: electrons, protons, and
neutrons.
 Rutherford’s experiment showed that the atom has a small, dense nucleus with
a positive charge, surrounded by electrons.
 Rutherford compared electrons orbiting the nucleus to planets orbiting the sun
but didn’t specify their orbits.
 In 1913, Bohr suggested specific orbits for the electrons.
 The nucleus contains protons (positive charge) and neutrons (no charge).
 Most of the atom’s mass is in its nucleus.
 Most of the atom’s space is empty.
The nucleus is very small compared to the whole atom, making most of the
atom empty space.

Atomic Number and Mass Number

Atomic number
1. The atomic number of an atom is the total number of protons present in its nucleus. It is
represented by the English letter Z.
2. Different atoms of the same element have the same number of protons, so the atomic number
is the same.
3. Atoms with different elements have different atomic numbers, which helps to differentiate
one element from another element.

Mass Number
1. The mass number of an atom is the total number of protons and neutrons in that atom. It is
represented by the English letter A. For instance, a carbon atom has 6 protons and 6 neutrons,
making its mass number 12.
2. Atoms of the same element may have the same number of protons but different numbers of
neutrons. On the other hand the mass of an electron is very negligible.
Therefore, the atomic mass of an atom is approximately equal to its mass number.
3. As both protons and neutrons are found inside the nucleus of an atom, they are collectively
called nucleons.

Notation of Atom
1. Each element has a set symbol
2. The mass number of a symbol is written
at the top of the symbol.
3. The atomic number is written at the
bottom.
4. To denote an atom we need to know the
symbol, atomic number and mass number
of it.

ISOTOPES.
1. Elements can have different number of neutrons.
2. So the atoms that have the same number of protons and electrons but different mass number
or different number of neutrons are called isotopes. For example: Hydrogen has one neutron so
the mass number is 2 but some hydrogen atoms can have 2 or 3 neutrons too. They are called
isotopes, the isotopes of hydrogen are called, Protium, deuterium, tritium.
3. Similarly, most carbon atoms have 6 neutrons but they can have 7 or 8 too. So carbon can
have 3 different mass numbers: 12,13,14

PROPERTIES OF ISOTOPES
1. Isotopes of the same element have the same number of electrons and protons, so their
electron configurations are identical.
2. The electron configuration determines the electrical and chemical properties of an element, so
different isotopes have the same chemical and electrical properties.
3. Isotopes differ in mass because they have different numbers of neutrons.
4. Isotopes have different physical properties because of the difference in neutrons in their
nuclei.
5. The more stable an isotope is, the more common it is in nature. Stability refers to the
nucleus's stability.
6. Unstable isotopes undergo radioactive decay, releasing light rays and particles (Alpha, beta
and Gamma). These are called radioactive isotopes.

7. Radioactive isotopes have many uses in different fields.

USES OF ISOTOPES.
Medical Use:
1. Iodine 131 isotope is used to diagnose diseases of thyroid glands.
2. Thyroid function can be treated using technetium-99 isotope.
3. Different diseases and health problems can be detected with Isotopes by sending them
through the blood flow. Example: Problem in the narrow artery, cancer.
4. Cancer cells can be destroyed using radioactive isotopes.
5. Medical equipment can be sterilized using the irradiation from radioactive materials.
Agricultural Use:
1. Isotope radiation is used to control insects and parasites that can harm crops.
2. Radioactive isotopes help increase crop yields.
3. They can be used to determine the type and amount of fertilizer required for different crops.
Food Preservation:
Radiation from radioactive isotopes can be used to control bacteria and other organisms and
thus it can be used in sterilizations.
Geological Research:
Age of different artifacts can be determined through an isotope called Carbon-14.
Power Generation
1. Uranium-235 is used as fuel in nuclear reactors.
2. When a slow neutron hits a heavy neutron it creates or splits into 2 smaller nuclei creating a
significant amount of thermal energy.
3. Nuclear power plant in Rooppur in Ishwardi Upazilla, Pabna district is getting built which
can produce 2400 megawatts of electricity.
EFFECTS OF RADIOACTIVE ISOTOPES
In uncontrolled situations they are very harmful and can cause cancer by causing genetic
changes. Long term problems can be face for these genetic modifications lasting even for
generations.

Rules for Electron Configuration in Atoms.

1) The maximum number of electrons in an orbit is 2n2 (Where, n = 1, 2, 3, 4... is the
consecutive number of orbits. The corresponding orbits are also known as K, L, M, and N...).
1st orbit: 2n^2= 2(1)2 = 2×1 = 2; Can have maximum 2 electrons
2nd orbit: 2n^2 = 2(2)2 = 2×4 = 8; Can have maximum 8 electrons
3rd orbit: 2n62 = 2(3)2 = 2×9 = 18; Can have maximum 18 electrons
2) A new orbit cannot begin until the previous one is filled. A lithium has 3 electrons so without
filling the 2 places in its first orbit it cannot move on into another one.
3) The orbits are called energy levels.
 Cell Division
Amitosis
The process through which unicellular eukaryotes or prokaryotes reproduce is
called Amitosis or binary fission. This process is distinct from other cell division
mechanisms mainly because it doesn’t involve any phases, stages or complexities
like Mitosis or Meiosis. In this division, the cytoplasm and nucleus of the mother
cell gets directly divided to form two new daughter cell without any preparation,
and that is why it is also called direct cell division. This process is highly efficient
for the rapid proliferation of unicellular organisms as it does not require any special
preparation of the cells, allowing for a quick increase of cells in number. In amitosis
cell division, the DNA of the chromosome is replicated inside the nucleus when the
cell matures.

The nucleus undergoes changes and transforms into a dumbbell shape and starts to
shrink around the middle. After the end of the contraction, the nucleus separates and
form two daughter nuclei. There is no guarantee that the two nuclei will be divided
precisely and equally in this process.
 Mitosis

The process through which the mother cell of a multicellular organism divides into
two identical daughter cells is called Mitosis. Mitosis cell division enables a
somatic cell to divide into two daughter cells that are identical in shape, size,
quality and volume to the mother cell. The cytoplasm, nucleus and chromosome is
equally divided in both the cells. This type of division only happens in the body
cells of organism that have a true Nucleus.
Mitosis can be divided in 2 stages :
- Caryokinesis
- Cytokinesis

Cytokinesis can be further divided in 4 phases:

- Prophase
- Metaphase
- Anaphase
- Telophase

Prophase: Prophase is the first stage of mitosis. At the start of this phase, the
replica of the cell along with its each chromosome are attached to centromere and
they are called chromatids. The spindle fiber which is a cytoskeletal structure of
spindle apparatus starts to form at this stage. Spindle fiber is also called ‘Mitotic
Spindle’ in mitosis process. Inside the nucleus, the chromosome condenses, getting
shorter and fatter. The nucleolus and nuclear membrane disappears.

Metaphase: After the microtubules have located and attached to the kinetochores
in late prophase, the two centrosomes begin pulling the chromosomes towards
opposite ends of the cell. The resulting tension causes the chromosomes to align
along the metaphase plate at the equatorial plane, an imaginary line that is centrally
located between the two centrosomes. The chromosomes appear the shortest and
fattest at this stage

Anaphase : During anaphase , the cohesins (one kind of protein) that bind sister
chromatids together are cleaved, forming two identical daughter chromosomes
Shortening of the kinetochore microtubules pulls the newly formed daughter
chromosomes to opposite ends of the cell. Afterwards, polar microtubules push
against each other, causing the cell to elongate. In late anaphase, chromosomes also
reach their
overall maximal condensation level, to help chromosome segregation and the re-
formation of the nucleus.

Telophase: Telophase is a reversal of the events that occur in Prophase. It is the

final phase of Mitosis, and 'Telo' literally means 'end' in Greek. At telophase, the
polar microtubules continue to lengthen, elongating the cell even more. A new
envelope forms around each set of separated daughter chromosomes (though the
membrane does not enclose the centrosomes) and the nucleolus reappears. Both sets
of chromosomes, now surrounded by new nuclear membrane, begin to "relax" or
de-condense. Mitosis is complete. Each daughter nucleus has an identical set of
chromosomes.

Cytokinesis: Cytokinesis is not a phase of mitosis, but rather a separate process

necessary for completing cell division. a cleavage furrow (pinch) containing a
contractile ring, develops where the metaphase plate used to be, pinching off the
separated nuclei. Each daughter cell has a complete copy of the genome of its
mother cell. The end of cytokinesis marks the end of the M-phase. There are many
cells where mitosis and cytokinesis occur separately, forming single cells with
multiple nuclei. The most notable occurrence of this is among the fungi, slime
molds, and coenocytic algae, but the phenomenon is found in various other
organisms. Even in animals, cytokinesis and mitosis may occur independently, for
instance during certain stages of fruit fly embryonic development.
THE IMPORTANCE OF MITOSIS:
1. Growth of Organisms
 Mitosis allows organisms to grow from a single cell (such as a zygote) into a
multicellular organism by increasing the number of cells. Every time a cell divides via
mitosis, it creates two identical daughter cells, leading to the expansion of tissues and
organs.

2. Tissue Repair and Regeneration

 Damaged or dead cells need to be replaced to maintain healthy tissue function. Mitosis
produces new cells to replace old or injured ones. For example, when you have a cut or
broken bone, mitosis helps generate new cells that heal the wound and repair tissues.

3. Asexual Reproduction in Some Organisms

 In unicellular organisms and some plants and animals, mitosis enables asexual
reproduction. This allows organisms to reproduce rapidly without the need for sexual
reproduction, producing offspring that are genetically identical to the parent.

4. Replacement of Worn-Out Cells

 Cells have limited lifespans, and as they age, they need to be replaced. For example,
human skin cells are continuously shed and replaced through mitosis. Similarly, red
blood cells are constantly produced in the bone marrow to replace older ones.

5. Ensuring Equal Distribution of Chromosomes

 Mitosis meticulously separates replicated chromosomes to ensure that each daughter cell
receives an equal and identical set of chromosomes. Errors in this process could result in
genetic abnormalities, so the accuracy of mitosis is essential for healthy cell function.

6. Role in Development
 Mitosis plays a crucial role in embryonic development, allowing the single fertilized egg
(zygote) to divide and multiply, eventually forming complex tissues and organs that make
up the body.
7. Cell Replacement in Specialized Systems
 In highly specialized tissues such as the immune system or blood, mitosis is essential for
generating new cells (like white blood cells and platelets) to replace those used or lost
during bodily processes.

8. Prevention of Uncontrolled Cell Growth

 Proper regulation of mitosis ensures that cell division occurs only when necessary.
Disruptions in this control can lead to uncontrolled cell growth, which may result in
diseases like cancer. Therefore, mitosis, when well-regulated, helps maintain cellular
balance and prevents disorders.

Meiosis

1. A diploid cell has two sets of chromosomes. Humans are diploid, with 23 pairs of
chromosomes in each cell.
2. Sperm and egg cells are different because they have only 23 chromosomes (one
set), not 23 pairs, making them haploid.
3. Mitosis does not turn diploid cells into haploid cells. For that, a different cell
division process called meiosis is needed.
4. Before meiosis, a diploid cell goes through interphase, where the chromosomes
replicate.
5. Meiosis is divided into two stages: Meiosis 1 and Meiosis 2.
6. In Meiosis 1, two cells are formed, each containing one chromosome from each
pair.
7. In Meiosis 2, those two cells divide again, resulting in **four daughter cells** in
total.
8. Meiosis 1 has four phases: Prophase 1, Metaphase 1, Anaphase 1, and Telophase
1.
9. Meiosis 2 also has four phases: Prophase 2, Metaphase 2, Anaphase 2, and
Telophase 2.
10. The process starts with a diploid cell containing replicated chromosomes, which
divides through the stages of meiosis.

(DRAW THE CHART FOR EASY MARKS)

Phases of Meiosis Cell Division

Prophase1-: Chromosomes pair up and exchange DNA with each other (crossing
over).
Metaphase1-: Chromosomes are arranged at the equatorial region. Anaphase1-:
Chromosomes are attracted towards the two poles. Telophase1- and Cytokinesis:
The middle part of the cell shrinks. Prophase2-: Divides into two daughter cells.
Metaphase2-: The chromosomes of the daughter cells are arranged at the equatorial
region.
Anaphase2-: Chromatids are attracted towards the two poles. Telophase2- and
Cytokinesis: Middle part of the cells shrinks and divides into four haploid cells.
Importance of Meiosis.
Formation of Gametes (Reproductive Cells):

 Meiosis creates gametes (sperm and egg cells) in diploid organisms.

 Gametes are crucial for sexual reproduction because they combine during
fertilization, making meiosis essential for reproduction.
 Without meiosis, sexual reproduction cannot occur.

Chromosome Number Stability:

 Meiosis ensures that the chromosome number remains constant across

generations.
 It halves the chromosome number in gametes, so when fertilization happens,
the diploid number is restored, maintaining species-specific chromosome
numbers and ensuring heredity is passed on accurately.

Genetic Diversity:

 Meiosis involves a process called crossing over, where genetic material is

exchanged between chromosomes.
 This leads to genetic variation, contributing to the diversity seen in species
within the living world (biosphere). This genetic diversity is important for
evolution and adaptation.

Roles of Chromosomes and DNA in Determining Genetics

1. Physical traits (like curly or straight hair, long or short hair, black or brown
eyes) are determined by DNA in the chromosomes of cells.
2. DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) stores all the information that determines an
organism's characteristics.
3. Genetics is the process of traits being passed from parents to offspring through
DNA.
4. DNA plays a crucial role in controlling the characteristics of chromosomes and
maintaining the lineage of genetics.
5. DNA is the agent of genetics, responsible for continuing the genetic chain.
6. During meiosis, DNA located on the chromosomes is passed from parents to
their descendants.
7. Chromosomes are considered the physical basis of genetics because they carry
DNA from one generation to the next
Sex Determination Process
The first 22 chromosomes in male and female reproductive cells are the same. However, the
23rd chromosome can be different for male and female reproductive cells. In female egg cells,
the 23rd chromosome is always X, while in male sperm cells, it can be either X or Y. When the
male and female cells unite, the 23rd pair of chromosomes can be either XX or XY, depending
on whether the male contributes an X or Y chromosome. If the 23rd pair of chromosomes is
XX, the child is female, while if it’s XY, the child is male. If you look at the attached images of
chromosomes, you will see that the X and Y chromosomes are different in size. The Y
chromosome is much smaller than the X chromosome.
 Chapter 5
Cells, Tissues of Plants and Their Specialties
Definitions
Tissue: When a group of cells collectively perform essential physiological functions, they are
called tissues but in more specific terms a group of cells that are developed from the same
origin having similar or dissimilar size or shape and act together as a group are called tissues.
Meristematic Cell: The cells with the ability to divide are called meristematic cells.
Meristematic Tissue: The plant tissues with the ability to grow throughout its life are called
meristematic tissue.
Permanent Tissue: When the meristematic tissue of a plant is completely formed and stays
permanently in a certain place of the plant and does not divide again, it is called permanent
tissue.
Simple Tissue: The permanent tissue is which all the cells have the same size, structure and
shape is called simple tissue. In broader terms a group of cells that are developed from the same
origin and they are similar is shape, structure and size are known as simple tissues,
Complex Tissue: The permanent tissue that are composed of more than one type of and cells
that work together as a group and perform similar functions are called permanent tissues. In
broader terms, A group of cells that are developed from the same origin but are dissimilar in
shape and size are known as complex tissues.
Secretory Tissue: The permanent tissue which secrete special type of fluids is known as
secretory tissue.
Xylem: Xylem is a vascular tissue in plants responsible for the transport of water and minerals
from the roots to other parts of the plant and also provides mechanical support due to its thick-
walled cells.
Phloem: Phloem is a vascular tissue in plants that transports food, mainly sugars, produced in
the leaves to other parts of the plant for growth, storage, and metabolism.
Parenchyma: Parenchyma is a living plant tissue with thin cell walls, found in all parts of the
plant, responsible for food storage, photosynthesis, and transport of nutrients.
Collenchyma: Collenchyma is a living plant tissue with thickened, flexible cell walls that
provides mechanical support and elasticity to growing parts of the plant like stems and leaves.
Sclerenchyma: Sclerenchyma is a dead plant tissue with thick, lignified cell walls that provides
rigidity and mechanical strength to mature plant parts such as stems and bark.
Cambium: A tissue between xylem and phloem that forms new xylem and phloem tissue as a
meristematic tissue and helps in the growth of plant’s stems is called cambium.
Vascular Plants: Plants that have transport tissues to transport different substances in order to
carry out their biological functions are called vascular plants.
Node: The part of a plant from which leaves are formed is called Node.
Internode: The section between two nodes is called internode.
Bark: The Thick outer layer of a plant’s stem is called bark.
Root: The part of the plant that is connected to the soil, stores food and absorbs water mineral
nutrients form the soil is called root.
Root hair: The tiny hair-like structures on roots are called root hair.
Cuticle: The wax-like coating on the outer layer of a leaf which prevents the loss of excessive
water from leaves during winter or dry weather is called the cuticle.
Epidermis: The next layer after the cuticle is called epidermis.
Flower: A special type of modified stem or section of a stem responsible for a plant’s
reproduction is called flower.
Complete Flower: A flower that contains all 5 part, namely, receptacle, sepals, corolla, stamens
and carpels is called a complete flower.
Incomplete Flower: If a flower has any of the 5 mains parts missing, namely; receptacle,
sepals, corolla, stamens and carpel, it is called an incomplete flower.
Bisexual Flower: A flower that has both stamen and carpel present at the same time, it is called
a bisexual Flower. Example: Hibiscus or Datura
Unisexual Flower: If either Stamen or carpel are absent in a flower it is called a unisexual
flower. Example: Gourd or Pumpkin Flower
Neuter Flower: When both stamens and carpels are absent in a flower, it is called a neuter
flower.
True Fruit: When only the ovary of a flower develops into fruits, they are called true fruits.
False Fruit: When the other parts of the flower including the ovary develop into fruits, they are
called false fruits.
Embryo: The small under developed plant inside each seed is called an embryo.
Diffusion: When a substance spreads evenly from a more concentrated area to a less
concentrated area at the same temperature and atmospheric pressure it is called diffusion
Diffusion Pressure: The Force that draws a solvent to move from a higher concentrated
solution to a lower concentrated solution is called diffusion pressure.
Osmosis: the movement of a liquid with lower concentration to a liquid with higher
concentration through a semi-permeable membrane is called osmosis
Transpiration: The physiological process through which the extra water evaporates from
different organs of the plant is called transpiration.
Transport System: The system through which water, food and minerals transfer from one
place to another is called transport system.
Cell Sap: The water and minerals dissolved inside the cell together is called cell sap.
Sieve tube: A thin walled tube-shaped living cell without a nucleus is called sieve tube.
Tissue Culture: The process of growing required nutrients to create plant tissue through
artificial methods in laboratory where the tissue is isolated from a divisible organ of a plant
such as; terminal bud, auxiliary bud, young leaf or petals under sterile condition along with the
necessary nutrients is called tissue culture.

Classification
Plant tissues are mainly divided into 2 categories, meristematic tissues and permanent
tissues.
Permanent Tissue is divided into 3 categories; Secretory Tissue, Simple Tissue, Complex
Tissue
Simple Tissue is classified into 3 categories; Parenchyma, Collenchyma, Sclerenchyma
Complex tissue is classified into 2 categories; Xylem and Phloem

Characteristics
Meristematic Tissue:

1. The cells are alive and relatively small.

2. The cells of the meristematic tissue are usually rectangular, oval, pentagonal or hexagonal.
3. The cells in the meristematic tissue have thin cell walls made of cellulose.
4. The nucleus of the cell is relatively big, and the cytoplasm is dense.
5. The cells of the meristematic tissue usually do not have vacuoles.
6. As the cells are densely packed, there are no intercellular spaces between them.
7. Cells do not have stored food, secretions or waste products.

Permanent Tissue

1. The walls of the cell are chubby and quite thick.

2. The vacuoles are relatively big.
3. The nucleus is smaller than usual and positioned to one side of the cell.
4. The cell wall displays different patterns or designs.

Parenchyma Tissue:

1. Present in all parts of the plant.

2. Cells are alive and have thin walls.
3. Filled with protoplasm.
4. Cells have intercellular spaces.
5. Cell walls are made of cellulose.
6. Main functions: Provide structure, prepare and store food, and transport food.

Collenchyma Tissue:

1. Composed of a special type of parenchyma cells.

2. Cells are alive, filled with protoplasm, and elongated in shape.
3. Cell walls are thick due to the presence of cellulose and pectin.
4. Provides strength and elasticity, allowing stems to bend without breaking.

Sclerenchyma Tissue:

1. Cells are tough, long, and have thick walls.

2. Do not contain protoplasm; cells become dead as protoplasm decays.
3. Cell walls contain lignin.
4. Provides rigidity and mechanical strength to the plant.

Xylem:
1. It gives Rigidity to the plant.
2. It supplies water and other mineral salts from root through the plant’s stem to then upper
leaves. Basically it helps in water transportation.
3. The direction of flow is upwards.
4. Xylem tissue produces food.
5. Xylem cells generally have thicker cell walls compared to phloem.
Phloem:
1. Phloem transports food.
2. The direction of phloem is both downwards and upwards.
3. Phloem produces fiber.
4. Phloem cells generally have thin cell walls compared to the thick walls of xylem cells.

Functions of Different Types of Tissues

1. Meristematic Tissue:

 Responsible for plant growth in both length and width.

 Fills wounds by dividing and forming new tissue.
 Forms permanent tissue once the division stops.
 Ensures the continuous production of new cells.
 Helps the plant adapt to changes or damage through cell regeneration.

2. Permanent Tissue:

 Participates in conduction of water and nutrients throughout the plant.

 Assists in convection, facilitating the movement of substances.
 Provides structural support once cells are fully developed.
 Cells are specialized for specific tasks such as storage, support, or transport.
 Helps in maintaining the plant's overall structure after growth.

3. Parenchyma Tissue:

 Provides structural support to the plant body.

 Stores food and nutrients in different parts of the plant.
 Prepares food through processes like photosynthesis.
 Helps in transporting nutrients and food.
 Contains intercellular spaces to allow exchange of gases.

4. Collenchyma Tissue:

 Provides mechanical strength to young stems and leaves.

 Gives flexibility to plant stems, allowing them to bend without breaking.
 Contributes to the elasticity of plant parts, enabling them to withstand wind or pressure.
 Supports growing regions of the plant without hindering growth.
 Cells are rich in pectin and cellulose, providing additional strength.

5. Sclerenchyma Tissue:

 Provides rigidity and mechanical strength to mature parts of the plant.

 Cells are thick-walled and lignified, giving structural support.
 Protects plant parts from damage due to external forces.
 Supports the plant's vascular tissues (xylem and phloem).
 Offers mechanical protection to seeds and nuts with hard outer coverings.

6. Xylem Tissue:

 Transports water and dissolved minerals from roots to leaves.

 Provides mechanical strength and rigidity to the plant due to its thick walls.
 Facilitates upward movement of water through the plant.
 Forms a part of the vascular bundle, contributing to overall plant structure.
 Supports photosynthesis by delivering necessary water to the leaves.

7. Phloem Tissue:

 Transports food (mainly sugars) produced by photosynthesis from leaves to other parts of
the plant.
 Allows bidirectional movement of nutrients to support growth in all parts.
 Forms part of the vascular system along with xylem to distribute resources.
 Helps store food in storage organs like roots and tubers.
 Assists in supplying energy to growing and non-photosynthetic parts of the plant.

Important Points

Importance of Plant Organs and Their Functions:

1. Main Structural Organs:
o Roots, stems, and leaves are the primary organs of a plant. They are made up of various
tissues and play critical roles in the plant's survival.
2. Roots and Stems:
o Roots and stems are essential for plants because they provide support and help in the
transportation of water, minerals, and nutrients.
o Roots absorb water and mineral salts from the soil, which are crucial for the plant's
biological processes.
o Stems transport water and nutrients from the roots to other parts of the plant, much like
pipes in a building that transport water to different floors.
3. Vascular Plants:
o Vascular plants have specialized transport tissues (xylem and phloem) to move water,
nutrients, and food throughout the plant body.
4. Water Transport:
o Water and minerals absorbed by roots are transported upward through the stem to the
higher branches and other parts of the plant.

5. Photosynthesis:
o In the presence of sunlight, plants use water and carbon dioxide to produce sugars
through photosynthesis.
o Oxygen is also generated as a byproduct, which is crucial for plant respiration and for
creating a habitable environment for humans and animals.
 6. Respiration and Oxygen Release:
o Oxygen produced in photosynthesis is used in the respiration process, where
carbohydrates are broken down in the plant's body.

Stem
1. Nodes are the points on the stem where leaves form, while internodes are the sections
between nodes.
2. The stem starts off soft, but as it matures, it becomes hard and can eventually be used as
timber.
3. The stem has a thick outer layer called bark which offers protection and defines the tree’s
shape.
4. Lateral growth causes the stem, branches, and trunks to thicken over time, forming growth
rings visible in cross-sections.
5. A ring marks a cycle season of a year.

Root
1. The root is the part of the plant that is connected to the soil, responsible for storing food and
absorbing water and mineral nutrients from the soil.
2. Roots have tiny root hairs, designed to absorb large quantities of water and dissolved mineral
salts from the soil.
3. At the tip of each root, there is a root cap, a tough covering of cells that protects the root from
injury.
4. Roots are classified into two types: the main root, which penetrates deep into the soil, and
branch roots, which spread closer to the surface.
5. Both main and branch roots are involved in absorbing water and minerals.
6. Root hairs, lateral roots, and branch roots help absorb water and minerals, creating liquid
pressure in root cells.
7. Water and minerals are then transported from the roots to the upper branches and leaves
through the stem due to transpiration pull.

Leaf
1. The most prominent part of a plant is its leaves, which are vital for the plant's survival.
2. Leaves contain chlorophyll, essential for photosynthesis, enabling plants to produce food.
3. They come in various colors, sizes, and shapes, with structures related to their functions.
4. Many leaves are flat and wide to maximize sunlight absorption.
5. Trees like mango, jackfruit, blackberry, and banyan have single or simple leaves.
6. Plants like rose, neem, and moringa have compound leaves with multiple small laminae.
7. Some plants have needle-like leaves, while others have prickly leaves.
8. Evergreen trees, such as pine trees, maintain green leaves throughout the year.
9. The outer layer of a leaf is covered by a wax-like cuticle, which prevents excessive water
loss.
10. The epidermis is the next layer, playing a role in protection and gas exchange.
11. Leaves contribute not only to food production and respiration but also to the plant's
reproduction.
12. Some leaves, like those of the air plant (Kalanchoe pinnata), can grow new plants.

Flower

2. Flowers produce colors and fragrances to attract pollinators, with each flower emitting a
unique scent.
3. A typical flower of a higher-level plant consists of five main parts: receptacle, sepals, corolla,
stamens, and carpels.
4. Stamens and carpels are the most crucial parts as they directly participate in reproduction.
5. A flower containing all five parts is called a complete flower, while a flower missing any part
is termed an incomplete flower.
6. Flowers that have both stamens and carpels are called bisexual flowers; examples include
hibiscus and datura.
7. If either the stamen or carpel is absent, the flower is considered unisexual; examples include
gourd and pumpkin flowers.

Fruit
1. Fruits are a distinctive feature of flowering plants, often associated with sweet varieties like
mangoes, berries, and bananas.
2. Many commonly consumed vegetables, such as gourds, pumpkins, and luffas, are also
classified as fruits.
3. The formation of fruit begins after fertilization occurs in the ovary of flowers.
4. The organ formed by the ovary, either alone or maturing with other parts of the flower, is
called fruit.
5. When only the ovary of a flower develops into fruit, it is termed a true fruit; examples
include mangoes and blackberries.
6. When other parts of the flower, including the ovary, contribute to the fruit's formation, they
are called false fruits (or accessory fruits); examples include apples and elephant apples.
7. After fertilization, each ovule develops into a seed containing a small undeveloped plant
called an embryo.
8. The ovary surrounding the ovules develops into fruit that contains one or more seeds, as seen
in tomatoes.

Plant Physiology
1. Every plant cell performs numerous biological functions, including water absorption,
osmosis, diffusion, transpiration, transport, and photosynthesis.
2. Plants require energy to perform these biological functions.
3. Plants obtain energy from food, which they prepare through the process of photosynthesis.
4. To make food, plants absorb water and minerals from the soil using their roots.
5. Plants also use their leaves and stems to collect carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.
6. The food produced by plants is transported to different parts of the plant, facilitating physical
growth.
7. These biological functions are carried out in an organized and controlled manner.

Diffusion and Transpiration

1. When the leaves of a tree in a tub droop due to a lack of water, they revive after watering
because of diffusion.
2. In leaf mesophyll tissue, a shortage of water causes water-deficient cells to draw water from
nearby cells due to diffusion pressure deficit.
3. Diffusion is the process where a substance spreads evenly from an area of higher
concentration to an area of lower concentration at the same temperature and atmospheric
pressure.
4. Diffusion pressure is the force that drives a solvent to move from a higher concentration
solution to a lower concentration solution.
5. The diffusion pressure deficit in the leaf’s mesophyll tissue helps maintain the effectiveness
of the plant's transport system.
6. Diffusion plays a critical role in the water absorption of plants and is involved in all
physiological functions.
7. During photosynthesis, plants take in carbon dioxide from the air and release oxygen through
diffusion.
8. Water absorbed by the plant is released in the form of water vapors through transpiration,
which also involves diffusion.
9. Plants primarily absorb water through their roots, with about 99% of this water evaporating
through stomata as water vapours.

10. Transpiration is the physiological process that allows extra water to evaporate from different
organs of the plant.
11. Stomata are pores surrounded by guard cells, located in leaves, soft stems, sepals, and
petals, essential for photosynthesis.
12. When stomata are open, they allow carbon dioxide to enter and oxygen to be released,
resulting in significant water loss as vapor.
13. Transpiration ensures a constant flow of water from roots to leaves.
14. The process helps plants regulate excess heat by evaporating water but can also lead to
dehydration.
15. Farmers must maintain an adequate irrigation system to protect their crops from
dehydration.
16. Transpiration is vital for supplying water to all plant cells and transporting food made
through photosynthesis to different plant parts.
17. The pull caused by transpiration in the plant's outer tubes assists root hairs in absorbing
water.
18. Transpiration also helps lift water and food juices, absorb salts, and deliver minerals to
leaves and other parts of the plant.

Transport System
1. Transport in plants involves the movement of water and minerals absorbed from the soil, as
well as food prepared in the leaves.
2. Water inside the cells and the dissolved minerals are referred to as cell sap.
3. Cell sap travels to the plant's leaves through xylem vessels due to transpiration pull and other
processes.
4. When water reaches the leaves, food is produced through photosynthesis.
5. Phloem tissues are responsible for transporting the prepared food to different regions of the
plants.
6. Plant roots absorb water and minerals, which enter the root through root hairs via osmosis.
7. Osmosis is the movement of a liquid with lower concentration into a liquid with higher
concentration through a semipermeable membrane.

8. Water and minerals absorbed through root hairs move from one cell to neighboring cells in
the root via osmosis.
9. This movement continues as water and minerals transfer from cell to cell, eventually reaching
the xylem vessels.
10. The xylem vessels transport water and minerals to the mesophyll tissue of the leaf with the
transpiration current through the stem's transport tissue.
11. Food produced in the leaves through photosynthesis is transported to different parts of the
plant through the sieve tubes of the phloem.
12. A sieve tube is a thin-walled, tube-shaped living cell without a nucleus.
13. Sieve tubes are longitudinally connected to form a long tube-like structure in the plant body.
14. The transverse walls between sieve tube cells disappear in places, creating a sieve-like
shape for easy food movement.
15. Thus, nutrients are supplied throughout the plant via the phloem, sustaining life.
16. If xylem vessels or sieve tubes of the phloem become blocked, the plant will inevitably die.

Plant Tissue Culture and Its use

Plant tissue culture is an artificial method of growing plant tissues isolated from organs like
terminal buds or young leaves under sterile conditions with essential nutrients. This process,
also known as micro propagation, allows for the mass production of seedlings from healthy
plants, creating disease-free specimens, preserving nearly extinct species, and achieving faster
seedling production through techniques like embryo culture. In Bangladesh, tissue culture has
successfully produced various seedlings, including local and exotic orchids, bananas, wood
apples, jackfruits, pulses, groundnuts, and disease-free strawberries and stevia.
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