Transformer

Working Principle of a
from one circuit to anat
A transformer is a static device which transfers electric energy
on the electromagnti
another
of the system. It works
circuit without changing the frequency
c

induction principle. According to this principle,

an emfis induced in a coil if it links a changine
hanging
flux.
Primary Secondary
winding winding

N E . Load
v

Iron core

Figure Arrangement of a simple transformer

N,
v.
E E2

Core

Figure Symbolic representation

Consider two coils 1 and 2 wound on a simple magnetic circuit as show in figure
These two coils are insulated from each other and there is electrical connection, but mas
no
netically coupled. The two coils posses high mutual inductance. If one coil is connectea
source of alternating voltage, an
alternating flux is set up in the laminated core, most or w
is linked with the other coil, in which it
produces mutually induced emf according to karad
law of electromagnetic induction.
If the secondary coil circuit is closed, a current flows in it
and so an electrical energy
transfers from the first coil to the second coil. Coil1 which receives
energy from the source of AC supply is called the primary coil or
which is connected to the load and delivers primary winding an ot
energy to the load is called the secondary in
secondary winding. The symbolic representation of a two winding transform is as
figure . The two vertical lines are used to represent magnetic core, which signilysnht
e tight
magretic coupling between the windings.
 Ideal Transformer

transformer is one that has

An ideal

() no winding resistance.
same flux links with both the windings.
(ii) no leakage flux i.e., the
iron losses (i.e., eddy current and hysteresis losses) in the core.
(ii) no

Although ideal transformer cannot be physically realized, yet its study provides a very
transformers have
powerful tool in the analysis of a practical transformer. In fact, practical
properties that come very close to an ideal transformer.
When the primary coil is connected to alternating voltage V, a current I, To) flows through
it. Since the primary coil is purely inductive, the current Im lags the applied voltage V, by 90°.
Due to current Im, flux is produced in the primary winding and some of the flux is also linked
with the secondary winding and hence emf's E, and E, are induced in the primary and second-
ary windings respectively. According to Lenz's law the induced emf opposes the cause produc-
ing it which is supply voltage V,. Hence E, is in antiphase with V, but equal in magnitude. The
induced emf E, also opposes V, hence in antiphase with V, but its magnitude depends on N
Thus E, and E, are in phase. The phasor diagram of an ideal transformer is shown in the figure

- --
90°

90°
v N EEtE
Tv,
E
E-V
(a) Circuit diagram (b) Phasor diagram

Figure ldeal transformer

Here Im= magnetizing current

Mathematically,
Let , , sinwt
= =
. 20° is taken as reference phasor
The induced emf in the
primary
do
-N , sinut) = -Na,wcOsust = Ne,wsin(ut-90°)= Em sin(ut -90°)

m= Nmw= Max. value of induced e.m.f.

Le., E, lags the flux, by an angle 90°
V=-E, =Ng dt
or
V,-E,
 i.e V, leads the flux, by an angle 90°

The induced emf in the secondary

do
E=-N=-N,,sinut) = -Ng4wcosut = N,®,wsin(ut-90)=E2m,sin(ut-90)
Ezm N,mw= Max. value of induced emf

i.e., E, lags the flux, by an angle 90°, so E, and E, are phase.

In an ideal transformer there is no power loss

i.e., input VA =
output VA

E =El,
V = V1, (.V, = E, V, = E,)

EMF Equation of a Transformer

When the primary winding is excited by an alternating voltage, it circulates alternating cur-
rent and hence alternating flux is produced in the core.

Cycle

Time, t
-L.1
-m

T 1/f

Figure Sinusoidal flux

 sinwt
Let =
m
Where =Maximum value of flux
f= Frequency ofsupply voltage
N,= Number of primary winding turns
N,= Number ofsecondary winding turns
E r.m.s value of the primary induced emf
=

E, r.m.s. value of the secondary induced emf

=

According to Faraday's Law of electromagnetic induction, emf induced is given by

F=-N=-N(m sinut=-NDwcosut = Nwsin(t-90)

dt dt

lt is clear from the above equation that maximum value of induced emf is

Emax Now
The rm.s. value induced emf is

N 2NTJn=
rms
2 2 2 4.44Nf ,m
RMS value of emf induced in the
primary winding
E= 4.44 N, f®,
Similarly
RMS value of emf induced in the secondary winding
E,4.44 N, fm
Note: It is clear from
eqn. t) above that emfE, induced in the primary lags behind
90. Likewise,
emf E, induced in the secondary lags behind flux d by 90°
the flux o by

Voltage and Current Transformation Ratios

Voltage Ratio:
RMS value of emf
induced in the primary winding
E= 4.44 N, fm
RMS value of emf
induced in the secondary winding
E=4.44N, fm
EE4.44f,
NN2
It means that the emf per turn is same in both
primary and secondary
n an ideal
transformer, the voltage drops in prir. and secondary windings are negligible.
Therefore,for an ideal transformer V, =E, and V,=E
The ratio of secondary voltage to primary voltage is same as the ratio of secondary turns to the
primary turns. This ratio is known as transformation ratio, K

Therefore,K==-

For step-up transformer V,VK>1

For step-downtransformer V2 < V, >K< 1
Current Ratio:
In an ideal transformer, the losses are negligible so that volt-ampere input to the primary is
approximately equal to the volt-ampere output from the secondary
Input VA =Output VA on no load

V,h=V,h =4

N-
E K
N
i.e. primary and secondary currents are inversely proportional to their respective turns.
Problem : The maximum flux density in the core of a 250/3000V, 50Hz 1-6, trans-
former is 1.2Wbjm. If the emf per turn is 8V, determine
) Primary and secondary turns
ii) Area of the core
Solution: Given that
E=250V,E, = 3000V
B1.2 Wb/m2
E =8
N
) Primary and secondary turns

NE-8N,=-=32
=8N,=23000
375
N2 8

(ii) Area of the core

E =
4.44 fN,°= 4.44 fN,BA

E 250
AA4
4.44/N,B 4.44x50x32x1.20.03m2
 Practical Transformer on No-Load
In the case neglected, but practically it is not possible. When
of ideal transformer, losses are
and the seconcis open, the
theprimary of a transformer is connected to AC supply source,
transformer is said to be on no-load.
When the transformer is on no-load, the primary current is completely reactive. But
not
losses in primary
it has to supply iron losses in the core and a very small amount of copper
no copper loss in secondary as it is open). Hence,
the no load primary input cur-
there being
90°.
rent is not at 90° behind V, but lags it by an angle do <
V,

- -

v,
m

N, N E

(b) Phasor diagram

(a) Circuit diagram
Transformer on no-load
No load input power of the transformer is

W= V,lcos¢o
The phasor diagram under no-load condition is drawn as shown in figure 6.10(b).
From the pharos diagram I has two components:
() Working or active component, I, = l, cosoo, which is in phase withV
(ii) Magnetizing component, 1= l sindo, which is in quadrature with V

Problem The no-load current of a transformer is 5 A at 0.3 p.f, when supplied at

230V, 50 Hz. The no. of turns on the primary winding is 200. Calculate:
the max. value of flux in the core
(i) magnetizing current
ii) iron losses in the transformer

Solution: Given thatt

=5 A, coso%= 0.3
V =
E,= 230 V, N, = 200

) E=4.44 fÖ,N,
The maximum value of flux into the core

E 230
= 5.18 mWb
4.44 N, 4.44x50x200

(ii) The magnetizing current

=I, cosd)=5 x 0.3 =

1.5

=-R =vs -1.5*=477A

(ii) Iron loss in the transformer
W = V, I,c o s = 230 x 5 x 0.3 = 345 W
 Practical Transformer on Load
When the transformer is loaded, the secondary current, I, is set up. I2 will be in phase with V2
ifthe load is resistive, it lags V2 if the load is inductive, it leads V, if the load is capacitive. The
secondary current I2 sets up its own MMF ( = N2l2) and hence it produces flux 2 , which is
in opposition to the main primary flux , which is due to lo. Secondary flux D2 weakens the
main flux momentarily and hence primary back e m fE, tends to be reduced. For a moment
V,gains the upper hand over E, and hence causes additional currentl2 to flow in primary and
hence flux , (due to MMF N!2) which counter-balances the secondary flux

.2=2
N, =N2l2
=K
N l,
ere is known as load component of primary current. This current is in anti-phase with I,

=lnt+I

O
V, A

Transformer on load
Figure
 condition can be drawn as shown in figum
The phasor diagram ofa transformer under load

V, =-E, V,=-E, tV,-E,

E E, E
V =E2 V =E2 V,=E
(a) For resistive load (b) For inductive load (c) For capacitive load

Figure: 1?1 Phasor diagram oftransformer on load

The equivalent circuit of single phase transformer:

No load Components:
The no-load primary current Io has two components, namely Im and Iw. Where Im is
magnetizing component ( Io sin φo ) and Iw is core-loss component ( Io cos φo ).
Iw supplies for the no-load losses and is assumed to flow through the no-load resistance
which is also known as core-loss resistance (Ro). The magnetizing component, Im is
assumed to be flowing through a reactance which is known as magnetizing reactance X o.
Io is also known as the exciting circuit. From the equivalent circuit of transformer. Ro =
V1/Iw and Xo = V1/Im. The core-loss resistance (Ro) and the magnetizing reactance (Xo) of
a transformer are determined by the open circuit test of transformer.

Primary Components:
The resistance R1 and reactance X1 correspond to the winding resistance (DC resistance)
and leakage reactance of the primary winding. The total current I1 on the primary side is
equal to the phasor sum of Io and I2’. I2’ is the additional primary current which flows due
to the load connected on the secondary side of the transformer.

Secondary Components
The resistance R2 and reactance X2 correspond to the winding resistance and leakage
reactance of the secondary winding. Load impedance ZL can be resistive, inductive or
capacitive. The equivalent circuit of single phase transformer is further simplified by
transferring all the quantities to either primary or secondary side. This is done in order to
make the calculations easy.

Equivalent Circuit of single phase Transformer Referred to the Primary side:

All the components on the secondary side of the transformer are transferred to the
primary side as shown in the figure. R2’, X2’ and ZL’ are the values of R2, X2 and
ZL referred to the primary side respectively. The values of these components are obtained
as follows:
R2’ = R2/K2, X2’ = X2/K2 and ZL’ = ZL/K2
where K = N2/N1 (transformation ratio).

The current I2 and voltage E2 are also transferred to the primary side as I2’ and E2’
respectively. The expressions for I2’ and E2’ are as follows:
E2’ = E2/K and I2’ = KI2

Equivalent Circuit of single phase Transformer Referred to the secondary side:

The equivalent circuit of single phase transformer referred to the secondary side is shown
in the figure. Components R1’, X1’, Ro’ and Xo’ are the primary components referred to
secondary. The expressions for these components are as follows:

R1’ = K2R1 , X1’ = K2X1

Ro’ = K2Ro , Xo’ = K2Xo

The primary voltages and currents are also transferred to the secondary side as I1’,
V1’, Io’, E1’ respectively and are given by:

I1’ = I1/K, E1’ = KE1 , Io’ = Io/K

where K = N2/N1 (transformation ratio).

Approximate Equivalent Circuit of single phase Transformer referred to the

primary side:
An approximate equivalent circuit is one which is obtained by shifting the secondary side
parameters to the right of R1 and X1 as shown in the figure. Although this shifting creates
an error in the voltage drop across R1 and X1 yet it greatly simplifies the calculation work
and gives much simplified equivalent circuit.

Simplified Equivalent Circuit of single phase Transformer referred to the primary

side:

Now it is possible to combine the resistances R1 with R2’ and X1 with X2’. So R1 and R2’
are combined to obtain the equivalent resistance of single phase transformer referred to
the primary side R01.
Where R01 = R1 + R2’ = R1 + R2/K2

Similarly X1 and X2’ can be combined to obtain the equivalent reactance of single phase
transformer referred to the primary side X01.

Where X01 = X1 + X2’ = X1 + X2/K2

Now the equivalent impedance of the single phase transformer referred to the primary
side is given by

Z01 = R01 + jX01

B-H CHARACTERISTICS:
FERROMAGNETIC MATERIALS:
TYPES OF MAGNETIC MATERIALS:
Power Losses in Transformer:

The power losses in transformer can be divided into two types namely the copper losses and the
iron losses. The iron losses in a transformer can be further classified into two types namely the
hysteresis losses and eddy current losses.

Copper Losses in transformer:-

The total losses that take place in the winding resistance of a transformer are known as the
‘Copper losses’. These losses in a transformer should be kept as low as possible to increases the
efficiency of the transformer. To reduce the copper losses, it is essential to reduce the resistance
of primary and secondary winding coils of the transformer i.e. size of the winding conductor is
selected very carefully. These are also known as the variable losses as these are dependent on the
square of the load current. To determine the copper losses, short circuit test on transformer is
performed. The total copper losses in transformer = I12R1 + I22R2 = I12R01 = I22R02 .Where, I1 ,
I2 = primary and secondary currents respectively, R1, R2 = primary and secondary resistances
respectively, R01, R02 = equivalent resistances referred to primary and secondary respectively.

Iron Losses in transformer:-

The power losses that take place in its iron core are known as the ‘Iron losses’. These losses
occur due to alternating flux set up in the core. In a transformer, flux set up in the core remains
constant from no load to full load. Hence these power losses are independent of load and also
known as constant losses of a transformer. These losses have two components named hysteresis
losses and eddy current losses. To determine the iron losses, open circuit test of transformer is
performed.

Hysteresis Losses in a transformer:-

When a magnetic material is subjected to reversal of flux, power is required for the continuous
reversal of molecular magnets. This power is dissipated in the form of heat and is known as
‘Hysteresis Loss’. The hysteresis loss of a magnetic material depends upon its area of
the hysteresis loop. Hence the magnetic materials such as silicon steel, which has very small
hysteresis loop area, are used for the construction of the core to minimize the hysteresis loss in a
transformer.

The hysteresis loss (Ph = KhfBmx) is frequency dependent.

Where Kh = proportionality constant
f = frequency of the alternating flux
Bm = maximum flux density in the core
x = Steinmetz’s constant
As we increase the frequency of operation, this loss increases proportionally.

Eddy Current Losses in a transformer:-

Due to alternating flux in a transformer, some EMF is induced in the transformer core. This
induced EMF causes some currents to flow through the core of the transformer. These currents
are known as eddy currents. The core of transformer has some finite resistance. Hence due to the
flow of eddy currents, some power losses take place and are known as Eddy current losses
(Pe = Kef2Bm2).
Where Ke = proportionality constant
f = frequency of the alternating flux
Bm = maximum flux density in the core

The eddy current losses in transformer are minimized by using the laminated core. These
laminations are insulated from each other by mean of a thin varnish coating. Hence each
lamination acts as a separate core of a small cross sectional area, offers a high resistance to the
flow of eddy currents.

Therefore, with the use of laminations in the core, eddy currents and eddy current losses are
reduced. These losses are also frequency dependent. They are directly proportional to the square
of operating frequency.

Example: The primary and the secondary windings of a 500kVA transformer have resistance of
0.42 ohms and 0.0011 ohms respectively. The primary and the secondary voltages are 6600V
and 400V respectively. Calculate copper losses at the full load and the half load.

Solution: Transformer rating = 500kVA

Primary resistance, R1 = 0.42Ω
Secondary resistance, R2 = 0.0011Ω

Primary voltage, E1 = 6600V

Secondary voltage, E2 = 400V
Transformation ratio, K = E2/E1 = 400/6600 = 2/33

Primary resistance referred to secondary,

R1’ = K2R1 = (2/33)2 x 0.42 = 0.00154 Ω

Total resistance referred to secondary, R02 = R2 + R1’ = 0.0011 + 0.00154 = 0.00264 Ω

Full load secondary current, I2 = (kVA x 103)/E2 = (500 x 103)/400 = 1250A

Copper losses at full load = I22R02 = (1250)2 x 0.00264 = 4125W

Secondary current at half load = 1250/2 = 625A

Copper losses at half load = (625)2 x 0.00264 = 1031.25W

Open Circuit Test (OC Test) and Short Circuit Test (SC Test) of single phase transformer:-

Open Circuit Test (OC Test):-

The set up for open circuit test of transformer is shown in the figure. This test is carried on
the transformer to determine its iron losses. In this test generally, AC voltage is applied on low
voltage side and the high voltage side is kept open. The primary reason of performing open
circuit test on the low voltage side is that it requires only low voltage supply which is easily
available and safe to perform the test. This test is performed to determine the iron losses, Ro and
Xo of transformer.

Procedure:-
(i)Connect the circuit as shown in the figure.
(ii)Keep the autotransformer at its minimum output voltage position.
(iii)Switch on the power supply and adjust the autotransformer to get the rated supply voltage.
(iv)Now note down the current and power shown by the ammeter and wattmeter respectively.
Let these are Io and Wo.
(v)The wattmeter reads the no load input power to the transformer. The no load current of the
transformer is very small as compared to full load current (about 3 to 5% of the full load value)
and hence the copper loss in the winding connected to the supply is small. As the high voltage
winding is kept open therefore the copper loss in that winding is zero. Therefore the total copper
loss is very small and can be neglected. Hence the watt meter reading represents the iron losses.
i.e Wo = Pi = Iron losses
While performing the open circuit test of a single phase transformer, high voltage winding
should not be touched because it may cause a serious electric shock.

Calculation of parameters:-
The two parameters which can be calculated from the open circuit test of transformer are Ro and
Xo. They are calculated as follows.

Step 1: Calculate no load power factor (cos φo )

The wattmeter reads the real power input.
Therefore, Wo = Vo Io cos φo
or cos φo = Wo / VoIo
We can calculate φo from this.

Step 2: Calculate Im and Iw :

Im = Io sin φo
Iw = Io cos φo

Step 3: Calculate Ro and Xo

Ro = Vo/Iw Ω
Xo = Vo/Im Ω

The value of power factor of a transformer at no load is very small. Therefore the watt meter
used while performing the open circuit test of a single phase transformer should be able to show
accurate readings on small power factors.

Short Circuit Test (SC Test):-

The set up for short circuit test of transformer is shown in the figure. An auto transformer is used
in the circuit to adjust the input voltage precisely to the rated voltage. The ammeter, voltmeter
and watt meter are connected in the circuit to measure the current, voltage and power
respectively. In this test generally, the high voltage side is connected to the AC supply and the
low voltage side is short circuited with the help of thick copper wire.
Procedure:-
(i)Connect the circuit as shown in the figure.
(ii)Keep the auto transformer output at its minimum voltage position and switch on the AC
supply.
(iii)Increase the applied voltage very slowly, and adjust it to get the current equal to the rated
current of the winding. Do not increase the applied voltage further.
(iv)Note down the wattmeter, voltmeter and ammeter readings. Let these are W sc, Vsc and Isc

Calculation of parameters:-
The short circuit test on transformer is performed at the primary and secondary rated currents.
Therefore the total copper loss is the full load copper loss. As the iron losses are supply voltage
dependent and supply voltage in this test is small, the iron losses will be negligibly small.
Hence the reading (Wsc) shown by the wattmeter is almost entirely corresponding to the full
load copper loss.

We know that Wsc = Vsc Isc cos φsc

or cos φsc = Wsc / (Vsc Isc)

The wattmeter reading Wsc indicates the full load copper loss.

Therefore, Wsc = Copper loss = I2scR01

or R01 = Wsc / I2sc

Where R01 is the total equivalent resistance of the transformer referred to the primary side.

Similarly Z01 = Vsc / Isc = (R201 + X201)1/2

or X01 = (Z201 – R201)1/2

Where X01 is the total equivalent reactance of the transformer referred to primary side.

In this way parameters R01, X01, Z01 and full load copper losses can be calculated from the short
circuit test on transformer.

If the transformation ratio K is known, it is possible to obtain these parameters referred to the
secondary side.
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Magnetic Hysteresis:

The lag or delay of a magnetic material known commonly as Magnetic Hysteresis,

relates to the magnetisation properties of a material by which it firstly becomes
magnetised and then de-magnetised.

We know that the magnetic flux generated by an electromagnetic coil is the amount of
magnetic field or lines of force produced within a given area and that it is more
commonly called “Flux Density”. Given the symbol B with the unit of flux density being
the Tesla, T.

We also know from the previous tutorials that the magnetic strength of an electromagnet
depends upon the number of turns of the coil, the current flowing through the coil or the
type of core material being used, and if we increase either the current or the number of
turns we can increase the magnetic field strength, symbol H.

Previously, the relative permeability, symbol μr was defined as the ratio of the absolute
permeability μ and the permeability of free space μo (a vacuum) and this was given as a
constant. However, the relationship between the flux density, B and the magnetic field
strength, H can be defined by the fact that the relative permeability, μr is not a constant
but a function of the magnetic field intensity thereby giving magnetic flux density
as: B = μ H.

Then the magnetic flux density in the material will be increased by a larger factor as a
result of its relative permeability for the material compared to the magnetic flux density
in vacuum, μoH and for an air-cored coil this relationship is given as:

So for ferromagnetic materials the ratio of flux density to field strength ( B/H ) is not
constant but varies with flux density. However, for air cored coils or any non-magnetic
medium core such as woods or plastics, this ratio can be considered as a constant and this
constant is known as μo, the permeability of free space, ( μo = 4.π.10-7 H/m ).

By plotting values of flux density, ( B ) against the field strength, ( H ) we can produce a
set of curves called Magnetisation Curves, Magnetic Hysteresis Curves or more
commonly B-H Curves

The set of magnetisation curves, M above represents an example of the relationship

between B and H for soft-iron and steel cores but every type of core material will have its
own set of magnetic hysteresis curves. You may notice that the flux density increases in
proportion to the field strength until it reaches a certain value were it can not increase any
more becoming almost level and constant as the field strength continues to increase.
This is because there is a limit to the amount of flux density that can be generated by the
core as all the domains in the iron are perfectly aligned. Any further increase will have no
effect on the value of M, and the point on the graph where the flux density reaches its
limit is called Magnetic Saturation also known as Saturation of the Core and in our
simple example above the saturation point of the steel curve begins at about 3000
ampere-turns per metre.

Saturation occurs because as we remember from the previous Magnetism tutorial which
included Weber’s theory, the random haphazard arrangement of the molecule structure
within the core material changes as the tiny molecular magnets within the material
become “lined-up”.

As the magnetic field strength, ( H ) increases these molecular magnets become more and
more aligned until they reach perfect alignment producing maximum flux density and any
increase in the magnetic field strength due to an increase in the electrical current flowing
through the coil will have little or no effect.

Retentivity:

Lets assume that we have an electromagnetic coil with a high field strength due to the
current flowing through it, and that the ferromagnetic core material has reached its
saturation point, maximum flux density. If we now open a switch and remove the
magnetising current flowing through the coil we would expect the magnetic field around
the coil to disappear as the magnetic flux reduced to zero.

However, the magnetic flux does not completely disappear as the electromagnetic core
material still retains some of its magnetism even when the current has stopped flowing in
the coil. This ability for a coil to retain some of its magnetism within the core after the
magnetisation process has stopped is called Retentivity or remanence, while the amount
of flux density still remaining in the core is called Residual Magnetism, BR .

The reason for this that some of the tiny molecular magnets do not return to a completely
random pattern and still point in the direction of the original magnetising field giving
them a sort of “memory”. Some ferromagnetic materials have a high retentivity
(magnetically hard) making them excellent for producing permanent magnets.

While other ferromagnetic materials have low retentivity (magnetically soft) making
them ideal for use in electromagnets, solenoids or relays. One way to reduce this residual
flux density to zero is by reversing the direction of the current flowing through the coil,
thereby making the value of H, the magnetic field strength negative. This effect is called
a Coercive Force, HC .

If this reverse current is increased further the flux density will also increase in the reverse
direction until the ferromagnetic core reaches saturation again but in the reverse direction
from before. Reducing the magnetising current, i once again to zero will produce a
similar amount of residual magnetism but in the reverse direction.
Then by constantly changing the direction of the magnetising current through the coil
from a positive direction to a negative direction, as would be the case in an AC supply, a
Magnetic Hysteresis loop of the ferromagnetic core can be produced.

Magnetic Hysteresis Loop:

The Magnetic Hysteresis loop above, shows the behaviour of a ferromagnetic core
graphically as the relationship between B and H is non-linear. Starting with an
unmagnetised core both B and H will be at zero, point 0 on the magnetisation curve.

If the magnetisation current, i is increased in a positive direction to some value the

magnetic field strength H increases linearly with i and the flux density B will also
increase as shown by the curve from point 0 to point a as it heads towards saturation.

Now if the magnetising current in the coil is reduced to zero, the magnetic field
circulating around the core also reduces to zero. However, the coils magnetic flux will
not reach zero due to the residual magnetism present within the core and this is shown on
the curve from point a to point b.

To reduce the flux density at point b to zero we need to reverse the current flowing
through the coil. The magnetising force which must be applied to null the residual flux
density is called a “Coercive Force”. This coercive force reverses the magnetic field re-
arranging the molecular magnets until the core becomes unmagnetised at point c.
An increase in this reverse current causes the core to be magnetised in the opposite
direction and increasing this magnetisation current further will cause the core to reach its
saturation point but in the opposite direction, point d on the curve.

This point is symmetrical to point b. If the magnetising current is reduced again to zero
the residual magnetism present in the core will be equal to the previous value but in
reverse at point e.

Again reversing the magnetising current flowing through the coil this time into a positive
direction will cause the magnetic flux to reach zero, point f on the curve and as before
increasing the magnetisation current further in a positive direction will cause the core to
reach saturation at point a.

Then the B-H curve follows the path of a-b-c-d-e-f-a as the magnetising current flowing
through the coil alternates between a positive and negative value such as the cycle of an
AC voltage. This path is called a Magnetic Hysteresis Loop.

The effect of magnetic hysteresis shows that the magnetisation process of a ferromagnetic
core and therefore the flux density depends on which part of the curve the ferromagnetic
core is magnetised on as this depends upon the circuits past history giving the core a form
of “memory”. Then ferromagnetic materials have memory because they remain
magnetised after the external magnetic field has been removed.

However, soft ferromagnetic materials such as iron or silicon steel have very narrow
magnetic hysteresis loops resulting in very small amounts of residual magnetism making
them ideal for use in relays, solenoids and transformers as they can be easily magnetised
and demagnetised.

Since a coercive force must be applied to overcome this residual magnetism, work must
be done in closing the hysteresis loop with the energy being used being dissipated as heat
in the magnetic material. This heat is known as hysteresis loss, the amount of loss
depends on the material’s value of coercive force.

By adding additive’s to the iron metal such as silicon, materials with a very small
coercive force can be made that have a very narrow hysteresis loop. Materials with
narrow hysteresis loops are easily magnetised and demagnetised and known as soft
magnetic materials.